Unit-1 INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENT

Environment is a complex of many variables, which surrounds man as well as the

living organisms. Environmental studies describe the interrela onships among
organisms, the environment and all the factors, which influence life on earth,
including atmospheric condi ons, food chains, the water cycle, etc.

It is a basic science about our earth and its daily ac vi es, and therefore, this science
is important for one and all.

Scope of environmental studies

1. The study creates awareness among the people to know about various renewable
and non-renewable resources of the region. The endowment or poten al, pa erns of
u liza on and the balance of various resources available for future use in the state of
a country are analysed in the study.

2. It provides the knowledge about ecological systems and cause and effect
rela onships.

3. It provides necessary informa on about biodiversity richness and the poten al

dangers to the species of plants, animals and microorganisms in the environment.

4. The study enables one to understand the causes and consequences due to natural
and main induced disasters (flood, earthquake, landslide, cyclones etc.,) and
pollu ons and measures to minimize the effects.

5. It enables one to evaluate alterna ve responses to environmental issues before

deciding an alterna ve course of ac on.

6. The study enables environmentally literate ci zens (by knowing the environmental
acts, rights, rules, legisla ons, etc.) to make appropriate judgments and decisions for
the protec on and improvement of the earth.

7. The study exposes the problems of over popula on, health, hygiene, etc. and the
role of arts, science and technology in elimina ng/ minimizing the evils from the
society.

8. The study tries to iden fy and develop appropriate and indigenous eco-friendly
skills and technologies to various environmental issues.

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 9. It teaches the ci zens the need for sustainable u liza on of resources as these
resources are inherited from our ancestors to the younger genera ng without
deteriora ng their quality.

10. The study enables theore cal knowledge into prac ce and the mul ple uses of
environment.

Importance of environmental study

Environmental study aims to make the ci zens competent to do scien fic work and to
find out prac cal solu ons to current environmental problems.

The ci zens acquire the ability to analyze the environmental parameters like the
aqua c, terrestrial and atmospheric systems and their interac ons with the biosphere
and anthrosphere.

• The people should take a combined responsibility for the deteriora ng environment
and begin to take appropriate ac ons to space the earth.

• Educa on and training are needed to save the biodiversity and species ex nc on.

• The urban area, coupled with industries, is major sources of pollu on.

• The study enables the people to understand the complexi es of the environment
and need for the people to adapt appropriate ac vi es and pursue sustainable
development, which are harmonious with the environment.

• The study mo vates students to get involved in community ac on, and to

par cipate in various environmental and management projects.

• Environmental studies take a mul disciplinary approach to the study of human

interac ons with the natural environment. It integrates different approaches of the
humani es, social sciences, biological sciences and physical sciences and applies
these approaches to inves gate environmental concerns.

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Ecosystem

An ecosystem is a structural and func onal unit of ecology where the living organisms
interact with each other and the surrounding environment. In other words, an
ecosystem is a chain of interac ons between organisms and their environment. The
term “Ecosystem” was first coined by A.G.Tansley, an English botanist, in 1935.

Structure of the Ecosystem

The structure of an ecosystem is characterised by the organisation of both biotic and

abiotic components. This includes the distribution of energy in our environment. It
also includes the climatic conditions prevailing in that particular environment.

Biotic Components
Biotic components refer to all living components in an ecosystem. Based on
nutrition, biotic components can be categorised into autotrophs, heterotrophs
and saprotrophs (or decomposers).

 Producers include all autotrophs such as plants. They are called autotrophs as
they can produce food through the process of photosynthesis. Consequently, all
other organisms higher up on the food chain rely on producers for food.

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 Consumers or heterotrophs are organisms that depend on other organisms for
food. Consumers are further classified into primary consumers, secondary consumers
and tertiary consumers.
 Primary consumers are always herbivores as they rely on producers for food.
 Secondary consumers depend on primary consumers for energy. They can
either be carnivores or omnivores.
 Tertiary consumers are organisms that depend on secondary consumers for
food. Tertiary consumers can also be carnivores or omnivores.
 Quaternary consumers are present in some food chains. These organisms prey
on tertiary consumers for energy. Furthermore, they are usually at the top of a food
chain as they have no natural predators.
 Decomposers include saprophytes such as fungi and bacteria. They directly
thrive on the dead and decaying organic matter. Decomposers are essential for the
ecosystem as they help in recycling nutrients to be reused by plants.

Abiotic Components
Abiotic components are the non-living component of an ecosystem. It includes air,
water, soil, minerals, sunlight, temperature, nutrients, wind, altitude, turbidity, etc.

Functions of Ecosystem
The functions of the ecosystem are as follows:

1. It regulates the essential ecological processes, supports life systems and renders
stability.
2. It is also responsible for the cycling of nutrients between biotic and abiotic
components.
3. It maintains a balance among the various trophic levels in the ecosystem.
4. It cycles the minerals through the biosphere.
5. The abiotic components help in the synthesis of organic components that involve
the exchange of energy.
So the functional units of an ecosystem or functional components that work together
in an ecosystem are:

 Productivity – It refers to the rate of biomass production.

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 Energy flow – It is the sequential process through which energy flows from one
trophic level to another. The energy captured from the sun flows from producers to
consumers and then to decomposers and finally back to the environment.
 Decomposition – It is the process of breakdown of dead organic material. The top-
soil is the major site for decomposition.
 Nutrient cycling – In an ecosystem nutrients are consumed and recycled back in
various forms for the utilisation by various organisms.

Types of Ecosystem
An ecosystem can be as small as an oasis in a desert, or as big as an ocean, spanning
thousands of miles. There are two types of ecosystem:

 Terrestrial Ecosystem
 Aquatic Ecosystem
Terrestrial Ecosystem Terrestrial ecosystems are exclusively land-based ecosystems.
There are different types of terrestrial ecosystems distributed around various
geological zones. They are as follows:

1. Forest Ecosystem
2. Grassland Ecosystem
3. Tundra Ecosystem
4. Desert Ecosystem
Forest Ecosystem
A forest ecosystem consists of several plants, particularly trees, animals and
microorganisms that live in coordination with the abiotic factors of the environment.
Forests help in maintaining the temperature of the earth and are the major carbon
sink.

Grassland Ecosystem
In a grassland ecosystem, the vegetation is dominated by grasses and herbs.
Temperate grasslands and tropical or savanna grasslands are examples of grassland
ecosystems.

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Tundra Ecosystem
Tundra ecosystems are devoid of trees and are found in cold climates or where
rainfall is scarce. These are covered with snow for most of the year. Tundra type of
ecosystem is found in the Arctic or mountain tops.

Desert Ecosystem
Deserts are found throughout the world. These are regions with little rainfall and
scarce vegetation. The days are hot, and the nights are cold.

Aquatic Ecosystem

Are ecosystems present in a body of water. These can be further divided into two
types, namely:

1. Freshwater Ecosystem
2. Marine Ecosystem
Freshwater Ecosystem
The freshwater ecosystem is an aquatic ecosystem that includes lakes, ponds, rivers,
streams and wetlands. These have no salt content in contrast with the marine
ecosystem.

Marine Ecosystem
The marine ecosystem includes seas and oceans. These have a more substantial salt
content and greater biodiversity in comparison to the freshwater ecosystem.

Energy Flow in Ecosystem

 The energy flow of an ecosystem means the pathway energy takes to move
from one organism to another in an ecosystem. The energy flow of an ecosystem is a
fundamental concept of ecological studies.
 The energy flow of an ecosystem is unidirectional and is typically in the form of
food flow from one trophic level to another.
 The energy flow of the ecosystem harnesses the energy that cascades through
the food chain and food webs.
 The energy flow of the ecosystem helps us to understand how different species
of various trophic levels interact with each other.
 Energy flow is the phenomenon that is responsible to sustain life on this planet.

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 All the biotic components in this ecosystem need energy for their survival. If
the energy flow in an ecosystem is disturbed, then it leads to ecological imbalance.
 This energy flow occurs on the Earth through the biogeochemical cycle.

Laws of Thermodynamics in Ecosystem

First Law of thermodynamics

It states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed, but it keeps changing from
one form to the other. Similarly in an ecosystem, the main source of energy is the
sun, and this energy from the sun is transferred from one level to the other.

Second Law of thermodynamics

It states that when energy transforms from one form to another, some part of it is
lost as heat to the surroundings. Thus the energy at one level is never completely
transferred to the other.

Direction of Energy Flow

 The direction of the energy flow in an ecosystem is unidirectional. It flows from
the primary source of energy i.e. the sun’s light energy to producers or autotrophs
which then transferred to the consumers.
 The producer uses the solar energy to produce organic food which flows
through a series of trophic levels.
 Each trophic level captures a portion of this energy for its metabolic needs,
while the rest is passed to the next level.
 The flow of energy follows the following pathway;

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Solar Energy –> Producer (autotrophs) –> Consumer (herbivores) –>

Consumer (carnivores) –> Consumer (higher levels of carnivores)

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In the above food chain:
1. In the first stage, plants are eaten by herbivores such as grasshoppers.
2. Then herbivores such as deer are consumed by carnivores such as lions, tigers, etc.
3. On the death of carnivores, they are consumed by scavengers such as eagles and
vultures.
4. When vultures die, their bodies are broken down by bacteria and fungi to
nutrients.
5. These nutrients are again used by the plants for their growth.

Significance of Energy Flow in Ecosystem

Following are some of the significances of Energy Flow in an Ecosystem;
1. It is vital for all living things in ecosystem to survive and function properly.
2. It helps us to understand who eats whom in nature.
3. It helps us to see how human ac on are affec ng the ecosystem.
4. It shows how all creatures in an ecosystem depend on each other and how
changes can affect each other.

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Importance of Biodiversity

Biodiversity and its maintenance are very important for sustaining life on earth. A few
of the reasons explaining the importance of biodiversity are:

 Ecological Stability

Every species has a specific role in an ecosystem. They capture and store energy and
also produce and decompose organic matter. The ecosystem supports the services
without which humans cannot survive. A diverse ecosystem is more productive and
can withstand environmental stress.

 Economic Importance

Biodiversity is a reservoir of resources for the manufacture of food, cosmetic

products and pharmaceuticals.
Crops livestock, fishery, and forests are a rich source of food.
Wild plants such as Cinchona and Foxglove plant are used for medicinal purposes.
Wood, fibres, perfumes, lubricants, rubber, resins, poison and cork are all derived
from different plant species.
The national parks and sanctuaries are a source of tourism. They are a source of
beauty and joy for many people.

 Ethical Importance

All species have a right to exist. Humans should not cause their voluntary extinction.
Biodiversity preserves different cultures and spiritual heritage. Therefore, it is very
important to conserve biodiversity.

