GE3451 – ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES AND SUSTAINABILITY –NOTES

GE3451
ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES AND
SUSTAINABILITY
 GE3451 – ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES AND SUSTAINABILITY –NOTES

UNIT - I ENVIRONMENT AND BIODIVERSITY

Definition, scope and importance of environment – need for public awareness. Eco-system and
Energy flow– ecological succession. Types of biodiversity: genetic, species and ecosystem
diversity– values of biodiversity, India as a mega-diversity nation – hot-spots of biodiversity –
threats to biodiversity: habitat loss, poaching of wildlife, man-wildlife conflicts – endangered
and endemic species of India – conservation of biodiversity: In-situ and ex-situ.

INTRODUCTION
What’s the use of a beautiful house if you don’t have a decent planet to put it on?
Environment belongs to all and is thus important for all. Whatever be the occupation or age of a
person, he or she will be affected by environment and will also affect the environment by his or her
deeds. Thus, environment is one subject that is actually global in nature. For example,

• Atmosphere has no boundaries and the pollutants produced at one place can be dispersed and
transported to another place.
• The river water polluted by industrial or municipal discharge at one point would seriously affect
the downstream aquatic life.
• Damage to the forests in a hilly region will have far reaching effect not only on the hills but
also on the plains.

This is because environment is a closely and intricately woven network of components and
functions. Environmental studies is very important since it deals with the most mundane issues like

1. Safe and clean drinking water,

2. Hygienic living conditions,
3. Clean and fresh air,
4. Fertile land,
5. Healthy food and
6. Development that is sustainable.

There is a need for trained manpower at every level to deal with environmental issues.
Environmental law, business administration and environmental engineering are emerging as new career
opportunities for environmental protection and management.
Environment:
 Descending from the Middle French prepositions environ “around,” environment, in its most
basic meaning, is “that which surrounds.”
 When preceded by the, it usually refers to the natural world (“please don’t litter if you care about
 the environment”)
 Environment is sum total of water, air and land, inter-relationships among themselves and
also with the human beings, other living organisms and property.
 Thus, in order to study environment one needs input/information about Biotic and
Abiotic components and their interaction.
 GE3451 – ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES AND SUSTAINABILITY –NOTES

 Mathematics, Statistics and Computer Science serve as effective tools in environmental

modeling and management.

Scope:
1. Natural Resources - their conservation and management
2. Ecology and biodiversity
3. Environmental pollution and control
4. Social issues in relation to development and environment
5. Human population and environment

Need for Public Awareness:

Any government at its own level cannot achieve the goals of sustainable development until the
public has a participatory role in it. Public participation is possible only when the public is aware about
the ecological and environmental issues
• Littering of polythene
• Stubble burning
The public has to be educated about the fact that if we are degrading our environment we
are actually harming our ownselves.
It is all the more important to educate the people that some- times the adverse impact of
environment are not experienced or noticed until a threshold is crossed.

Ecosystem
Ecology deals with the study of organisms in their natural home interacting with their
surroundings. The surroundings or environment consists of other living organisms (biotic) and
physical (abiotic) components.
An ecosystem is a group of biotic communities of species interacting with one another and with their
non-living environment exchanging energy and matter.
In other words, an ecosystem is a chain of interactions between organisms and their environment. The term
“Ecosystem” was first coined by A.G.Tansley, an English botanist, in 1935.

Now ecology is often defined as the study of ecosystems.

The ecosystem is thus, a unit or a system which is composed of a number of subunits that are all
directly or indirectly linked with each other. They may be freely exchanging energy and matter from
outside an open ecosystem or may be isolated from outside a closed ecosystem.
Ecosystem Characteristics
Ecosystems show large variations in their size, structure, composition etc. However, all the
ecosystems are characterized by certain basic structural and functional features which are common.
 GE3451 – ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES AND SUSTAINABILITY –NOTES

An ecosystem is a structural and functional unit of ecology where the living organisms interact with
each other and the surrounding environment.
Structure of the Ecosystem
The structure of an ecosystem is characterized by the organization of both biotic and abiotic
components. This includes the distribution of energy in our environment. It also includes the
climatic conditions prevailing in that particular environment.
The structure of an ecosystem can be split into two main components, namely:
• Biotic Components
• Abiotic Components
The biotic and abiotic components are interrelated in an ecosystem. It is an open system where the energy
and components can flow throughout the boundaries.

Ecology-Definition-Examples-Explanation - YouTube

Biotic Components
Biotic components refer to all living components in an ecosystem. Based on nutrition, biotic
components can be categorized into autotrophs (auto=self, troph=food), heterotrophs and
saprotrophs (or decomposers).
 GE3451 – ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES AND SUSTAINABILITY –NOTES

• Producers They are mainly the green plants, which can synthesize their food themselves by
making use of carbon dioxide, water and sunlight through the process of photosynthesis.
Consequently, all other organisms higher up on the food chain rely on producers for food.
• Consumers or heterotrophs are organisms that depend on other organisms for food.
Consumers are further classified into primary consumers, secondary consumers and
tertiary consumers.
o Primary consumers (plant eaters) are always herbivores as they rely on producers for
food.
o Secondary consumers depend on primary consumers for energy. They can either be
carnivores or omnivores.
o Tertiary consumers are organisms that depend on secondary consumers for food.
Tertiary consumers can also be carnivores or omnivores.
o Quaternary consumers are present in some food chains. These organisms prey on
tertiary consumers for energy. Furthermore, they are usually at the top of a food chain
as they have no natural predators.
• Decomposers include saprophytes such as fungi and bacteria. They directly thrive on the
dead and decaying organic matter. Decomposers are essential for the ecosystem as they help
in recycling nutrients to be reused by plants.

The trophic level of an organism is the number of steps it is from the point when the food chain
begins. A food chain begins at trophic level 1 which involves primary producers. Then it moves on to
level 2 which consists of the herbivorous. From then on, the food chain continues to level 3 of the
carnivorous organisms. Finally, the food chain ends at level 4 or 5 with the apex predators.