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THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY
Though the rate of loss of species has been a slow process in the past, the process of
extinction has become fast in recent years. It has been reported that approximately
10,000 species become extinct every year. This raises an alarm regarding the threat
to biodiversity. If this trend continues 1/3 or 2/3 of our current biodiversity would
become extinct by the middle of the 21st century.
Factors causing loss of biodiversity

• Loss of Habitat
 Destruction of habitats due to clearing of forests and grasslands for agricultural
lands, pastures, settlement areas or project development leads to loss of habitat.
These factors are responsible for the disappearance of thousands of species.
 The wetlands, mangroves and estuaries with rich biodiversity are under threat.
They are destroyed, as if they have no value.

• Poaching of wild life

The illegal commercial hunting is called poaching. There are two types of hunting.
I) subsistence hunting (killing animals for food) and
II) sport hunting (killing animals to sell their meat, fur, horns, tusks etc.)

• Man-Animal conflicts
Sometimes, wild animals threaten human beings. This leads to conflict between wild
life and man.

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• When the habitats of wild animal are destroyed by man, the animals are forced to
come out of the forest in search of food to the nearby human settlements and attack
human beings when they come in contact with them accidentally.
• The weak and injured animals have a tendency to attack man. A tigress attacks man
in order to protect its cubs. Once a tiger tastes the flesh of a man accidentally, it
becomes a man-eater.
• When wildlife corridors are converted into human settlements, the path of wild life
is disrupted and animals attack the settlements.

Conservation of Biodiversity

Conservation is defined as ‘the management of human use of the biosphere so that it

may yield the greatest sustainable benefit to present generation while maintaining its
potential to meet the needs and aspirations of future generations’. Conservation of
our natural resources has the following three specific objectives:

1. To maintain essential ecological processes and life-supporting systems.

2. To preserve the diversity of species or the range of genetic material found in the
organisms on the planet, and
3. To ensure sustainable utilization of species and ecosystems which support
millions of rural communities as well as the major industries all over the world.
The wildlife conservation efforts are mostly centred on protecting plant and animal
life in protected habitats, such as – botanical gardens, zoos, sanctuaries, national
parks, biosphere reserves, etc.

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Methods of Conservation
There are two methods of conservation of biodiversity.
 In-situ conservation (within habitat)
 Ex-situ conservation (outside habitats)

In-situ conservation
 In-situ or on-situ conservation means conservation of species in its natural
ecosystem or even in man-made ecosystems (i.e. artificial ecosystems).
 This type of conservation applies only to wild fauna and flora, and not to the
domesticated animals and plants because conservation is possible by protection of
population in nature.
 In-situ conservation is a “protected area” ( an area of land and/ or sea specially
dedicated to the protection and maintenance of biological diversity and of natural
and associated cultural resources and managed through legal or other effective
means) , which involves setting aside large portions of earth’s surface for wildlife with
emphasis either to save the entire area or an endangered species.
 There are different categories of protected areas which are managed with
different objective. These include – national parks, sanctuaries, biosphere reserves,
etc.

The advantages of In-situ conservation are:

 In-situ conservation is the best strategy for the long term protection of
biodiversity.

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 Large pockets/ areas of protected zones are essential for not only conserving vast
number of species of living organisms but also provide opportunities to evolve.
Otherwise, man-made habitats (e.g. zoo, aquarium, etc.) may end-up with static
gene-pool.
 in-situ is cheaper to protect populations in their natural habitat than to reintroduce
captive-bred ones.

Ex-situ conservation
 Ex-situ conservation means conservation of species (sample of genetic diversity),
particularly of endangered species, away from their natural habitat under human
supervision.
 In-situ conservation is the best strategy for the long-term protection of
biodiversity; however, for many rare species or species having small remaining
population, it is not a viable option in the light of increasing human disturbances.
 Further, species may decline and go extinct in the wild due to genetic drift and
inbreeding, environmental and demographic variation, deteriorating habitat quality,
competition from exotic species, disease or over-exploitation.
 Under such circumstances, the only possible way a species can be prevented from
going extinct is to maintain individuals in artificial conditions under human care.
 In ex-situ conservation, the endangered species of animals are collected and bred
under controlled conditions in zoos, game farms, aquaria, etc., while plant species are
maintained in botanical gardens, arboreta and seed banks.

The advantages of ex-situ conservation are:

 The organism is assured of food, shelter and security, and hence can have longer
life-span and breeding activity. Thus, increasing the possibility of having a greater
number of off springs.
 Under human care and secure conditions, the chances of survival increase.
 Ex-situ conservation also provides the possibility of using genetic techniques to
improve the concerned species.
 Captive breeding can provide animals for possible reintroduction to the wild at a
later stage or for supplementing current populations with new stock.

Limitations and disadvantages of ex-situ conservation:

 Ex-situ conservation can be adopted only for a few selected species because of
limitations of space, finances and facilities in the institutions that undertake captive
breeding.

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 Ex-situ conservation, under a set of favourable environmental conditions, deprives
the organism the opportunity to adopt to the ever-changing natural environment. As
a result, new life-forms cannot evolve and the gene-pool gets stagnant.

Following are the important strategies for biodiversity conservation:

1. All the varieties of food, timber plants, livestock, microbes and agricultural animals
should be conserved.
2. All the economically important organisms should be identified and conserved.
3. Unique ecosystems should be preserved first.
4. The resources should be utilized efficiently.
5. Poaching and hunting of wild animals should be prevented.
6. The reserves and protected areas should be developed carefully. 7. The levels of
pollutants should be reduced in the environment.
8. Deforestation should be strictly prohibited.
9. Environmental laws should be followed strictly.
10. The useful and endangered species of plants and animals should be conserved in
their nature as well as artificial habitats.
11. Public awareness should be created regarding biodiversity conservation and its
importance.

Natural Resources and Associated Problems

Natural resources are the resources that exist without any actions or intervention of
human beings in nature. People cannot make natural resources; however, they can
collect them.

It consists of water, sunlight, atmosphere, land including all minerals along with all
the vegetation, crops, and animal life that naturally subsists on or within these known
and identified substances and characteristics.

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There are several problems that are attached to natural resources.

1. The irrational consumption and overuse of these natural resources have led to
several socio-economic and environmental problems.
2. Natural resources are available in a fixed quantity and are non-renewable.
3. There is an increasing scarcity of these natural resources as the population is
increasing day by day.
4. Non-renewable natural resources take millions of years to form.
5. Planning land use as a major resource, needed for not only for food production and
animal husbandry, but also for industry and growing human settlements. These
forms of intensive land use are frequently extended at the cost of ‘wild lands’, our
remaining forests, grasslands, wetlands and deserts.
6. The need for sustainable lifestyles, Human standard of living and the health of the
ecosystem are indicators of sustainable use of resources in any country or region.
Ironically, both are not in concurrence with each other. Increasing the level of one,
usually leads to degradation of other. Development policies should be formulated
to strike a balance between the two.

Classifications of Natural Resources

Depending upon availability of natural resources can be divided into two categories:

1. Renewable natural resources and

2. Non-renewable natural resources

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Renewable natural resources are the resources that can be generated again once
they are used. Renewable resources are in a way inexhaustible resources. They have
the ability to replenish themselves by means such as recycling, reproduction and
replacement.
Examples of renewable resources are sunlight, animals and plants,soil,water,etc.

Non-renewable natural resources are the ones that exhaust after their frequent
usage and sometimes it takes a really long time for them to regenerate. the resources
that cannot be replenished once used or perished. An example of this includes
natural gas, coal, minerals, fossil fuels, etc.

Natural Resources and their Conservation

It is highly important that we conserve these natural resources since they are getting
exhausted at an alarming rate. Apart from that, it has an adverse effect on the
environment that is indirectly causing harm to living beings. However, if we follow
some tips in our day to day lives, we can conserve these natural resources.
1. Use an alternative source of power like solar and wind energy
2. Plant more trees for preventing the soil erosion
3. Use pipelines for transporting oil
4. Treat the industrial sewage and wastage even before they get released into the
water bodies
5. Include the rainwater harvesting system in the house
6. Use biogas in the house

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7. Use biofuels instead of the conventional petroleum-based fuels
8. Ensure that the wastes are being recycled
9. Use electronic mails
10. Make use of the energy-saving tube lights and bulbs
11. Practice the method of crop rotation
12. Construct reservoirs

Forest

Forests are complex land ecosystems that support a wide variety of plants, trees and
animals. It provides a lot of resources like fruits, timber, firewood, honey, herbal
medicines etc. The forests also provide several raw materials for different
manufacturing industries.

Forest Resources
Forest is important renewable resources. Forest vary in composition and diversity and
can contribute substantially to the economic development of any country. Plants
along with trees cover large areas, produce variety of products and provide food for
living organisms, and also important to save the environment.

Significance of forests
Forest can provide prosperity of human being and to the nations. Important uses of
forest can be classified as under

 Commercial values
 Ecological significance
 Aesthetic values
 Life and economy of tribal

Commercial values
 Forests are main source of many commercial products such as wood, timber,
pulpwood etc. About 1.5 billion people depend upon fuel wood as an energy source.
Timber obtained from the forest can used to make plywood, board, doors and

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windows, furniture, and agriculture implements and sports goods. Timber is also a
raw material for preparation of paper, rayon and film.
 Forest can provide food, fibre, edible oils and drugs.
 Forest lands are also used for agriculture and grazing.
 Forest is important source of development of dams, recreation and mining.

Life and economy of tribal

Forest provides food, medicine and other products needed for tribal people and play
a vital role in the life and economy of tribes living in the forest.

Ecological uses
Forests are habitat to all wild animals, plants and support millions of species. They
help in reducing global warming caused by greenhouse gases and produces oxygen
upon photosynthesis.
Forest can act as pollution purifier by absorbing toxic gases. Forest not only helps in
soil conservation but also helps to regulate the hydrological cycle.

Aesthetic values
All over the world people appreciate the beauty and tranquillity of the forest because
forests have a greatest aesthetic value. Forest provides opportunity for recreation
and ecosystem research.

Deforestation
1. Forest are burned or cut for clearing of land for agriculture, harvesting for wood
and timber, development and expansion of cities .These economic gains are short
term where as long term effects of deforestation are irreversible
2. Deforestation rate is relatively low in temperate countries than in tropics If present
rate of deforestation continues, we may losses 90% tropical forest in coming six
decades

Effects of deforestation
Deforestation adversely and directly affects and damages the environment and living
beings. Major causes of deforestation are
 Soil erosion and loss of soil fertility
 Decrease of rain fall due to effect of hydrological cycle
 Expansion of deserts
 Climate change and depletion of water table
 Loss of biodiversity ,flora and fauna

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 Environmental changes and disturbance in forest ecosystems

WATER RESOURCES

Water is a very important source and essential for life because it has very unique
characteristic. It is the natural resource. There is an uneven distribution of water
resources, tropical rain forest are receiving maximum rainfall where as desert receive
only little rainfall.