Structure & Composition of Ecosystem |

Environmental Science | EVS | Letstute -
YouTube
 GE3451 – ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES AND SUSTAINABILITY –NOTES

(The Trophic level Diagram)

Abiotic Components (non-living component of an ecosystem)
The physical and chemical components of an ecosystem constitute its
abiotic structure. It includes air, water, soil, minerals, sunlight, temperature, nutrients, wind,
altitude, turbidity, etc. All the biotic components of an ecosystem are influenced by the abiotic
components and vice versa.
Abiotic components are sub divided into three categories

1. Atmosphere:
The cover of air that envelopes the earth is known as the atmosphere. The atmosphere extends up to 500
kms from the earth surface. It is essential for all living organism and atmosphere comprises 78% of
nitrogen, 21% of oxygen and 1% of other gases.
2. Lithosphere:
The soil and rock component of the earth is called lithosphere.
Functions:
1. Home for human beings and wildlife.
2. Store house of minerals and organic matters.
3. Hydrosphere:
The portion of the earth which is surrounded by water is called hydrosphere. Ocean, lakes, rivers and
water vapour constitute hydrosphere. Out of 100% only 3% of water is available as fresh water remaining
97% of water is in Ocean.
Functions:
1. Used for drinking purpose and supports the aquatic life
2. Used for irrigation, power production, industries and transport.
 GE3451 – ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES AND SUSTAINABILITY –NOTES

Functions of Ecosystem

Every ecosystem performs under natural conditions in a systematic way. It receives energy
from the sun and passes it on through various biotic components and in fact, all life depends upon
this flow of energy. Besides energy, various nutrients and water are also required for life
processes which are exchanged by the biotic components within themselves and with their
abiotic components within or outside the ecosystem. So the functional units of an ecosystem or
functional components that work together in an ecosystem are:
• Productivity – It refers to the rate of biomass production.
• Energy flow – It is the sequential process through which energy flows from one trophic level
to another. The energy captured from the sun flows from producers to consumers and then to
decomposers and finally back to the environment.
• Decomposition – It is the process of breakdown of dead organic material. The top-soil is the
major site for decomposition.
• Nutrient cycling – In an ecosystem nutrients are consumed and recycled back in various
forms for the utilization by various organisms.

Types of Ecosystem
An ecosystem can be as small as an oasis in a desert, or as big as an ocean, spanning thousands of
miles. There are two types of ecosystem:
• Terrestrial Ecosystem
• Aquatic Ecosystem
Terrestrial Ecosystem
Terrestrial ecosystems are exclusively land-based ecosystems. There are different types of
terrestrial ecosystems distributed around various geological zones. They are as follows:
1. Forest Ecosystem
2. Grassland Ecosystem
3. Tundra Ecosystem
4. Desert Ecosystem
Forest Ecosystem
A forest ecosystem consists of several plants, particularly trees, animals and microorganisms that live
in coordination with the abiotic factors of the environment. Forests help in maintaining the
temperature of the earth and are the major carbon sink. In a forest ecosystem, big trees are the
producers, which are less in number and hence form a narrow base. A larger number of herbivores
including birds, insects and several species of animals feed upon the trees
(on leaves, fruits, flowers, bark etc.) and form a much broader middle level. The secondary consumers
like fox, snakes, lizards etc. are less in number than herbivores while top carnivores like lion, tiger etc.
are still smaller in number. So the pyramid is narrow on both sides and broader in the middle
 GE3451 – ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES AND SUSTAINABILITY –NOTES

Grassland Ecosystem
In a grassland ecosystem, the vegetation is dominated by grasses and herbs. Temperate grasslands and
tropical or savanna grasslands are examples of grassland ecosystems. Grassland ecosystem shows an
upright pyramid of numbers. The producers in the grasslands are grasses which are small in size and very
large in number. So the producers form a broad base. The herbivores in a grassland are insects while
tertiary carnivores are hawks or other birds which are gradually less and less in number and hence the
pyramid apex becomes gradually narrower forming an upright pyramid.
Tundra Ecosystem
Tundra ecosystems are devoid of trees and are found in cold climates or where rainfall is scarce. These
are covered with snow for most of the year. Tundra type of ecosystem is found in the Arctic or
mountain tops. Tundra lands are covered with snow for much of the year, but summer brings bursts of
wildflowers. The Arctic tundra, where the average temperature is -34 to -6 degrees Celsius (-30 to
20 degrees Fahrenheit), supports a variety of animal species, including Arctic foxes (Vulpes lagopus),
polar bears (Ursus maritimus), gray wolves (Canis lupus). The summer growing season is just 50 to
60 days, when the sun shines up to 24 hours a day.
Desert Ecosystem
Deserts are found throughout the world. These are regions with high evaporation, little rainfall and scarce
vegetation. The days are hot, and the nights are cold. The precipitation is less than 25 cm per year.
Deserts have little species diversity and consist of drought resistant or drought avoiding
plants. Desert plants and animals are having most typical adaptations for conservation of water.
Desert animals like insects and reptiles have thick outer coverings to minimize loss of water. They
usually live inside burrows where humidity is better and heat is less. Desert soil is rich in nutrients but
deficient in water.
Aquatic Ecosystem
Aquatic ecosystems dealing with water bodies and the biotic communities present in them are either
freshwater or marine. Freshwater ecosystems are further of standing type (lentic) like ponds and lakes or
free-flowing type (lotic), like rivers.
Freshwater Ecosystem
The freshwater ecosystem is an aquatic ecosystem that includes lakes, ponds, rivers, streams and
wetlands. These have no salt content in contrast with the marine ecosystem.
Marine Ecosystem
The marine ecosystem includes seas and oceans. These have a more substantial salt content and greater
biodiversity in comparison to the freshwater ecosystem. Oceans provide us iron, phosphorus,
magnesium, oil, natural gas, sand and gravel. Oceans are the major sinks of carbon dioxide and play
an important role in regulating many biogeochemical cycles and hydrological cycle, thereby
regulating the earth’s climate.

What is Ecosystem? | Different Types of

Ecosystem | Environmental Science | EVS |
Letstute - YouTube
 GE3451 – ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES AND SUSTAINABILITY –NOTES

Food Chains
All organisms, living or dead are potential food for some other organism and thus, there is
essentially no waste in the functioning of a natural ecosystem. A caterpillar eats a plant leaf, a rat eats
the caterpillar, a snake eats the rat, an eagle eats the snake and when they all die, they are all
consumed by microorganisms like bacteria or fungi (decomposers) which break down the organic matter
and convert it into simple inorganic substances that can again be used by the plants- the primary
producers.

Continuous line ( ) – Energy flow (unidirectional)

Dashed line (------ ) – Nutrient cycle (cyclic process)

Food Web:
Food web is a network of food chains where different types of organisms are connected at different trophic
levels, so that there are a number of options of eating and being eaten at each trophic level. A more
realistic representation of who eats whom is called a food web. Food web shows how many food
chains are connected to each other.
 GE3451 – ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES AND SUSTAINABILITY –NOTES

Ecology: the scientific study of the processes influencing natural life and habitats.
Ecosystem: a natural environment which includes the flora (plants) and fauna (animals) that live and interact within that
environment.
Biodiversity: the variety of natural life and habitats on Earth.

ENERGY FLOW IN AN ECOSYSTEM

Flow of energy in an ecosystem takes place through the food chain and it is this energy flow
which keeps the ecosystem going. The most important feature of this energy flow is that it is
unidirectional or one - way flow. Energy flows from the lowest trophic level (primary producers)
to the top (apex predators).
 GE3451 – ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES AND SUSTAINABILITY –NOTES

Energy “flows” through the ecosystem in the form of carbon-carbon bonds. When respiration
occurs, the carbon-carbon bonds are broken and the carbon is combined with oxygen to form
carbon dioxide. This process releases the energy, which is either used by the organism (to move its
muscles, digest food, excrete wastes, think, etc.) or the energy may be lost as heat.
All energy comes from the sun, and the ultimate fate of all energy in ecosystems is to be lost as heat.
Energy does not recycle.
The flow of energy follows the two laws of Thermodynamics:
Ist law of Thermodynamics states that energy can neither be created nor be destroyed but it can be
transformed from one form to another. The solar energy captured by the green plants (producers)
gets converted into biochemical energy of plants and later into that of consumers.
IInd law of Thermodynamics states that energy dissipates as it is used or in other words, its gets
converted from a more concentrated to dispersed form. As energy flows through the food chain, there
occurs dissipation of energy at every trophic level. The loss of energy takes place through
respiration, loss of energy in locomotion, running, hunting and other activities. At every level there is
about 90% loss of energy and the energy transferred from one trophic level to the other is only about
10%.
ENERGY FLOW | TAMIL | ECOSYSTEM | STD 12 - YouTube

Energy flow models: The flow of energy through various trophic levels in an ecosystem can be
explained with the help of various energy flow models.
CHARACTERISTICS of ENERGY FLOW
➢ UNIDIRECTIONAL FLOW OF ENERGY: The most important characteristic is the
one-way street along which energy flows. The energy that is captured by the autotrophs does
not revert back to solar input; that which passes to the herbivores does not pass back to the
autotrophs; and so on.
➢ PROGRESSIVE DECREASE IN ENERGY: In each trophic level there is progressive
decrease in energy. This is because at the time of energy transfer from one trophic level to the
other a substantial amount of energy is lost as it is dissipated as heat during metabolic activity.
➢ RESPIRATORY LOSS HIGH IN HIGHER TROPHIC LEVELS: Respiratory loss
gets higher and higher in higher trophic levels due to carnivores greater locomotory activity.
➢ HIGHER EFFICIENCY OF ASSIMILATION AT HIGHER TRPHIC LEVEL:
In the higher trophic levels there is greater efficiency of energy assimilation.
➢ UNUTILISED ENERGY: In all ecosystems, despite the utilization of energy in various
metabolisms by different organisms, large amount of energy always remains in the system as
standing crop. This indicates that the ecosystem is under grazed.
 GE3451 – ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES AND SUSTAINABILITY –NOTES

➢ Energy flow in an ecosystem follows the first and second laws of thermodynamics. The
energy flow through any trophic level equals the total assimilation at that level, which in turn,
equals the production of biomass plus respiratory loss.

MODELS OF ENERGY FLOW

There are basically three types of energy flow models:
❖ SINGLE CHANNEL ENERGY FLOW MODEL
❖ Y-SHAPED/ TWO-CHANNEL ENERGY FLOW MODEL
❖ UNIVERSAL MODEL.

(I) SINGLE CHANNEL ENERGY FLOW MODEL

The single or linear channel energy flow model is one of the first published models pioneered by
H. T. Odum in 1956. As can be seen in Fig. 4.4, this model depicts a community boundary and, in
addition to light and heat flows, it also includes import, export and storage of organic matter.
Decomposer organisms are placed in a separate box as a means of partially separating the grazing and
detritus food chains. Decomposers are actually a mixed group in terms of energy levels and their
importance in this energy flow model is overlooked. This model will suffice as long as only the
imports and exports are considered.
 GE3451 – ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES AND SUSTAINABILITY –NOTES

BOX-PIPE MODEL:

• Box-pipe energy flow model is a very

simplified energy flow model of three
trophic levels; it was suggested by
E.P. Odum in 1953. In such single-
channel energy flow model, “boxes”
represent the trophic levels (i.e.,
population mass or biomass) and the
“pipes” depict the energy flow in and
out of each level.
• Energy inflows balance outflows as
required by the first law of
thermodynamics, and energy transfer is
accompanied by dispersion of
energy into unavailable heat (i.e., respiration) as required by the second law.
• From this model it also becomes evident that the energy flow is greatly reduced at each
successive trophic level from predators to herbivores and then to carnivores.
• At each transfer of energy from one level to another major part of energy is lost as heat or other form.
A closer examination of the diagram reveals that all the energy available to a trophic level is not
consumed but a good portion of its left unutilized.
• Thus, of the 3000 Kcal of total light falling upon the green plants, approximately 50% (1500 Kcal)
is absorbed, of which only 1% (15 Kcal) is converted at first trophic level. Hence net primary
production is merely 15 Kcal. Secondary productivity (P2 and P3 in fig) tends to be about 10% at
successive consumer trophic levels,(i.e., herbivores and carnivores) although efficiency may be
sometimes higher, as 20%, at the carnivore level as shown (or P3=0.3 Kcal) in the diagram.
• It becomes evident from Figures 1.3 and 1.4 that there is a successive reduction in energy flow at
successive trophic levels. Thus shorter the food chain, greater would be the available food energy
as with an increase in the length of food chain there is a corresponding more loss of energy.
(II) Y-SHAPED/ TWO-CHANNEL ENERGY FLOW MODEL
• The Y-shaped model further indicates that the two food chains namely the grazing food chain and
detritus food chain are in fact, under natural conditions, not completely isolated from one another.
The grazing food chain beginning with green plant base going to herbivores and the detritus food
chain beginning with dead organic matter acted by microbes, then passing to detrivores and their
consumers.
• For instance, dead bodies of small animals that were once part of the grazing food chain
become incorporated in the detritus food chain as do the feces of grazing food animals.
Functionally, the distinction between the two is of time lag between the direct consumption of living
plants and ultimate utilization of dead organic matter. The importance of the two food chains may
differ in different ecosystems, in some grazing is more important, in others detritus is major
pathway.
 GE3451 – ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES AND SUSTAINABILITY –NOTES

The important point in Y-shaped model is that the two food chains are not isolated from each other. This Y-
shaped model is more realistic and practical working model than the single-channel model because,

✓ It confirms to stratified structure of ecosystems,

✓ It separates the grazing and detritus chains (direct consumption of living plants and
utilization of dead organic matter respectively) in both time and space, and
✓ That the micro-consumers (absorptive bacteria, fungi) and the macro-consumers
(phagotrophic animals) differ greatly size-metabolism relations. (E.P. Odum. 1983).