Due to its unique properties water is of multiple uses for all living organisms. Water is
absolutely essential for all the living organisms. One can survive for weeks without
food but cannot survive more than a few days without water. Since the earliest days
of mankind water availability was the major factor to decide the place of human
settlements. Water dissolves nutrients and distributes them in different parts of
plants and regulates the temperature and removes the waste.

Water is the universal solvent and plays a key role in the existence of various forms of
life on the planet earth. It is widely used for various purposes such as washing,
bathing, cleaning, cooking, drinking, and other industrial and domestic uses.

There are various sources of water such as wells, rivers, ponds, lakes, oceans, big
dams, and streams. As we all know, nearly 70 to 80 percent of the Earth’s surface is
covered by water, among which only 1-2 per cent water is pure and suitable for
human use.

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Uses of Water

 The hydrological system forms rivers and lakes and support in a variety of
aquatic ecosystems.

 All aquatic ecosystems (well, lake, pond, river, etc.,) are used by a large number
of people for their daily needs such as, drinking water, washing, cooking, watering
animals, and irrigating fields.

 Many agriculturists use water to grow crops.

 Industries uses water their productivity.

 Paper industries use water for manufacturing paper.

Conservation of water

Conservation of water mainly refers to protect, preserve, and control the usage of
water and its resources. It is the system introduced to manage freshwater, reduce the
wastage and protect the water and its resources in order to reduce and to avoid the
scarcity. Conservation of water is very much essential as it saves life on earth.

 Keeping the tap closed when not in use.

 Check for the openings or leaks in water distribution pipes.

 Make sure to use collected rainwater for gardening or washing purpose.

 Do not run more water than necessary while washing and cleaning clothes,
utensils, etc.
 Do not prolong your bathing. Go for a quick shower rather than wasting buckets of
water
 Rainwater harvesting is one of the best methods used for conserving water. There
are different methods used to preserve rainwater instead of getting it wasted.

Mineral Resources

 A mineral is a naturally occurring substance, representable by a chemical

formula, that is usually solid and inorganic, and has a crystal structure.

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 Minerals are essential for the formation and functioning of organisms,
plant animals and human beings.

Environmental Impacts of Mineral Extraction

Extracting and use of mineral resources can affect the environment adversely.
Environmental affect may depend on factors such as mining procedures, ore quality,
climate, size of operation, topography, etc. Some of major environmental impacts of
mining and processing operations are as under
1. Degradation of land.
2. Pollution of surfaces and ground water resources.
3. Effect on growth of vegetation due to leaching out effect of minerals.
4. Surface water pollution and groundwater contamination lead to occupational
health hazards etc.
5. Air pollution due to emission of gases.
6. Deforestation affects flora and fauna.
7. Rehabilitation of affected population.

Conservation of Minerals
Conservation of minerals can be done in number of ways and these are as follows,
 Industries can reduce waste by using more efficient mining and processing
methods.
 Some mineral products can be recycled. Aluminum cans are commonly recycled.
Although bauxite is plentiful, it can be expensive to refine. Recycling aluminium
products does not require the large amounts of electric power needed to refine
bauxite.
 Products made from many other minerals, such as nickel, chromium, lead, copper,
and zinc, can also be recycled.
 Strict laws should be made and enforced to ensure efficient management of mining
resources.

Role and Responsibilities of engineer in environmental protection

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 Environmental engineers design the different processes to handle large
volumes of pollutants with the principles of optimization, socio- economic effects and
rapid treatment to convert any objectionable material to a less objectionable
material.
 Natural resources Environmental engineer also keep in mind to protect from
the effect of disposal of hazardous waste, toxic chemicals and radioactive waste.
 Environmental engineer has a special role of having good coordination with
other technocrats and engineers to make rapid advancement in cleaning up the
environment with eco-friendly techniques.
 The basic challenging role of an environmental engineer is to make public
aware about the environmental degradation and also to impart training in such a
way, so that people participate in the programs of keeping the environment clean.

Responsibilities of engineers in environment protection.

To derive solutions for:

 waste water management
 water and air pollution control
 recycling
 waste disposal
 public health

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To design:
 municipal water supply systems
 industrial wastewater treatment systems
 plans to prevent waterborne diseases
 improve sanitation in urban, rural and recreational areas
 Provide system and component design that reduce negative impact on
environment

To evaluate
 hazardous-waste management systems
 environmental impact of proposed construction projects
 Conduct research and technical audits on environmental impact of project,
analyse data and perform quality control checks
 Monitor progress and provide recommendations reports
 Document and maintain plans, requirement, protocols, permits and standard
operating procedures.

To advise on:
 treatment
 containment
 Achieving quality, sales, revenue and profitability goals

To develop:
 regulations to prevent mishaps
 resources management schemes
 Integrate latest technologies into systems
 Collaboration with scientists, planners and experts

To implement:
 environmental engineering law
 Jurisdictions about safety of environment and ecosystems

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Environment, health and safety
 Protecting the environment and maintaining health and safety at occupation.
 What organizations must do to make sure that their activities do not cause
harm to anyone.
 From a safety standpoint, it involves creating organized efforts and procedures
for identifying workplace hazards and reducing accidents and exposure to harmful
situations and substances.
 It also includes training of personnel in accident prevention, accident response,
emergency preparedness, and use of protective clothing and equipment.
 the development of safe, high quality, and environmentally friendly processes,
working practices and systemic activities that prevent or reduce the risk of harm to
people in general, operators, or patients.
 Ensures well-being through advanced technology and professional
development

Fire hazards, prevention and precaution.

Fire is an exothermic chemical reaction between oxygen and fuel. The effect of fire on
people takes the form of skin burns.

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HAZARD is a situation that possess a level of threat to life, health, property or
environment
Common fire hazards include faulty wiring, flammable materials, and electrical
appliances left unattended.

Fire Prevention Measures

 Safe Electrical Practices

Proper electrical practices are essential in preventing electrical fires. With the use
high-quality equipment.

 Safe Storage of Flammable Materials

Storage of flammable materials must be done cautiously. Keep them away from
sources of heat or open flames.

 Preparing for Fire Emergencies

i) Fire Extinguishers

Having the right type of fire extinguisher is vital. Use them effectively and keep them
accessible in case of emergencies.

ii) Smoke Detectors

Smoke detectors are first line of defence. Regularly test and maintain them to ensure
they are in working order.

 Creating an Effective Evacuation Plan

Plan escape routes and ensure everyone knows them. Designate a meeting point
outside the building for accountability.

 Communication
Effective communication during a fire emergency is crucial.

 Fire Safety Equipment

 Fire Blankets

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Fire blankets can smother small fires. Have them readily available in the kitchen and
other high-risk areas.

 Fire Sprinkler Systems

Fire sprinkler systems can rapidly control and extinguish fires. They are highly
effective in commercial settings

 Importance of Fire Drills

Regular fire drills at home and in the workplace help people practice their escape
plans. The more you practice, the more prepared you'll be during a real emergency.

 Fire Safety in the Workplace

Employers are responsible for ensuring a safe working environment. Fire safety in the
workplace is not only a legal requirement but also a moral obligation.

Industrial hazards prevention and protection

INDUSTRIAL HAZARD may be defined as any condition produced by industries that
may cause injury or death to personnel or loss of product or property.
INDUSTRIAL SAFETY refers to the protection of workers from the danger of industrial
accidents.

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Air and noise pollution

Air and noise pollution is the type of pollution that may occur due to developmental
activities such as construction, transportation, and manufacturing.

Air and noise pollution in the environment occurs due to harmful ingredients and
unwanted noise, respectively. Air pollution can be due to harmful gases, solid
particles or colloidal particles present in the environment. But noise pollution is the
occurred due to unwanted noise in the surrounding.

Air pollutants are of two types

 suspended particulate matter, and

 gaseous pollutants like carbon dioxide (CO2), NOx, etc.

Protection from air pollution

1. Source Control Technology

 Air quality management sets the tools to control air pollutant emissions.
 Control measurements describe the equipment, processes, or actions used to
reduce air pollution.
 The extent of pollution reduction varies among technologies and measures.
 The selection of control technologies depends on environmental, engineering,
economic factors, and pollutant type.

2. Settling Chambers

 Settling chambers use the force of gravity to remove solid particles.

 The gas stream enters a chamber where the gas velocity is reduced. Large particles
drop out of the gas and are recollected in hoppers. Because settling chambers are
effective in removing only larger particles, they are used in conjunction with a more
efficient control device.

3. Cyclones

 The general principle of inertia separation is that the particulate-laden gas is

forced to change direction. As gas changes direction, the particles’ inertia causes
them to continue in the original direction and be separated from the gas stream.
 The walls of the cyclone narrow toward the bottom of the unit, allowing the
particles to be collected in a hopper.

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 The cleaner air leaves the cyclone through the top of the chamber, flowing upward
in a spiral vortex, formed within a downward moving spiral. Cyclones are efficient in
removing large particles but are not as efficient with smaller particles. For this
reason, they are used with other particulate control devices.

4. Absorption

 Removing one or more selected components from a gas mixture by absorption is

probably the most important operation in controlling gaseous pollutant emissions.
 Absorption is when a gaseous pollutant is dissolved in a liquid.
 As the gas stream passes through the liquid, the liquid absorbs the gas in much
the same way sugar is absorbed in a glass of water when stirred.
 Absorbers are often referred to as scrubbers, and there are various types of
absorption equipment.
 The principal types of gas absorption equipment include spray towers, packed
columns, spray chambers, and venturi scrubbers.

In general, absorbers can achieve removal efficiencies greater than 95 percent. One
potential problem with absorption is the generation of wastewater, which converts
an air pollution problem into a water pollution problem.

Protection from noise pollution

 Road traffic noise can be reduced by better design and proper maintenance of
vehicles.
 Noise abatement measures include creating noise mounds, noise attenuation
walls, well-maintained roads and smooth surfacing of roads.
 Air traffic noise can be reduced by appropriate insulation and introducing noise
regulations for the take-off and landing of aircraft at the airport.
 Industrial noises can be reduced by soundproofing equipment like generators and
areas producing a lot of noise.
 Power tools, loud music, land movers, public functions using loudspeakers, etc.,
should not be permitted at night. The use of horns, alarms, refrigeration units, etc., is
to be restricted. The use of noisy firecrackers that cause air pollution should be
restricted.
 A green belt of trees is an efficient noise absorber.