• It must however, be remembered that these models depict the basic pattern of energy flow
in ecosystem. In practice, under natural conditions, the organisms are interrelated in a way
that several food chains become interlocked results into a complex food web. We have already
referred to food webs in grassland and in pond ecosystems. The complexity of food web
depends on the length of the food chains.
• Thus in nature there operates multi-channel energy flows, but in these the channels belong to either
of the two basic food chains i.e., will be either a grazing or a detritus food chain.
Interlocking pattern of such several chains in food web of an ecosystem would lead to a multi-
channel flow of energy. Thus in practice, under field conditions, we might face difficulties in
measuring energetic of ecosystem.
(III) UNIVERSAL MODEL
• The universal model is applicable to any living component, which may be plant, animal,
microorganism, individual, population or trophic group (E. P. Odum 1968).
• The shaded box represents the living, standing crop biomass of the component which should
be expressed in calories, so that its relation with rates of energy flow can be established. The
total energy input or intake or ingestion varies. For strict autotrophs, it is light, while, for
strict heterotrophs, it is organic food.
• A key feature of the model is the separation of assimilated energy (A) into the production (P)
and respiration ® components. R is the energy that is lost as heat (maintenance energy) and P
is the portion transformed to new or different organic matter and is the part that is available to
the next trophic level.
 GE3451 – ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES AND SUSTAINABILITY –NOTES

• At the same time, the non-assimilated component (NU-not utilized), such as faces, enters the
detritus food chain. P component is energy that is available to the next trophic level while
NU component is energy that is still available at the same trophic level.
This model can be used in two ways:
➢ It can represent a species population in which case the appropriate energy inputs and links with
other species would be shown as a conventional species oriented food-web diagram, or
➢ The model can represent a discrete energy level in which case the biomass and energy
channels represent all or parts of many populations supported by same energy source.

NUTRIENT CYCLING
• Besides energy flow, the other important functional attribute of an ecosystem is nutrient
cycling. Nutrients like carbon, nitrogen, sulphur, oxygen; hydrogen, phosphorus etc. move in
circular paths through biotic and abiotic components and are therefore known as
biogeochemical cycles.
• How nutrient cycling differs from energy flow? The energy flow refers to the transfer of
energy from one trophic level to another in the food chain and food web. It is unidirectional and
energy is lost from one trophic level to another in the form of heat. Sunlight is the ultimate
energy source.
• The nutrient cycle is a system where energy and matter are transferred between living organisms
and non-living parts of the environment. This occurs as animals and plants consume
nutrients found in the soil, and these nutrients are then released back into the environment via
death and decomposition.
Carbon Cycle
The atmospheric carbon dioxide is virtually the only source of carbon. The carbon cycle is the
process through which carbon elements are interchanged between the biosphere, geosphere,
hydrosphere, and atmosphere in the Earth. The complete carbon cycle looks like the figure below:
 GE3451 – ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES AND SUSTAINABILITY –NOTES

Steps involved in the process of the carbon cycle:

1. Carbon present in the atmosphere is absorbed by the plants through photosynthesis.
2. All living organisms release carbon dioxide by respiration.
3. The carbon that is present in the plants is transferred to herbivores animals when they eat plants.
Carnivores also get carbon through different food chains.
4. Dead bodies of animals and dead parts of plants decay (decompose), and carbon is
transferred back to the soil.
5. Some amount of carbon that is not transferred to the soil is buried deep and forms fossil fuels.
Carbon enters back to the atmosphere as carbon dioxide gas when these fossil fuels are
burned.

Nitrogen Cycle
Nitrogen is also one of the important components in life. However, though Nitrogen is the most
abundant gas present in the atmosphere, living organisms cannot utilize it in its elemental form.
Therefore, Nitrogen must be converted into ammonia and other nitrogen compounds like nitrites and
nitrates to be used by living organisms. This process of conversion is named Nitrogen Fixation. This
process is carried out by various soil microorganisms in different steps.

Steps involved in the process of the Nitrogen cycle:

1. Nitrogen-fixing bacteria fix atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia, and nitrifying bacteria
present in the soil convert ammonia into nitrate, which is absorbed by the plants. This
process is called Nitrogen fixation.
2. Atmospheric Nitrogen is converted into nitrates by the process of assimilation and
lightning by plants.
 GE3451 – ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES AND SUSTAINABILITY –NOTES

3. Decomposers like bacteria present in the soil break down complex proteins and acids of
decaying organic matter.
4. During the process of denitrification, denitrifying bacteria converts ammonia, nitrates into
nitrogen. Free nitrogen gas is released into the atmosphere.

Phosphorus Cycle
Phosphorus is found in the soil in various forms like phosphate of rock, calcium, and iron or
aluminium phosphate, fluorapatite, etc. Like many other mineral elements, Phosphorus also arrives in the
oceans and settles down as sediment. A large proportion of Phosphorus percolates down to deep layers
of soil. Biological processes like the formation of teeth and bones also keep Phosphorus locked up for
some time.

Hydrologic or Water Cycle

Water plays a vital role in the existence of life. The exchange of water between atmosphere, land,
sea, and living organisms and their habitats is achieved through the water cycle. The water cycle or
hydrologic cycle involves various steps like evaporation, transpiration, cloud formation, and
precipitation. The following diagram illustrates the steps involved in the water cycle.
The steps involved in the process of water or hydrologic cycle are:
1. Transfer of Water from the Earth takes place in the form of water vapour in the atmosphere by
evaporation and transpiration. Evaporation occurs when water reaches its boiling point.
2. Water present in the lakes, oceans and other water reservoirs is converted into vapours through
evaporation. Transpiration occurs from the surface of the plants.
 GE3451 – ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES AND SUSTAINABILITY –NOTES

3. After the water is converted into vapours, the vapours are converted back into liquid form due to the
increase in temperature; this process is called condensation.
4. These tiny droplets of water fall down due to Earth’s gravity which is called precipitation.
5. Water falling on the ground in the form of rain fills the water bodies, which is called runoff or
stored as groundwater.

ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
Ecological succession is the process by which natural communities replace (or “succeed”) one
another over time. For example, when an old farm field in the mid-western U.S. is abandoned and left
alone for many years, it gradually becomes a meadow, then a few bushes grow, and eventually, trees
completely fill in the field, producing a forest.
Each plant community creates conditions that subsequently allow different plant communities to thrive.
For example, early colonizers like grasses might add nutrients to the soil, whereas later ones like shrubs and
trees might create cover and shade. Succession stops temporarily when a “climax” community forms;
such communities remain in relative equilibrium until a disturbance restarts the succession process.
The whole sequence of communities which are transitory are known as Seral stages or
seres whereas the community establishing first of all in the area is called a pioneer community.
Ecological successions starting on different types of areas or substrata are named differently as
follows:
(i) Hydrarch or Hydrosere: Starting in watery area like pond, swamp, bog
(ii) Mesarch: starting in an area of adequate moisture.
(iii) Xerarch or Xerosere: Starting in a dry area with little moisture.
(iv) Lithosere: starting on a bare rock
 GE3451 – ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES AND SUSTAINABILITY –NOTES

(v) Psammosere: starting on sand

(vi) Halosere: starting on saline soil

Process of Succession:
The process of succession takes place in a systematic order of sequential steps as follows:
(i) Nudation: It is the development of a bare area without any life form. The bare area may be
caused due to landslides, volcanic eruption etc. (topographic factor), or due to drought, glaciers, frost
etc. (Climatic factor), or due to overgrazing, disease outbreak, agricultural/ industrial activities
(biotic factors).
(ii) Invasion: It is the successful establishment of one or more species on a bare area through
dispersal or migration, followed by excess or establishment. Dispersal of the seeds, spores etc. is
brought about by wind, water, insects or birds. Then the seeds germinate and grow on the land. As growth
and reproduction start, these pioneer species increase in number and form groups or aggregations.
(iii) Competition and coaction: As the number of individuals grows there is competition, both
inter-specific (between different species) and intra-specific (within the same species), for space, water
and nutrition. They influence each other in a number of ways, known as coaction.
(iv) Reaction: The living organisms grow, use water and nutrients from the substratum, and in turn,
they have a strong influence on the environment which is modified to a large extent and this is known
as reaction. The modifications are very often such that they become unsuitable for the existing
species and favor some new species, which replace them. Thus, reaction leads to several seral
communities.
(v) Stabilization: The succession ultimately culminates in a more or less stable community called
climax which is in equilibrium with the environment. The climax community is characterized by
maximum biomass and symbiotic (mutually beneficial) linkages between organisms and are
maintained quite efficiently per unit of available energy
There are two major types of ecological succession:
• Primary succession
• Secondary succession.
Primary succession happens when a new patch of land is created or exposed for the first time. This
can happen, for example, when lava cools and creates new rocks, or when a glacier retreats and
exposes rocks without any soil. During primary succession, organisms must start from scratch. First,
lichens might attach themselves to rocks, and a few small plants able to live without much soil might
appear. These are known as “pioneer species.”
Gradually, the decomposition of those plants contributes to soil formation, and more and larger plants
begin to colonize the area. Eventually, enough soil forms and enough nutrients become available
such that a climax community, like a forest, is formed. If the site is disturbed after this point,
secondary succession occurs.
 GE3451 – ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES AND SUSTAINABILITY –NOTES

(Primary succession begins when no plant life is present on the landscape, such as after a lava flow or glacial retreat.
Over centuries, soil forms and deepens and successive communities of plants grow)

Secondary succession happens when a climax community or intermediate community is impacted by a

disturbance. This restarts the cycle of succession, but not back to the beginning—soil and nutrients
are still present.

(Secondary succession begins after a disturbance, like a fire. Crucially, some soil and nutrients remain present—fire, in fact,
may help recycle those nutrients.)

For example, after a forest fire that kills all the mature trees on a particular landscape, grasses
might grow, followed by shrubs and a variety of tree species, until eventually the community that
existed before the fire is present again.
What is a climax community?
A climax community is the “endpoint” of succession within the context of a particular climate and
geography.
What is an example of ecological succession?
Ecological succession can occur in many contexts and over many time spans. In Hawaii and Iceland,
primary succession occurs on lava flows where new land has formed; in Canada’s Athabasca Dunes,
it happens when new sand is deposited along a lakeshore; in the Andes, it occurs when glaciers
retreat.
 GE3451 – ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES AND SUSTAINABILITY –NOTES

In many regions, secondary succession occurs where wildfires have destroyed conifer forests, or where
former agricultural land is reverting to meadow or scrubland.
Ecological Succession-Primary and Secondary - YouTube

BIODIVERSITY
Bio – Life Diversity - Variety
Biodiversity is all the different kinds of life you’ll find in one area—the variety of animals,
plants, fungi, and even microorganisms like bacteria that make up our natural world. Each of
these species and organisms work together in ecosystems, like an intricate web, to maintain balance
and support life. Biodiversity supports everything in nature that we need to survive: food, clean water,
medicine, and shelter.

Importance of Biodiversity
Biodiversity is a crucial part of any ecosystem and plays a vital role in ecosystems' function and
services. An environment rich in biodiversity is essential for supporting human life. Due to an ever-
increasing population, the demand for food and energy production is also increasing, leading to a
degradation, fragmentation and loss of natural habitats. With this decrease in biodiversity and degradation
of ecosystems, the natural environment becomes less productive, less resilient and adaptable, and is at
real risk of sustaining long term damage or collapse.
Types of Biodiversity
There are the following three different types of biodiversity:
• Genetic Biodiversity
• Species Biodiversity
• Ecosystem Biodiversity
 GE3451 – ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES AND SUSTAINABILITY –NOTES

Genetic Biodiversity:
Genes are the basic units of hereditary information transmitted from one generation to other. When the
genes within the same species show different versions due to new combinations, it is called
genetic variability. For example, all rice varieties belong to the Genes is the basic units of hereditary
information transmitted from one generation to other. That is why every human is different from
another. Similarly, the species of rice, wheat, maize, barley, etc., have different varieties.

Species diversity
Species diversity refers to the variety of different types of species found in a particular area. It is the
biodiversity at the most basic level. It includes all the species ranging from plants to different
microorganisms. As species diversity is seen in natural and agricultural ecosystems, the total
numbers of different species of plants and animals located in an area form this type of diversity. It is
believed that there are about 5-10 million species in the world; however, only 1.75 million of those
species have been named scientifically so far on Earth. Some areas have more species than others.
Areas with more species diversity are generally referred to as 'hotspots' of diversity.
 GE3451 – ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES AND SUSTAINABILITY –NOTES

Ecological Biodiversity:
An ecosystem is a collection of living and non-living organisms and their interaction with each
other. Ecological biodiversity refers to the variations in the plant and animal species living together and
connected by food chains and food webs. It is the diversity observed among the different
ecosystems in a region. Diversity in different ecosystems like deserts, rainforests, mangroves,
etc., includes ecological diversity.