Environment Protection Acts

OBJECTIVES
 The act to provide for protection and improvement of environment

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  Prevention of hazards to human beings, other living creature’s plants and
property
 For prevention and control of environment pollution
 Laying standards for quality of environment
 Restriction of areas for location of industries
 Safeguards for handling hazardous substances
 Research relating to environmental pollution

 Water pollution and control of pollution act, 1947

 The air pollution control act, 1981
 The environment protection act,1986
 The Indian Forest act, 1972
 The wildlife act(protection) 1972 and 2003
 The public liability insurance act, 1991
 The national environment tribunal act,1995
 Biological diversity act, 2002

OBJECTIVES OF ENVIRONMENTALISSUES AND ACTS

1.Conservation and survey of flora, fauna (forests and wildlife)
2.Prevention and control of pollution
3.Afforestationand regeneration of degraded areas
4.Protection of environment5.Ensuring the welfare of animals

THE ENVIRONMENT(PROTECTION)ACT,1986
 Central govt. to take measures to protect and improve environment
 Govt. to make rules to regulate environment pollution
 To regulate the standards of quality of air, water or soil
 Safeguards for handling of hazardous substances
 Restriction on location of industries

Wildlife Protection Act, 1972

 This Act provides for the protec on of the country’s wild animals, birds, and plant
species, in order to ensure environmental and ecological security.

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 The Act lays down restric ons on hun ng many animal species.

Constitutional Provisions for the Wildlife Act

 Ar cle 48A of the Cons tu on of India directs the State to protect and improve the
environment and safeguard wildlife and forests. This ar cle was added to the
Cons tu on by the 42nd Amendment in 1976.
 Ar cle 51A(g) imposes certain fundamental du es for the people of India. One of
them is to protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes,
rivers, and wildlife and to have compassion for living creatures.

History of wildlife protection legislation in India

 The first such law was passed by the Bri sh Indian Government in 1887 called the
Wild Birds Protec on Act, 1887. The law sought to prohibit the possession and sale
of specified wild birds that were either killed or captured during a breeding session.
 A second law was enacted in 1912 called the Wild Birds and Animals Protec on Act.
This was amended in 1935 when the Wild Birds and Animals Protec on
(Amendment) Act 1935 was passed.
 During the Bri sh Raj, wildlife protec on was not accorded a priority. It was only in
1960 that the issue of protec on of wildlife and the preven on of certain species
from becoming ex nct came into the fore.

Need for the Wildlife Protection Act

1. A dras c decrease in the flora and fauna can cause ecological imbalance, which
affects many aspects of climate and the ecosystem.
2. There were only five na onal parks in India prior to the enactment of this Act.

Salient Features of Wildlife Protection Act

This Act provides for the protection of a listed species of animals, birds, and plants, and
also for the establishment of a network of ecologically-important protected areas
in the country.

 It helped India become a party to the Conven on on Interna onal Trade in

Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES).
 The Act prohibited the hun ng of endangered species.

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 The Act provides for licenses for the sale, transfer, and possession of some wildlife
species.
 It provides for the establishment of wildlife sanctuaries, na onal parks, etc.
 Its provisions paved the way for the forma on of the Central Zoo Authority. This is
the central body responsible for the oversight of zoos in India. It was established in
1992.
 The Act created six schedules which gave varying degrees of protec on to classes
of flora and fauna.
 Schedule I and Schedule II (Part II) get absolute protec on, and offences under
these schedules a ract the maximum penal es.
 The schedules also include species that may be hunted.

Protected Areas under the Wildlife Protection Act

There are five types of protected areas as provided under the Act. They are described
below.

1. Sanctuaries: “Sanctuary is a place of refuge where injured, abandoned, and abused

wildlife is allowed to live in peace in their natural environment without any human
intervention.”

1. They are naturally-occurring areas where endangered species are protected from
poaching, hun ng, and preda on.
2. Here, animals are not bred for commercial exploita on.
3. The species are protected from any sort of disturbance.
4. Animals are not allowed to be captured or killed inside the sanctuaries.
5. A wildlife sanctuary is declared by the State government by a No fica on.
Boundaries can be altered by a Resolu on of the State Legislature.
6. Human ac vi es such as mber harves ng, collec ng minor forest products, and
private ownership rights are permi ed as long as they do not interfere with the
animals’ well-being. Limited human ac vity is permi ed.
7. They are open to the general public. But people are not allowed unescorted. There
are restric ons as to who can enter and/or reside within the limits of the sanctuary.
Only public servants (and his/her family), persons who own immovable property
inside, etc. are allowed. People using the highways which pass through sanctuaries
are also allowed inside.
8. Boundaries of sanctuaries are not generally fixed and defined.

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9. Biologists and researchers are permi ed inside so that they can study the area and
its inhabitants.
10. Sanctuaries can be upgraded to the status of a ‘Na onal Park’.
11. Examples: Indian Wild Ass Sanctuary (Rann of Kutch, Gujarat); Vedanthangal Bird
Sanctuary in Tamil Nadu (oldest bird sanctuary in India); Dandeli Wildlife Sanctuary
(Karnataka).
2. National Parks: “National Parks are the areas that are set by the government to
conserve the natural environment.”

1. A na onal park has more restric ons as compared to a wildlife sanctuary.

2. Na onal parks can be declared by the State government by No fica on. No
altera on of the boundaries of a na onal park shall be made except on a resolu on
passed by the State Legislature.
3. The main objec ve of a na onal park is to protect the natural environment of the
area and biodiversity conserva on.
4. The landscape, fauna, and flora are present in their natural state in na onal parks.
5. Their boundaries are fixed and defined.
6. Here, no human ac vity is allowed.
7. Grazing of livestock and private tenurial rights are not permi ed here.
8. Species men oned in the Schedules of the Wildlife Act are not allowed to be
hunted or captured.
9. No person shall destroy, remove, or exploit any wildlife from a Na onal Park or
destroy or damage the habitat of any wild animal or deprive any wild animal of its
habitat within a na onal park.
10. They cannot be downgraded to the status of a ‘sanctuary’.
11. Examples: Bandipur Na onal Park in Karnataka; Hemis Na onal Park in Jammu &
Kashmir; Kaziranga Na onal Park in Assam. 3. Conserva on Reserves: The State
government may declare an area (par cularly those adjacent to sanctuaries or
parks) as conserva on reserves a er consul ng with local communi es.

3. Conservation Reserves.

4. Community Reserves: The State government may declare any private or community
land as a community reserve after consultation with the local community or an
individual who has volunteered to conserve the wildlife.

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5. Tiger Reserves: These areas are reserved for the protection and conservation of
tigers in India. They are declared on the recommendations of the National Tiger
Conservation Authority.

Schedules of the Wildlife Protection Act

There are six schedules provided in the Wildlife Protection Act.

Forest Conservation Act 1980

 The Forest Conservation Act 1980 is an important legislation enacted by the

Government of India to regulate the diversion of forestland for non-forestry
purposes.
 The Act was passed in response to the growing concern over the rapid depletion
of India’s forests, which had serious environmental and ecological
consequences.

Forest Conservation Act Objectives

 To conserve forests and ensure their sustainable management.

 To regulate the diversion of forestland for non-forestry purposes, such as
mining, industrial projects, or infrastructure development.
 To ensure that any diversion of forestland is done only for a specific purpose and
with the prior approval of the central government.
 To compensate for any loss of forest cover that may occur due to such diversion
by undertaking afforestation and reforestation activities.

Forest Conservation Act 1980 Salient Features

 Salient features of the Forest Conservation Act 1980 aim to regulate the
diversion of forestland for non-forestry purposes.
 ensure the sustainable use of forest resources,
 promote afforestation and reforestation activities.

Forest Conservation Act 1980 Amendments

 Amendment in 1988-This amendment introduced the concept of “deemed

forest” and brought all forestland under the purview of the Act, regardless of its
legal classification.

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  Amendment in 1991 -This amendment made the central government’s approval
mandatory for the diversion of forestland for non-forestry purposes, even if it is
less than one hectare.
 Amendment in 2003 -This amendment made it mandatory for the user agency to
provide an undertaking to carry out compensatory afforestation before the
diversion of forestland.
 Amendment in 2015-This amendment introduced the provision for granting
forest clearance through a transparent online process, which is now known as
the Forest Clearance Portal.
 Amendment in 2017-This amendment allows state governments to carry out
compensatory afforestation activities on non-forest land with the approval of
the central government

Forest Conservation Act 1980 Limitations

While the Forest Conservation Act 1980 is an important piece of legislation that has
helped to protect India’s forests and regulate the diversion of forestland for non-
forestry purposes, it has certain limitations that have prevented it from achieving its
full potential. Some of the limitations are:

 Limited Implementation: Despite the Act’s provisions, forest diversion for non-
forestry purposes continues to take place, sometimes illegally. The
implementation of the Act has been weak in some areas, leading to the
degradation and loss of forest cover.
 Lack of Transparency: The decision-making process for forest diversion under
the Act lacks transparency, making it difficult for stakeholders to understand the
basis for the approvals.
 Limited Scope: The Act focuses primarily on the conservation of forests and the
regulation of forestland diversion but does not address issues such as forest
management, biodiversity conservation, and sustainable use of forest resources.

Population growth aspects and importance and effects on environment.

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 Rapid population growth could lead to environmental deterioration. In many
developing countries, continued population growth has resulted in pressure on
land, fragmentation of land holding, collapsing of fisheries, shrinking forests,
rising temperatures, loss of plant and animal species.
 Severe pressure on forests due to rate of resource use and nature of use.
Adverse effects on species diversity.
 Conversion of habitat to some other land use such as agriculture, urban
development, forestry operation.
 In India, 70-80 per cent of fresh water marshes and lakes in Gangetic flood
plains had been lost in last 50 years.
 Tropical deforestation and destruction of mangroves for commercial needs and
fuelwoods is used.
 Poaching and illegal harvesting of wildlife which is a threat to ecosystem and
environment.
 Increase in agricultural area, high use of chemical fertilizers, pesticides, and
weedicides, water stagnation, soil erosion, soil salinity, and low productivity.
 Degradation of coastal and other aquatic ecosystems for domestic sewage,
pesticides, fertilizers, and industrial effluents.
 Environmental degrada on is a result of the dynamic interplay of socio-
economic, ins tu onal and technological ac vi es.
 Environmental changes may be driven by many factors including economic
growth, popula on growth, urbaniza on, intensifica on of agriculture, rising
energy use and transporta on.