VALUE OF BIODIVERSITY
Biodiversity provides a variety of environmental services from its species and
ecosystems that are essential at the global, regional and local levels. Biodiversity is
essential for preserving ecological processes, such as fixing and recycling of nutrients, soil
formation, and circulation and cleansing of air and water, global life support, maintaining
the water balance within ecosystems, watershed protection, maintaining stream and river
flows throughout the year, erosion control and local flood reduction. Food, clothing,
housing, energy, medicines are all resources that are directly or indirectly linked to the
biological variety present in the biosphere.
• Consumptive use value: These are direct use values where the biodiversity product can be
harvested and consumed directly e.g. fuel, food, drugs, fibre etc. . A straight
consumptive use is the direct utilization of timber, food, fuel wood and fodder by local
communities. The diversity of organisms provide food, clothing, shelter, medicines,
proteins, enzymes, papers, sports goods, musical instruments, beverages, narcotics, pets, zoo
specimens, tourism and raw material for business prospects etc.
• Productive use value: This category comprises of marketable goods. The
biotechnologist uses bio-rich areas to prospect and search for potential genetic properties in
plants or animals that can be used to develop better varieties of crops for use in farming and
plantation programs or to develop better livestock. To the pharmacist, biological diversity is
the raw material from which new drugs can be identified from plant or animal products.
• To industrialists, biodiversity is rich storehouse from which to develop new products. For
the agricultural scientist, the biodiversity is the basis for developing better crops. A variety of
industries, like pharmaceuticals are highly dependent on identifying compounds of great
economic value from the wide variety of wild species of plants located in undisturbed
natural forests called “biological prospecting”.
• Social values: Social value of biodiversity prospecting motivated habitat conservation in
some areas, as traditional societies valued it as a resource. Ecosystem people value
biodiversity as a part of their livelihood as well as through cultural and religious
sentiments. A great variety of crops have been cultivated in traditional agricultural
 GE3451 – ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES AND SUSTAINABILITY –NOTES

systems and permitted a wide range of produce to be grown and marketed throughout the year
and acted as an insurance against the failure of one crop. In recent years, farmers have
begun to receive economic incentives to grow cash crops for national or international
markets, rather than to supply local needs. This has resulted in local food shortages,
unemployment, landlessness, and increased vulnerability to drought and floods.
• Ethical and moral values: Ethical values related to biodiversity conservation are based on
the importance of protecting all forms of life against illegal activities like cloning of
animals, smuggling of valuable biodiversity instances, bio-piracy, illicit trade etc. In
India, several generations have preserved nature through local traditions. However,
immediate benefit rather than ethics appears to be modern man’s objective.
• Aesthetic value: Aesthetic value is a judgment of value based on the appearance of an
object and the emotional responses it evokes. Biodiversity is a direct source of pleasure and
aesthetic satisfaction – its contribution to quality of life, outdoor recreation and scenic
enjoyment. They provide opportunities for recreational activities such as hiking,
canoeing, bird watching, river rafting, rock climbing, and trekking, parasailing, bird watching
and nature photography. The designing of thousands of new horticultural species, wild life
conservation, landscape luxury, national parks, zoological and botanical gardens, snake,
crocodile, butterfly parks, and biotechnologically manipulated novel curios species
added to the existing aesthetics.
• Option value: Keeping future possibilities open for their use is called ‘option value’. It is
impossible to predict which of our species or traditional varieties of crops and domestic animals
will be of greatest use in the future. Important ecosystem services and uses for plants and
animals are still unknown and await discovery. It becomes valuable if targets are based on
policy of obtaining wealth from wastes.

Value of Biodiversity | Ecosystem and Biodiversity Services | EVS | Environmental Studies -

YouTube

Indian Biodiversity:
India ranks 10th among the plant rich countries of the world, 11th in terms of number of endemic
species of higher vertebrates and 6th among the centers of diversity and origin of agricultural crops. The
total number of living species identified in our country is 150,000. Out of a total of 25
biodiversity hot-spots in the world, India possesses two, one in the north-east region and one in the
Western Ghats. Indian is also one of the 17 mega-biodiversity countries in the world.

REGIONAL OR LOCAL BIODIVERSITY:

Biodiversity at regional level is better understood by categorizing species richness into four types,
based upon their spatial distribution as discussed below
 GE3451 – ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES AND SUSTAINABILITY –NOTES

(i) Point richness refers to the number of species that can be found at a single point in a given
space.
(ii) Alpha (α-) richness refers to the number of species found in a small homogeneous area
(iii) Beta (β-) richness refers to the rate of change in species com-position across different habitats.
(iv) Gamma (γ-) richness refers to the rate of change across large landscape gradients.

INDIA AS A MEGA-DIVERSITY NATION

Mega diversity:
Like economic wealth, biological wealth is not distributed evenly across the globe. Some countries hold
vast amounts of the world's plants and animals. In fact, seventeen of the world's nearly 200 countries
hold over 70% of the earth's biodiversity. These countries are labeled "Megadiverse".
Countries list:
 They are Australia, Brazil, China, Colombia, the Democratic Republic of the Congo,
Ecuador, India, Indonesia, Madagascar, Malaysia, Mexico, Papua New Guinea, Peru,
Philippines, South Africa, United States, and Venezuela.
 India is one of the 17 megadiversity countries in the world. The Ministry of Environment
and Forests, Govt. of India (2000) records 47,000species of plants and 81,000 species of animals
which is about 7% and 6.5% respectively of global flora and fauna.
Endemism: Species which are restricted only to a particular area are known as endemic. India
shows a good number of endemic species. About 62% of amphibians and 50% of lizards are
endemic to India. Western Ghats are the site of maximum endemism.
Center of origin: A large number of species are known to have originated in India. Nearly 5000
species of flowering plants had their origin in India. From agro-diversity point of view also our
country is quite rich. India has been the center of origin of 166 species of crop plants
and 320 species of wild relatives of cultivated crops, thereby providing a broad spectrum of diversity of
traits for our crop plants.
Marine diversity: Along 7500 km long coastline of our country in the mangroves, estuaries, coral
reefs, back waters etc. there exists a rich biodiversity. More than 340 species of corals of the world are
found here. The marine diversity is rich in mollusks, crustaceans (crabs etc.), polychaetes and
corals. Several species of Mangrove plants and seagrasses (Marine algae) are also found in our country.
Indian forests cover 64.01 million hectares having a rich biodiversity of plants in the Trans-
Himalayan, north-west, west, central and eastern Himalayan forests, western ghats, coasts, deserts,
Gangetic plains, deccan plateau and the Andaman, Nicobar and Lakshadweep islands. Due to very
diverse climatic conditions there is a complete rainbow spectrum of biodiversity in our country.