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 Environmental pollu on is one of the serious problems faced by the people in
the country, especially in urban areas, which not only experiences a rapid
growth of popula on due to high fer lity, low mortality and increasing rural-
urban migra on, but also industrializa on which is accompanied by growing
number of vehicles.
 Popula on impacts on the environment primarily through the use of natural
resources and produc on of wastes and is associated with environmental
stresses like biodiversity, air and water pollu on and increased pressure on
arable land.
 Increase in the human popula on ac vity, pollute the environment and disturb
the ecosystem and above all and first one is the pollu on. Pollu on may be
found in air, water and soil, which directly imbalance the ecosystem and
environment.

Human health and human rights

 Human rights is defined as the supreme, inherent, and inalienable rights to life,
to dignity, and to self-development.
 Environmental rights are right to a clean, healthy environment; right to clean
air; right to safe drinking water; right to natural food; right to adequate
standard of living and adequate housing; right to a safe and healthy workplace;
freedom from pollu on; preserva on of unique site.
 Rights Access is available to all community members, who have the opportunity
to use their land in a sustainable manner.
 The community has the right to a sustainable, free of risks lifestyle. Research
and monitoring of the land are available so that best prac ce is enabled and the
land is conserved for future genera ons.
 Deforesta on rights It is the ci zens’ right to ask authori es to supervise all
ac vi es in the ecological reserva ons. Ci zens are en tled to take part in
poli cal decisions about the environment. It is advisable to preserve the
environment, especially if there is the risk of deforesta on.
 The government has the right to take measures a er any act that can harm the
environment.
 Toxic waste disposal rights responsibili es
Any ci zen is en tled to live in an environmentally safe community. All
informa on held by the governmental, environmental and commercial agencies
regarding the disposal of toxic waste and its effects on the environment must
be available to all ci zens. Ci zens can take part in the making of decisions
concerning the disposal of toxic waste in their community. The government is

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 en tled to require and supervise environmentally safe methods to treat toxic
waste in industries and communi es.
 Sustainable use of energy and resources
People have the right to live in clean areas surrounded by water, without
harmful chemical substances and radioac vity. Ci zens have the right to
demand the government to restrict industry and create a cleaner and safer
environment and to conserve resources and energy. Ci zens can ask the
government to be informed about the current condi on of pollu on including
water and air pollu on. Government and industry can be required to set up an
interna onal coopera on system to solve issues concerning the environment
and save resources and energy across the border.

Concept of Carbon Credits

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 Unit-2 WATER POLLUTION & WASTE WATER TREATMENT METHOD

Water is one of the most vital sources for all living organisms. Although water is a
renewable resource, scarcity of quality water is still a big issue in many parts of the
world. We need water for various purposes such as to grow food, keep clean, generate
electricity, control fire, and most importantly to stay alive.

Water Resource

1) Saltwater Resources:

 The planet's atmosphere is covered in saltwater. However, when it relates to potable

water sources, saltwater is actually ineffective. Desalination plants, though they do
operate, are in short supply due to the high energy costs associated with the
operation.
 Saltwater fish is indeed a staple of many people's diets around the world. In addition,
tidal waters have been used to generate hydroelectric power.

2) Groundwater Resources:

 Of all the freshwater resources, groundwater is the natural resources is perhaps the
most abundant. Part of the water that filters down into the soil via layers of dirt, clay,
and rock stacks to the uppermost layers, providing water to the plants.
 This water is in the vadose region, which means it is unsaturated. Instead of water,
almost all of the pores in the vadose zone are filled with air.
 Humans may use groundwater in an unsustainable manner over an extended period of
time without suffering serious repercussions (outcomes
3) Surface Water Resources:

 The water in lakes and rivers is known as surface water. Potable water, recreation,
industry, agriculture, transportation, livestock, and hydroelectric energy are all uses
for this water.
 Surface water systems have nearly 98 percent of the water used by industry. As a
result, maintaining and improving the surface water quality is critical.
 Since surface water provides most of the water used within the United States, water
resources information and management are important. It is a chemical, biological, and
physical test that determines how acceptable the water is.
Though earth is called the water planet as it is occupied by 75 percent of water, this
water cannot be used for domestic purposes.
Ocean water is saline in nature and is not fit for human consumption. Freshwater is
just around 2.7 percent of the total water on the earth. Issues such as global warming
and perpetuating water pollution have made a considerable amount of impact on
making freshwater unfit for human consumption.

Classification of Water

BASED ON ITS USAGE

 Domestic Purposes
 Civic or Public Purposes
 Industrial Purposes
 Business or trade purposes

1) DOMESTIC PURPOSES

1-Drinking: Human body contains about 70 percent of water. Consumption

of water is required for physiological process such as blood formation, food
digestion etc. The quantity of water on an average is about 2 Litres per day for an adult
per day. If water for drinking contains undesirable elements it may
lead to waterborne diseases like cholera.

2-Cooking: Water required for this purpose will depend upon the stage of
advancement of family in particular society in general. The quantity of water an
average is about 5 Liters per her per day.

3-Bathing-Water required for bathing purpose will depend on habits of people & type
of climate. For an Indian bath 30 to 40 liters per head & for tub bath-50 to 80 liters per
head.
4-Washing hands face: Water required for this purpose will depend on habits of people
& may roughly be taken as 5 to 10 liters per day

5- Household Sanitary purposes: Water is required for washing clothes, floors utensils,
etc. may be assumed to be about 50 to 60 liters per head per day

6- Private Gardening & Irrigation: In case of developed cities there will be particularly
no demand of water for this purpose .in underdeveloped cities, the private wells are
used to provide water for private gardening & irrigation

7-Domestic Animals & Private vehicles - The amount of water required for use of
domestic animals & private vehicles is not much concern to water supply engineer.
With growth & development of town, the cattle disappear & commercial stables come
into existence. Water required for washing cars & private Vehicles is very low especially
in case of poor countries.

2) CIVIC OR PUBIC PURPOSES

1) Road Washing - Roads with heavy amount of dust are to be sprinkled with water to
avoid inconvenience to users - Even in case of dust proof roads, periodically. washing is
necessary. Water required for this purpose maybe 5 liters per day

2) Sanitation Purposes - Water required in cleaning public sanitary blocks, large

markets etc. for carrying liquid wastes from houses. Water required for this purpose
will depend on growth of civilization will be about 2 to 3 liters per head per day

3) Fire Demand: Usually a fire occurs in factories & stores. Water required for fire
fighting skills should be easily available & always kept stored in the storage reservoir.
When a fire occurs, pumps installed on trucks are immediate rushed to the site of fire
occurrence & these pumps when connected to fire hydrants are capable of throwing
water with high pressure.
 3) INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

• Factories: Water required for this process involved in factories will naturally depend
on nature of products, size of factory etc. & it has no relation with density of
population. Possibility of recycling of water in plant will have appreciable effect on
demand of water for project. The quantity of water on average is about 45 Litres per
day for an adult per day

 Power stations: They are situated far away from cities & they do not represent serious
problem to public water supply
 Railways & Airports: In most of cases, the railways & airports make their own
arrangements regarding water requirements. Railways provide 25 to 70 liters of water
per head per day. Airport takes 70 liters of water per head per day.

4) BUSINESS OR TRADE PURPOSES

• Some Trades such as Dairies, hotels, laundries, motor garages, restaurants, schools,
hospitals, cinema halls, theatres etc require large quantity of water.
 ORIGIN, COMPOSITION AND CHARACTERISTICS OF DOMESTIC WASTE WATER
 Wastewater is used water that has been affected by domestic, industrial and
commercial use. The composition of all wastewaters is thus constantly changing and
highly variable.
 The composition of wastewater is 99.9% water and the remaining 0.1% is solid. This
0.1% contains organic matter, microorganisms and inorganic compounds.
 Domestic wastewater originates from activities such as restroom usage, bathing, food
preparation and laundry.
 Commercial wastewater from non-domestic sources, such as beauty salons or auto
body repair shops, for example. This wastewater may contain hazardous materials and
requires special treatment or disposal.

Organic content of wastewater

 The organic content of wastewater is made up of human feces, protein, fat, vegetable
and sugar material from food preparation, as well as soaps.
 Some of this organic content is dissolved into the water and some exist as separate
particles.
 The portion of organic material that does not dissolve but remains suspended in the
water is known as suspended solids.
 Wastewater is treated to remove as much organic material as possible

Implications for microorganisms

Naturally occurring soil and water bacteria eat the organic waste in wastewater and
use it as a food and energy source to grow rapidly. In a natural water environment
where there is plenty of oxygen dissolved in the water, aerobic bacteria eat the
organic material and form a slime of new bacterial cells and dissolved salt-waste
products.
If undiluted wastewater is left on its own, anaerobic bacteria decompose the waste
organic material and release odorous gases such as hydrogen sulphide. Odor-free
gases such as methane and carbon dioxide can also be released.

Where there is an overwhelming amount of wastewater, all the oxygen will be used up
and the anaerobic bacteria will take over, making the water go septic. This is ultimately
harmful to fish and other forms of life dependent on oxygen, on occasion creating
dead zones.

Inorganic matter

Inorganic minerals, metals and compounds, such as sodium, copper, lead and zinc are
common in wastewater from both sewage and wastewater. They can originate from
industrial and commercial sources, stormwater, and inflow and infiltration from
cracked pipes. Most inorganic substances are stable and cannot be broken down easily
by organisms in wastewater.

Nutrients

Excessive nutrients such as phosphorus and nitrogen can cause eutrophication, which
can also be toxic to aquatic organisms. This also promotes excessive plant growth and
reduces oxygen availability, altering habitats and potentially endangering certain
species.

Physical characteristics include:

1) Temperature: The normal temperature of sewage is slightly higher then water

temperature. Temperature above normal indicate inclusion of hot industrial
wastewaters in sewage
2) Colour: Fresh sewage is light grey in colour. While the old sewage is dark grey in
colour. At a temperature of above 20°c, sewage will change from fresh to old in
2-6 hours.
3) Odour: Fresh domestic sewage has a slightly soapy or oil odour. Stale sewage
has a pronounced odour of Hydrogen Sulphide (H2S).
 4) Solids: Solids in sewage may be suspended or in solution solids are a measure
of the strength of sewage.

Sewage contains both organic and inorganic chemicals. All the test representing these
organic and inorganic constituents come under the heading of chemical
characteristics. Test like BOD, COD, NITORGON, PHOSPHOURS, ALKALINITY etc
characteristics of sewage.