HOT SPOTS OF BIODIVERSITY

Areas which exhibit high species richness as well as high species endemism are termed as hot
spots of biodiversity. The term was introduced by Myers (1988). There are 25 such hot spots of
biodiversity on a global level out of which four are present in India, namely the Eastern Himalayas and
Western Ghats and Two of hotspots lie in India extending into neighboring countries namely, Indo-
Burma region (covering Eastern Himalayas) and Western Ghats - Sri Lanka region.
 GE3451 – ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES AND SUSTAINABILITY –NOTES

According to Myers et al. (2000) an area is designated as a hotspot when it contains at least 0.5% of the
plant species as endemics. About 40% of terrestrial plants and 25% of vertebrate species are endemic and
found in these hotspots.
a) Eastern Himalayas: They display an ultra-varied topography that fosters species diversity and
endemism. There are numerous deep and semi-isolated valleys in Sikkim which are extremely rich in
endemic plant species. In an area of 7298 Km2 of Sikkim about 4250 plant species are
found of which 60% are endemic.
Recent studies have shown that North East India along with its contiguous regions of Burma and
Chinese provinces of Yunnan and Schezwan is an active center of organic evolution and is
considered to be the cradle of flowering plants. Out of the world’s recorded flora 30% are
endemic to India of which 35,000 are in the Himalayas.
(b) Western Ghats: It extends along a 17,000 Km2 strip of forests in Maharashtra, Karnataka,
Tamil Nadu and Kerala and has 40% of the total endemic plant species. 62% amphibians and 50%
lizards are endemic to Western Ghats. Forest tracts upto 500 m elevation covering 20% of the forest
expanse are evergreen while those in 500-1500 m range are semi-evergreen. The major centers of
diversity are Agastyamalai Hills and Silent Valleyóthe New Amambalam Reserve Basin. It is
reported that only 6.8% of the original forests are existing today while the rest has been deforested or
degraded, which raises a serious cause of alarm, because it means we have already lost a huge
proportion of the biodiversity.
Global Biodiversity Hotspots | Hotspots of India |EVS | Environmental Studies - YouTube

THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY
Extinction or elimination of a species is a natural process of evolution. In the geologic period the earth
has experienced mass extinctions. During evolution, species have died out and have been replaced by
others. However, the rate of loss of species in geologic past has been a slow process, keeping in view
the vast span of time going back to 444 million years. The process of extinction has become
particularly fast in the recent years of human civilization. Major causes and issues related to threats
to biodiversity:
1) LOSS OF HABITAT:
Destruction and loss of natural habitat is the single largest cause of biodiversity loss. Billions of
hectares of forests and grasslands have been cleared over the past 10,000 years for conversion into
agriculture lands, pastures, settlement areas or development projects. These natural forests and
grasslands were the natural homes of thousands of species which perished due to loss of their natural
habitat. Severe damage has been caused to wetlands thinking them to be useless ecosystems. The
unique rich biodiversity of the wetlands, estuaries and mangroves are under the most serious threat
today. The wetlands are destroyed due to draining, filling and pollution thereby causing huge
biodiversity loss.
2) POACHING:
Illegal trade of wildlife products by killing prohibited endangered animals i.e. poaching is another
 GE3451 – ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES AND SUSTAINABILITY –NOTES

threat to wildlife. Despite international ban on trade in products from endangered species,
smuggling of wildlife items like furs, hides, horns, tusks, live specimens and herbal products worth crores
per year continues. The trading of such wild life products is highly profit making for the poachers
who just hunt this prohibited wild life and smuggle it to other countries mediated through a mafia.
Do not purchase furcoat, purse or bag, or items made of crocodile skin or python skin. You will
certainly help in preserving biodiversity by doing so.
3) MAN-WILDLIFE CONFLICTS:
Human-wildlife conflict is when encounters between humans and wildlife lead to negative results, such
as loss of property, livelihoods, and even life. Defensive and retaliatory killing may eventually
drive these species to extinction. Instances of man animal conflicts keep on coming to lime light from
several states in our country. In Sambalpur, Orissa 195 humans were killed in the last 5 years by
elephants. In retaliation the villagers killed 98 elephants and badly injured 30 elephants.
Biodiversity : Threats to Biodiversity - YouTube

3.1. CAUSES OF MAN-ANIMAL CONFLICTS:

The root causes of these conflicts are discussed below:
(i) Dwindling habitats of tigers, elephants, rhinos and bears due to shrinking forest cover compels them
to move outside the forest and attack the field or sometimes even humans. Human encroachment
into the forest areas raises a conflict between man and the wildlife, perhaps because it is an issue
of survival of both.
(ii) Usually the ill, weak and injured animals have a tendency to attack man. Also, the female
tigress attacks the human if she feels that her newborn cubs are in danger. But the biggest problem is that
if human-flesh is tasted once then the tiger does not eat any other animal. At the same
time, it is very difficult to trace and cull the man-eating tiger and in the process many innocent tigers are also
killed.
(iii) Earlier, forest departments used to cultivate paddy, sugarcane etc. within the sanctuaries when
the favourite staple food of elephants i.e. bamboo leaves were not available. Now due to lack of such
practices the animals move out of the forest in search of food. It may be noted that, One
adult elephant needs 2 quintals of green fodder and 150 kg of clean water daily and if it is not
available, the animal strays out.
(iv) Very often the villagers put electric wiring around their ripe crop fields. The elephants get
injured, suffer in pain and turn violent.
(v) Earlier there used to be wild-life corridors through which the wild animals used to migrate
seasonally in groups to other areas. Due to development of human settlements in these corridors,
the path of wildlife has been disrupted and the animals attack the settlements.
(vi) The cash compensation paid by the government in lieu of the damage caused to the farmers’ crop
is not enough. In Mysore, a farmer gets compensation of Rs. 400/- per quintal of expected yield while
the market price is Rs. 2400/- per quintal. The agonized farmer therefore gets revengeful and
kills the wild animals.
 GE3451 – ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES AND SUSTAINABILITY –NOTES

3.2. REMEDIAL MEASURES TO CURB THE CONFLICT:

(i) Tiger Conservation Project (TCP) has made provisions for making available vehicles,
tranquillizer guns, binoculars and radio sets etc. to tactfully deal with any imminent danger.
(ii) Adequate crop compensation and cattle compensation scheme must be started, along with
substantial cash compensation for loss of human life.
(iii) Solar powered fencing should be provided along with electric current proof trenches to prevent the
animals from straying into fields.
(iv) Cropping pattern should be changed near the forest borders and adequate fodder, fruit and water
should be made available for the elephants within forest zones.
(v) Wild life corridors should be provided for mass migration of big animals during unfavorable
periods. About 300 km2 area is required for elephant corridors for their seasonal migration.
(vi) In Similipal Sanctuary, Orissa there is a ritual of wild animal hunting during the months of
April-May for which forest is burnt to flush out the animals. Due to massive hunting by people,
there is a decline in prey of tigers and they start coming out of the forest in search of prey. Now there
is WWF-TCP initiative to curb this ritual in Orissa.