SOLIDS

1) TOTAL SOLIDS : Include both suspended and dissolved solids. It is measured by

evaporating a known volume of sample and the weighting the residue. Results are
expressed in mg/lit.
2) SUSPENDED SOLIDS: These are solids which are pertained on a pre-weighed glass fiber
filter of 0.45, 103-105°C.
3) DISSOLVED SOLID: Filtrate which has passed thought 0.45μ filter is evaporated in chine
dish. The residue gives the dissolved solids.
4) SETTLEABLE SOLIDS: It is the fraction of the solids that will settle in an imhoff cone in
30-60 minutes. These are expressed as mg/1.
5) Non-volatile solids: They give a rough measure of the organic content or in some
instances of the concentration of BIOLOGICAL SOLIDS such as bacteria. The
determination is made by ignition of residues on 0.45µ filter in a Muffle furnace at
550°C. The residues following the ignition is called non-volatile solids or ash and is
rough measure of the mineral content of the waste water. (Note:- Most of the norganic
and mineral content do volatilize at 550°C and are quiet resistant)

Bacteria placed in contact with organic matter will utilize it as food source. In the
utilization of the organic material, it will eventually be oxidized to stable and products
such as CO₂ and H₂O.

BIOCHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND

The amount of oxygen required by the bacteria to oxidize the organic matter present in
sewage to stable end products is known as biochemical oxygen demand.

Significance: -

1. Used in design of waste water treatment plants.

2. Used to measure efficiently of waste water treatment plant.

CHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND

It is the amount of oxygen required to oxidize organic matter chemically (biodegradable and
non-biodegradable) by using a strong chemical oxidizing agent. (K₂Cr₂O) in an acidic medium.
For a single waste water sample the value of COD will always be greater then BOD.

The oxidant (K₂Cr₂O₂) remaining is found out remaining to find K2Cr2O7 considered COD and
BOD be interrelated.

ORIGIN, COMPOSITION AND CHARACTERISTICS OF INDUSTRIAL WASTEWATER

 Industrial wastewater originates from industrial or commercial manufacturing
processes, such as agriculture, and are usually more difficult to treat than domestic
wastes.
 Industrial wastewater’s composition varies on an industry-by-industry basis.
Standards of Water Parameters

WATER CONSERVATION
 Water Conservation is the practice of using water efficiently to reduce unnecessary
water usage. Water Conservation includes all the policies, activity and strategies to
sustainably manage the natural resources of fresh water, to protect the hydrosphere
and to meet the current and future human demand.
 Water Conservation is important to us as 97% of earth’s mass is covered with water, yet
only 1% is available for our use because the remaining water is salty which cannot be
used and other portion is blocked by the glaciers and ice caps.
 Population, household size and growth, all affect the quantity of water used. Factors
such as climate change have increased pressure on natural water resources especially in
manufacturing and agricultural irrigation.
 The goals of water conservation efforts include ensuring the availability of water for
future generations, energy conservation as water plumping, delivery and wasteful
treatment facilities consume a significant amount of energy.
 We can conserve water by improving water management practises that reduce the use
or enhance the beneficial use of water.
 water conservation method includes rainwater harvesting, considering the rational use
of groundwater, by making changes in the cultural model as if the crops are grown by
farmers under Agro- climatic conditions, there will be no need for excess water.
 Continue checking leaks at home, turning of the faucet while brushing your teeth,
considering waterless car washes etc are also some of the ways for conservation of
water.

Watershed Management

A watershed is a body of water that includes rivers, lakes, ponds, streams, and estuaries
(tides meets the stream). A watershed is a land area that drains or sheds water at a
specific waterbody, like a lake or river. Rainwater or melted snow accumulates and moves
silt and other elements downstream in the watershed, depositing them in the receiving
waterbody.
 A small stream’s watershed may be a few hectares, whereas a big river’s watershed may
be many square kilometres. A watershed should ideally be 1,000 to 2,500 hectares in size
for proper planning and execution.

Watershed management is a word used to describe the process of implementing land use
and water management strategies to maintain and improve the quality of water and
other natural resources within a watershed.

Watershed Management Planning:

Watershed management planning is a method of generating a plan or blueprint for

protecting and improving the water quality and other natural resources in a watershed.
Watershed boundaries frequently extend beyond political boundaries, extending into
neighbouring municipalities and/or states.

Objectives of watershed development programs:

 Development of wastelands, areas which are drought-prone, degraded lands and also
desert areas while keeping the local needs and site conditions.

 It also helps in promoting the on-ground economic development and also in improving
the life standard, socially and economically, of the poor and disadvantaged people living
near the program areas.

 This also reduces the effect of natural climatic problems such as drought and geologic
processes on humans and plantations.

 Restoring ecological equilibrium by utilising, conserving, and developing natural

resources (e.g., land, water, and vegetative cover).

Types of watersheds

Watershed are classified as per their size and land usage:

Macro watershed (> 50,000 Ha)

Sub-watershed (10,000 to 50,000 Ha)

Milli-watershed (1000 to 10,000 Ha)

Micro watershed (100 to 1000 Ha)

Mini watershed (1-100 Ha)

Advantage of Watershed Management

 Watershed management helps regulate pollution of the water and alternative natural
resources within the watershed.

 Identifies and Regulates Ecologically Venturous Activities: The activities which happen at
a watershed in regular intervals affect the natural resources and water quality.

 Watershed management comprehensively identifies such activities. It makes

recommendations to properly address them so that their adverse impacts are often
reduced.

 Enhanced Partnership among the stakeholders is rising, which is crucial for the effective
management of the land and water resources.

 It is also an economical solution, due to the implementation of watershed management

plans when resources are restricted.For example, in places where rainfed is severe,
watershed management has proved to double agricultural productivity while aiding the
agricultural families through inflated water handiness and diversifying the cropping and
farming systems, leading to heterogeneous sources of financial gain.

Conclusion

The process through which land use and water management strategies are practised to
maintain and improve water’s quality and other natural resources within a watershed
through holistically controlling their use is termed as the watershed management.

Watershed development aims to halt and conserve water where it falls, inside each
village, under the leadership of the village watershed committee, so that it can be used
for longer periods.

Rainwater Harvesting
 Rainwater harvesting is the simple process or technology used to conserve rainwater by
collecting, storing, conveying and purifying of rainwater that runs off from rooftops, parks,
roads, open grounds, etc. for later use.
Broadly there are two ways of harvesting rainwater, namely; surface runoff harvesting and
rooftop rainwater harvesting. Rainwater harvesting is the collection and storage of rain for
reuse on-site, rather than allowing it to run off. The stored water is used for various
purposes, such as gardening, irrigation, etc.

1) Surface Runoff Harvesting

In urban areas, rainwater flows away as surface runoff. This runoff can be caught and used
for recharging aquifers by adopting appropriate methods.

2) Rooftop Rainwater Harvesting

It is a system of catching rainwater where it falls. In rooftop harvesting, the roof becomes
the catchment, and the rainwater is collected from the roof of the house/building.
It can either be stored in a tank or diverted to an artificial recharge system. This method is
less expensive and very useful and, if implemented correctly, helps in augmenting the
groundwater level of the area.

The benefits of the rainwater harvesting system are listed below.

 Less cost.
 Helps in reducing the water bill.
 Decreases the demand for water.
 Reduces the need for imported water.
 Promotes both water and energy conservation.
 Improves the quality and quantity of groundwater.
 Does not require a filtration system for landscape irrigation.
 This technology is relatively simple, easy to install and operate.
 It reduces soil erosion, stormwater runoff, flooding, and pollution of surface water with
fertilizers, pesticides, metals and other sediments.
 It is an excellent source of water for landscape irrigation with no chemicals, dissolved salts
and free from all minerals.

Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974

 The Act came into force in 1974 and is applicable to the states of Assam, Bihar, Madhya
Pradesh, Gujrat, Haryana, Tripura, West Bengal, Jammu and Kashmir, Rajasthan, Kerala,
and the union territories. It could also be adopted by any state through a resolution
passed declaring to adopt the Act. The Water (Prevention and Control) Act, 1974 was
introduced to prevent and control water pollution and to restore and maintain the
wholesomeness of water for the establishment.

The Act also confers some powers to the established bodies such as the central board
and the state board to control pollution of the water bodies.

Agencies for controlling Water Pollution

There are two agencies set up as per the Act for controlling and preventing water
pollution.

 Central Board- Central Pollution Control Board

 State Board- State Pollution Control Board.

Waste Water
 Wastewater is used water. It includes substances such as human waste, food scraps, oils,
soaps and chemicals.
 In homes, this includes water from sinks, showers, bathtubs, toilets, washing machines
and dishwashers.
 Wastewater is defined as any water that has met its intended purpose.
 Wastewater is created by individuals, businesses, agricultural practices like farming, and
industrial processes like manufacturing.
 Depending on the source of wastewater, it can be classified into various types.
Two Broad Classifications of Wastewater
Wastewater can be broadly classified into two categories
1)Sewage and
2) Non-sewage.
Sewage is any wastewater that contains urine and faeces. It is generated via domestic
activities. It refers to the toilet and bathroom water from houses, toilets, schools, hotels,
restaurants, hospitals, and other places.
Non-sewage All other types of waste water are referred to as non-sewage. It includes
industrial wastewater, rainwater, storm-water, water from washing vessels, clothes, etc. It
doesn’t contain human wastes and other harmful pathogens.

Wastewater Classification Based on Usage

Wastewater can also be further divided into three subcategories based on the source of
generation.
1) Blackwater It refers to wastewater from toilets, bathrooms, dishwashers, kitchen sinks,
and washing machines. It contains urine, faeces, toilet paper, discarded food particles,
and other household cleaning agents. This water is highly contaminated and is brimming
with disease-causing pathogens. Hence, the name Blackwater.
2) Greywater refers to blackwater minus human contaminants. It’s wastewater that
doesn’t contain urine, faecal matter, and food waste. Generally, water from washing
machines and other regular household cleanings (minus bathroom and toilet) water is
greywater. Water generated from industrial plants is also greywater. Though greywater
contains chemicals and other harmful liquids, it’s more suitable for recycling and
wastewater treatment. It doesn’t have any pathogens, thereby making it more ideal for
treatment.
3) Yellow water: This is generally pure urine. It is urine that is collected from specific
sources. It doesn’t contain faecal matter, chemicals, food particles, or other
contaminants.

Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) is a test that measures the amount of oxygen required
to chemically oxidize the organic material and inorganic nutrients, such as Ammonia or
Nitrate, present in water.
Basic Processes of Water Treatment
 Collection: Before the water can be treated, it must first be collected from lakes, rivers
and reservoirs. Most often, the water is transported from the source to the treatment
plant via a complex network of pumps and pipelines, though natural means (such as
rivers) may be used.
 Screening: The first step in the treatment process is to screen the water to remove
larger items of suspended materials, such as rubbish, plants, trees, animals and other
debris, these are captured and removed via the use of a large metal screen.
 Chemical addition: At this point, chemicals are now added to encourage smaller
particles of suspended matter to clump together and form “floc”. The chemicals used to
achieve this purpose are called coagulants and there are many different products
available.
 Coagulation: After the coagulant has been added to the water, it must be mixed at
varying speeds over a period of time to allow the flocs to form (this part of the process
is known as flocculation).
 Sedimentation and clarification: Once the flocs have formed, the water is passed over a
sedimentation basin. Here, the clumps of floc particles can settle at the bottom of the
basin, where they are removed to a disposal pond.
 Filtration: With the larger particles taken out of the water, it must now be filtered
through a variety of media such as sand, gravel or granular activated carbon to remove
the smaller unwanted particles which still persist.
 Disinfection: The remaining water has now had the vast majority of its impurities
removed, but it may still contain bacteria, viruses and other microorganisms. In order to
kill these elements, it must be treated with enough chlorine to be effective but not too
much to affect taste or odour.
 Storage: The water is now essentially ready for public consumption, but must be stored
until demand for it surfaces. It is most commonly stored in underground or overground
 tanks. As well as drinking water, there must also be a stored supply of water for
emergencies such as fires.
 Distribution: The water is finally sent to homes and businesses around the country via a
sophisticated system of pumps, tanks, pipelines, hydrants, valves and meters.

Theory of Industrial waste Treatment

 UNIT-3 Air Pollution

Air pollu on is defined as excessive foreign ma er in the air which adversely affects the well-being of
personnel or causes property damage. It also affects plants, animals, the human body, and buildings.

Air pollu on refers to any physical, chemical or biological change in the air. It is the contamina on of air by
harmful gases, dust and smoke which affects plants, animals and humans dras cally.

Air Pollu on is the release of pollutants such as gases, par cles, biological molecules, etc. into the air that
is harmful to human health and the environment.

Air pollu on is defined as the introduc on of pollutants, organic molecules, or other unsafe materials into
Earth’s atmosphere. This can be in the form of excessive gases like carbon dioxide and other vapours that
cannot be effec vely removed through natural cycles, such as the carbon cycle or the nitrogen cycle.

Composi on of Natural air

Air is a mixture of gases which makes up the Earth’s atmosphere. These gases are colourless and
odourless and hence, we can’t see them but only feel them. The atmosphere is an ocean of these gases.
It consists of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen and 1 % other gases and water vapour. The composi on of air
does not change as we travel through the layers of the atmosphere. The changes are the number of
molecules. The air molecules decrease and become less. The moisture content varies from place to
place. Arid regions have less moisture content as compared to wetlands
Other Components of Air

Some other components of air are mentioned below:

 Sulphur dioxide (SO2) – 1.0 ppm

 Methane (CH4 )-2.0 ppm
 Nitrous oxide(N2O) – 0.5 ppm
 Ozone(O3)-0 to 0.07 ppm
 Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) – 0.02 ppm
 Iodine(I2)-0.01 ppm
 Carbon monoxide (CO) – 0 to trace ppm
 Ammonia (NH3)-0 to trace ppm
Anthropogenic Pollutants

1) Primary air pollutants

 Primary air pollutants are the pollutants that are emitted directly from the source to the
atmosphere.
 Secondary air pollutants are formed in the lower atmosphere.

Primary air pollutants include oxides of sulphur, carbon, and nitrogen, volatile organic compounds,
suspended particulate matter, H₂S, etc.

These pollutants are of concern as they are harmful to humans, animals and plants. They can also be the
source of secondary air pollutants.

Sulphur oxide
About 95% of sulphur oxide is sulphur dioxide SO₂. It is a colourless gas with a pungent odour. They are
mostly emitted by industries and the burning of fossil fuels. Effects of Sulphur oxide are:
 It interferes with the function of the mucous membrane.
 It creates breathing problems and causes a deficit of oxygen in the body.
 They combine with the rainwater and create acid rain which affects the building's appearance.

Carbon monoxide
It is mostly due to vehicular exhaust, due to incomplete burning of fossil fuels. It is a colourless,
odourless toxic gas. Ill effects on humans are:
 It combines with haemoglobin in the blood and forms complex substances that result even in death.

Nitrogen oxides
They are generally suspended in the atmosphere by fly ash, tobacco smoke, smog, etc. Effects on human
health include:
 It creates eye and nasal irritation.
 It also causes respiratory problems.

Hydrocarbons
They are compounds of hydrogen and carbon. They undergo photochemical reactions and formaldehyde
and ketone which are very harmful.
Suspended particulate matter
They are the mixture of solid particles and liquid droplets which are found in the air. PM2.5 and PM10
are types of particulate matter based on their size.
 PM10 are inhalable coarse particles
 PM2.5 are fine particles.
 Ill effects: respiratory problems, lung cancer

Other pollutants
 Some other primary air pollutants like Lead can cause damage to the liver and kidneys.
 Aromatic hydrocarbons from automobile exhaust are carcinogens that causes cancer.
 Photochemical smog is formed due to the interaction of oxides of nitrogen with sunlight. They give
rise to peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) and ozone which are very harmful.

2) Secondary air pollutant

 Ozone
 PAN (peroxy acetyl nitrate)
 Photochemical smog
 Aerosols and mists (H2SO4)

Ozone (O3)
It is a highly reactive gas composed of three oxygen atom. It is both a natural and a man-made
product that occurs in the Earth's upper atmosphere (the stratosphere) and lower atmosphere (the
troposphere).

PAN
Smog is caused by the interaction of some hydrocarbons and oxidants under the influence of
sunlight giving rise to dangerous peroxy acetyl nitrate (PAN).

Photochemical smog
Photochemical smog is a mixture of pollutants which includes particulates, nitrogen oxides, ozone,
aldehydes, phenoxyethanol nitrate (PAN), unreacted hydrocarbons, etc. The smog often has a brown
haze due to the presence of nitrogen dioxide. It causes painful eyes.

Aerosols and mists (H2SO4)

Aerosols and mists are very fine liquid droplets that cannot be effectively removed using traditional
packed scrubbers. These droplets can be formed from gas phase hydrolysis of halogenated acids
(HCl, HF, HBr), metal halides, organohalides, sulfur trioxide (SO3), and phosphorous pentoxide
(P2O5).
Classifica on of air pollutants
The air pollutants can be classified in many ways as shown below: -
1. According to origin
2. According to state of ma er
3. According to sources

1. According to origin

A) Primary pollutants
The pollutants that are emi ed directly from iden fiable sources produced by natural events ( e.g.: dust
storms and volcanic erup ons) and human ac vi es (e.g.: emissions from vehicles, industries etc.) are
called primary pollutants. E.g.: smoke, dust, oxides of sulphur & nitrogen, hydrocarbons and par culate
ma er etc.

B) Secondary pollutants
The pollutants that are formed in the atmosphere by chemical interac ons between primary pollutants
and atmospheric cons tuents are known as secondary pollutants. E.g. Sulphur trioxide, ozone, ketones,
sulphuric acid, nitric acid, carbonic acid etc.

2. According to state of ma er

A) Gaseous air pollutants

These pollutants exist in a gaseous state at normal temperature and pressure. They are carbon
dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, sulphur oxides etc.
B) Par culate air pollutants
These are not gaseous substances. They are suspended droplets, solid par cles or mixtures of the
two.

3. According to sources

A) Natural sources:
These include volcanic erup ons, defla on of sand and dust, forest or wild fires of natural vegeta on,
sulphur springs, natural geysers, organic and inorganic decays, vegeta ve decays, marsh gases,
cosmic dust, pollen grains of flowers, photochemical reac ons, soil debris etc.

B) Man-made sources
These include human ac vi es such as industries, factories, urban centres, aircra , nuclear
experiments, automobiles, agriculture, domes c burning of wood and burning of fossil fuels,
deforesta on, mining, waste treatment plants and power plants.

Mobile sources – such as cars, buses, planes, trucks, and trains

Sta onary sources – such as power plants, oil refineries, industrial facili es, and factories
Area sources – such as agricultural areas, ci es, and wood burning fireplaces
Natural sources – such as wind-blown dust, wildfires, and volcanoes.

Aerosol
 . An aerosol is a suspension of fine solid par cles or liquid droplets, in air or another gas. Aerosols can be
natural or ar ficial.

Aerosols can be natural or anthropogenic.

• Examples of natural aerosols are fog, dust, forest exudates and geyser steam.
• Examples of anthropogenic aerosols are haze, par culate air pollutant and smoke.

Aerosols can be
 Primary aerosols
 Secondary aerosols

Primary Aerosols
. These are aerosols that make it into our atmosphere directly from some sort of natural sources.
• For example, smoke and soot from wildfires, desert dust, and ocean waves whipping sea salt into the atmosphere.

Secondary Aerosols
• These are aerosols that arise when gaseous substances are converted to par culate ma er in the
atmosphere.
• A great example of this is the sulphur dioxide gas emi ed by a volcanic erup on.

Size
Aerosols par cles can be as small as 0.001µm and large as 100-200µm

Sources
Aerosols have both
• Natural sources.
• Anthropogenic sources
 Natural sources
 Ocean
 Volcanic erup ons
 Dust storms
 Forest fires
 Sea spray etc

Anthropogenic sources

 Burning of fossil fuels

 Biomass burning
 Nitrate fer lizers
 Mineral dust from industrial ac vi es etc

Chemical composi on
• Typical chemical composi on of aerosol can vary at different loca ons, mes and par cle size frac ons
etc
• The atmospheric aerosol has a very complex and variable chemical composi on.
* They are generally composed of variable amounts of sulphate, nitrate, ammonium, sea salt and other
organic compounds.

Sulphate composi on

• The main precursor of sulphate components in troposphere is SO, emi ed from anthropogenic sources
and volcanoes and dimethyl sulphide (DMs) from biogenic sources especially from marine planktons.
• In stratosphere sulphate aerosols mostly converted from carbonyl sulphide (COS)

Nitrate and chloride

 Nitrate is formed mainly from oxida on of atmospheric nitrogen dioxide (NO₂).

• Ammonium salts are also common component of atmospheric aerosols.

• Main sources of chloride are sea spray but ammonium chloride par cles form during reac on between
ammonia and HCI

Carbon

• Carbonaceous materials constitute a large but highly variable fraction of atmospheric aerosols.

• It consists of both elemental carbon (EC) or black carbon (BC) and organic carbon (OC).