ENDANGERED SPECIES OF INDIA

The Red Data Book is referred to as the public document that records the information about all rare
and endangered species of plants, animals, and fungi existing within the boundary of a state or
territory. It can be considered as a catalogue of species facing the risk of extinction.
An endangered species is an animal or plant that's considered at risk of extinction. In India, nearly
450 plant species have been identified in the categories of endangered, threatened or rare.
Existence of about 150 mammals and 150 species of birds is estimated to be threatened while an
unknown number of species of insects are endangered.
A few species of endangered reptiles, birds, mammals and plants are given below:
(a) Reptiles : Gharial, green sea turtle, tortoise, python
(b) Birds : Great Indian bustard, Peacock, Pelican, Great Indian Hornbill, Siberian White Crane

(c) Carnivorous : Indian wolf, red fox, Sloth bear, red panda, Mammals tiger, leopard, striped
hyena, Indian lion, golden cat, desert cat, dugong
(d) Primates : Hoolock gibbon, lion-tailed macaque, Nilgiri langur, Capped monkey, golden
monkey
(e) Plants : A large number of species of orchids, Rhododendrons, medicinal plants like Rauvolfia
serpentina, the sandal wood tree Santalum, Cycas beddonei etc.
 GE3451 – ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES AND SUSTAINABILITY –NOTES

1) A species is said to be extinct when it is not seen in the wild for 50 years at a stretch e.g. Dodo,
passenger pigeon.
2) A species is said to be endangered when its number has been reduced to a critical level or
whose habitats, have been drastically reduced and if such a species is not protected and
conserved, it is in immediate danger of extinction.
3) A species is said to be in vulnerable category if its population is facing continuous decline due
to overexploitation or habitat destruction. Such a species is still abundant, but under a serious
threat of becoming endangered if causal factors are not checked.
4) Species which are not endangered or vulnerable at present, but are at a risk are categorized as rare
species.
5) These taxa are usually localized within restricted areas i.e. they are usually endemic.
Sometimes they are thinly scattered over a more extensive area.
Extinct species:

1. Passenger Pigeon: The passenger pigeon or wild pigeon is an

extinct species of pigeon that was endemic to North America. Its
common name is derived from the French word passenger, meaning
"passing by", due to the migratory habits of the species.

2. Dodo: The dodo (Raphus cucullatus) is an extinct flightless bird that was endemic to the island of
Mauritius, which is east of Madagascar in the Indian Ocean.
 GE3451 – ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES AND SUSTAINABILITY –NOTES

ENDEMIC SPECIES OF INDIA

India has two biodiversity hot spots and thus possesses a large number of endemic species. Out of about
47,000 species of plants in our country 7000 are endemic. Thus, Indian subcontinent has about 62%
endemic flora, restricted mainly to Himalayas, Khasi Hills and Western Ghats. Some of the
important endemic flora include orchids and species like
• Sapria himalayana,
• Uvaria lurida,
• Nepenthes khasiana,
• Pedicularis perroter etc.
A large number out of a total of 81,000 species of animals in our country is endemic.
The Western Ghats are particularly rich in amphibians (frogs, toads etc.) and reptiles (lizards,
crocodiles etc.). About 62% amphibians and 50% lizards are endemic to Western Ghats.
• Different species of monitor lizards (Varanus),
• reticulated python and
• Indian Salamander and
• Viviparous toad
• Nectophhryne
are some important endemic species of our country.

CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY
The enormous value of biodiversity due to their genetic, commercial, medical, aesthetic, ecological and
optional importance emphasizes the need to conserve biodiversity. A number of measures are now being
taken the world over to conserve biodiversity including plants and wildlife. There are two approaches
of biodiversity conservation:
(A) In situ conservation (within habitat): This is achieved by protection of wild flora and fauna in
nature itself. e.g. Biosphere Reserves, National Parks, Sanctuaries, Reserve Forests etc. At present
we have 7 major Biosphere reserves, 80 National Parks, 420 wild-life sanctuaries and 120 Botanical
gardens in our country covering 4% of the geographic area.
The Biosphere Reserves conserve some representative ecosystems as a whole for long-term in situ
conservation. In India we have Nanda Devi (U.P.), Nokrek (Meghalaya), Manas (Assam),
Sunderbans (West Bengal), Gulf of Mannar (Tamil Nadu), Nilgiri (Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil
Nadu), Great Nicobars and Similipal (Orrisa) biosphere Reserves. Within the Biosphere reserves
we may have one or more National Parks. For example, Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve has two National
Parks viz Bandipur and Nagarhole National Park.
A National Park is an area dedicated for the conservation of wildlife along with its environment. It is
also meant for enjoyment through tourism but without impairing the environment. Grazing of domestic
animals, all private rights and forestry activities are prohibited within a National Park. Each National
Park usually aims at conservation specifically of some particular species of wildlife along with others.
 GE3451 – ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES AND SUSTAINABILITY –NOTES

Wildlife sanctuaries are also protected areas where killing, hunting, shooting or capturing of
wildlife is prohibited except under the control of highest authority. However, private ownership rights
are permissible and forestry operations are also permitted to an extent that they do not affect
the wildlife adversely.
For plants, there is one gene sanctuary for Citrus (Lemon family) and one for pitcher plant (an insect
eating plant) in Northeast India. For the protection and conservation of certain animals, there have been
specific projects in our country e.g. Project Tiger, Gir Lion Project, Crocodile Breeding Project,
Project Elephant, Snow Leopard Project etc.

(B) Ex situ conservation (outside habitats) this is done by establishment of gene banks, seed
banks, zoos, botanical gardens, culture collections etc.
This type of conservation is mainly done for conservation of crop varieties, the wild relatives of crops
and all the local varieties with the main objective of conserving the total genetic variability of the crop
species for future crop improvement or afforestation programmes. In India, we have the following
important gene bank/seed bank facilities:
 GE3451 – ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES AND SUSTAINABILITY –NOTES

(i) National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR) is located in New Delhi. Here
agricultural and horticultural crops and their wild relatives are preserved by cryo-preservation of seeds,
pollen etc. by using liquid nitrogen at a temperature as low as -1960C. Varieties of rice, pearl
millet, Brassica, turnip, radish, tomato, onion, carrot, chilli, tobacco, poppy etc. have been preserved
successfully in liquid nitrogen for several years without losing seed viability.
(ii) National Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources (NBAGR) located at Karnal, Haryana. It
preserves the semen of domesticated bovine animals.

(iii) National Facility for Plant Tissue Culture Repository (NFPTCR) for the development of a
facility of conservation of varieties of crop plants/trees by tissue culture. This facility has been created
within the NBPGR. The G-15 countries have also resolved to set up a network of gene banks to
facilitate the conservation of various varieties of aromatic and medicinal plants for which India is the
networking coordinator country.
Conservation of Biodiversity | Threats to Biodiversity | EVS | Environmental Studies - YouTube

Book:

1.Anubha Kaushik and C. P. Kaushik’s “Perspectives in Environmental Studies”, 6th Edition, New
Age International Publishers ,2018.
(Perspectives in Environmental Studies (gbcramgarh.in)