Effects\Impacts of aerosols

• Direct effect

• Indirect effect

• Other effects

Direct effect
• Aerosols scatter and absorb incoming solar radiations.

• This will mainly lead to a cooling of the surface (solar radiation is scattered back to space)

• It may also contribute to a warming of surface (caused by absorption of incoming solar energy)

Indirect effects

■ Aerosols influence the formation of clouds.

• They increase the amount of cloud droplets and made clouds more reflective.

• They can increase the lifespans of large storm clouds by delaying rainfall, making the clouds grow
larger and live longer, and producing more extreme storms

Other effects
 When aerosols absorb pollutants, it facilitates the deposi on of pollutants to the surface of earth as well
as to bodies of water
 This has poten al to damage both environment and human health.
 Aerosol par cles with an effec ve diameter smaller than 10µm can enter the bronchi.
 While with an effec ve diameter smaller than 2.5µm can enter as far as the gas exchange region in the
lungs, which can be hazardous to human health
EFFECT OF AIR POLLUTION

 Clean air is essential for good health.

 Respiratory problems like asthma, bronchitis.
 Chances of pneumonia in children.

There are many organs and bodily functions that can be harmed, the consequences including:

1. Respiratory diseases
2. Cardiovascular damage
3. Fatigue, headaches and anxiety.
4. Irritation of the eyes, nose and throat
5. Harm to the liver, spleen and blood
6. Nervous system damage.

EFFECT OF SOME AIR POLLUTANT ON HUMAN HEALTH

1) Carbon monoxide present in polluted air enters the blood and combines with haemoglobin
leading to slow down the circulation of blood. Cause collapse, coma and even death. It also
causes headaches, drowsiness, dizziness.
2) CO binds to haemoglobin 210 times more tightly than Oxygen.
3) Cigarette smoking is responsible for release of CO which interferes with haemoglobin to form
carboxy haemoglobin. It causes nausea & headache.
4) Sulphur dioxide irritates respiratory tissues and corrosion of tissues of lungs.
5) Nitrogen oxides irritates lungs and causes chronic bronchitis and asthma.
6) Cadmium damage kidney (Itai-itai - high pain in joint and spine).
7) Mercury effect nervous system, eye vision problem, hearing problem (Minamata - neurological
syndrome)
8) Smog and dust rise allergies. Children have more sensitive lungs; hence they are more easily
affected. Cause - Chest pain, nasal and throat problems, eyes irritation and difficulty in
breathing.
9) Ozone cause coughing and irritation of eye, nose, throat.
10) Suspended particles aggravate respiratory tract, leading to bronchitis and asthma. Prolonged
exposure can cause cancer.
11) Many volatile organic compounds (eg: benzene and formaldehyde) and toxic particulates (eg:
lead and cadmium) can cause mutations, reproductive problems or cancer.
 EFFECT OF AIR POLLUTION ON MATERIALS
1) The damage due to air pollution on materials is really a serious concern since the service life of
buildings is remarkably reduced.
2) The effect of air pollution on materials may be seen in terms of discoloration, material loss,
structural failing and soiling.
3) Both discoloration and structural failure due to air pollution on buildings may be insignificant and
that may not involve huge coasts. But the effect of corrosion due to acidic deposition costs a lot.
4) Air pollutants break down the exterior paint on cars and houses.
5) Discoloured monuments, historic buildings, marble statues, other heritage and natural beauty
sites.

Effects of air pollution on plants

1) Chronic exposure of leaves to air pollutants can break down the waxy coating that helps prevent
excessive water loss and leads to damage from diseases, pests, drought and frost.
2) Such exposure interferes with photosynthesis and plant growth, reduces nutrient uptake and causes
the leaves to turn yellow, brown or drop off altogether.
3) At higher concentration of sulphur dioxide, most of the flower buds become stiff and hard; eventually
fall off from the plants, as they are unable to flower.
4) Prolonged exposure to high levels of pollutants from iron smelters, coal- burning power plants and
industrial units, as well as from vehicles, can damage trees and other plants.
Major toxic metals and their effects.

The effects on human health and the environment from exposure to the three most common heavy
metal pollutants (mercury, lead and cadmium) include:

1) Mercury exposure can harm the brain, heart, kidneys, lungs, and immune system of people of all
ages. In babies and young children, the nervous system can be affected making the child less able to
think and learn.
2) Mercury accumulation in fish may harm the fish and other animals that consume them. Birds and
mammals that eat fish are more exposed to mercury than other animals which live in aquatic
ecosystems.
3) Cadmium is toxic to humans and exposure can cause pulmonary irritation, kidney disease, bone
weakness and possibly lung, prostate, and kidney cancer. Food and cigarette smoke are the largest
potential sources of cadmium exposure for the general population.
4) Lead cause neurodevelopmental effects in children, even at low levels of exposure.
5) Cadmium is toxic to humans and exposure can cause pulmonary irritation, kidney disease, bone
weakness and possibly lung, prostate, and kidney cancer.

The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981

The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, of 1981 is an essential legislation enacted by the
Indian government to prevent and control air pollution. With rapid industrialization and urbanization, air
pollution has become a severe problem in India, causing significant health and environmental impacts.

The Act aims to regulate and monitor air quality, establish pollution control boards, and enforce
measures to prevent and control air pollution.

Prime Objectives:

1. To prevent air pollution by improving the quality and standard of the air.
2. To control air pollution by regulating industries causing air pollution
Preventing the emission of pollutants by industries into the atmosphere and abating them as
3.
necessary
4. To ensure that the environment and human life is protected from the adverse effects of air pollution
5. Reducing risk to public health from exposure to pollutants in ambient air quality

The Air Prevention and Control of Pollution Act 1981 has many features governed by the Central
Pollution Control Board to protect the environment.
 1. Sec on 3 states that State Pollu on Control Boards and the Central Pollu on Control Board (CPCB)
should exercise their range of powers without prejudice.
2. Section 4 states that if a state has already established a Water Pollution Control Board, then
the same should be given joint responsibility and prescribed authority to monitor and control
air pollution. The joint body should be called State Pollution Control Board.

3. Section 5 addresses the concern of a state not having a Water Pollution Control Board. It
states that in such a case a new pollution Control Board should be set up.

4. Section 16 carries the duties of the Central Pollution Control Board.

5. Section 19, State Pollution Control Boards can exercise their authority of declaring any area
as an Air Pollution Control Area. Consultation with CPCB is required.

6. Section 22 asserts that no individual or entity is allowed to emit pollutants in the air above
the set standards by the relevant Pollution Control Board

7. Section 26 provides special rights to officers of Boards for Pollution Control to carry out
inspections and to take samples of the kinds of air pollutants from chimneys or ducts and test
them for the existence of any dangerous pollutant.

8. Section 28 allows the formation of new State Air Laboratories or declaring any existing lab as
a State Air Lab by the relevant SPCBs

9. Sec on 37 states that any person or en ty who refuses to follow the rules and regula ons of Sec on
21 and Sec on 22 will be seen as an offense punishable with an imprisonment of 12 months and 6
months respec vely, but can be stretched to 6 years depending on type and intensity of the offense.

The key features of the Act include:

 Advising Central Government of Air and Air Pollution related issues

 Research about the causes and impact of Air Pollution.
 Spread awareness to stop air pollution
 To establish central and State Boards and empower them to monitor air quality and control
pollution

Major environmental phenomenon

1) Acid rain
It is the term used for pollution caused by SO2 and NO2 when they combine with atmospheric
moisture.
■When coal, oil and natural gas burn, sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide are produced. These react
with water in air and form sulphuric acid and nitric acid and return to the ground in the form of rain,
fog or snow.
■Any precipitate or depositions having a pH lower than 5.6 as a result of contact with airborne
particles having an adverse effect on flora & fauna on which it falls is called acid rain.
 Causes Acid Rain

Acid rain results when sulphur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOX) are emi ed into the atmosphere and
transported by wind and air currents.

The SO2 and NOX react with water, oxygen and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. These then
mix with water and other materials before falling to the ground.

While a small por on of the SO2 and NOX that cause acid rain is from natural sources such as volcanoes, most
of it comes from the burning of fossil fuels.

The major sources of SO₂, and NO, in the atmosphere are

 Burning of fossil fuels to generate electricity. Two thirds of SO2 and one fourth of NOX in the
atmosphere come from electric power generators.
 Vehicles and heavy equipment
 Winds can blow SO2 and NOX over long distances and across borders making acid rain a problem for
everyone and not just those who live close to these sources.
(1) Emissions of SO₂ and NO, are released into the air.
(2) the pollutants are transformed into acid particles that may be transported long distances.
(3) These acid particles then fall to the earth as wet and dry deposition (dust, rain, snow, etc.)
(4) May cause harmful effects on soil, forests, streams, and lakes.

Measuring Acid Rain

■Acidity and alkalinity are measured using a pH scale for which 7.0 is neutral. The lower a substance's
pH (less than 7), the more acidic it is; the higher a substance's pH (greater than 7), the more alkaline it
is.
■Normal rain has a pH of about 5.6; it is slightly acidic because carbon dioxide (CO2) dissolves into it
forming weak carbonic acid. Acid rain usually has a pH between 4.2 and 4.4.

Effects of Acid Rain on Fish and Wildlife

■The ecological effects of acid rain are most clearly seen in aquatic environments, such as streams,
lakes, and marshes where it can be harmful to fish and other wildlife.

■Some types of plants and animals are able to tolerate acidic waters and moderate amounts of
aluminium. Others, however, are acid-sensitive and will be lost as the pH declines.

■At pH 5, most fish eggs cannot hatch. At lower pH levels, some adult fish die.

Effects of Acid Rain on Plants and Trees

■Dead or dying trees are a common sight in areas effected by acid rain. Acid rain leaches aluminium
from the soil. That aluminium may be harmful to plants as well as animals. Acid rain also removes
minerals and nutrients from the soil that trees need to grow.

■At high elevations, acidic fog and clouds might strip nutrients from trees' foliage, leaving them with
brown or dead leaves and needles. The trees are then less able to absorb sunlight, which makes them
weak and less able to withstand freezing temperatures.
Solutions

■There are several solutions to stopping manmade acid rain. Regulating the emissions coming from
vehicles and buildings is an important step.

■This can be done by restricting the use of fossil fuels and focusing on more sustainable energy sources
such as solar and wind power.

■Also, each person can do their part by reducing their vehicle use. Using public transportation, walking,
riding a bike or carpooling is a good start.

■People can also reduce their use of electricity, which is widely created with fossil fuels, or switch to a
solar plan.

2) Greenhouse effect

The greenhouse effect is a natural process that warms the Earth's surface. When the Sun's energy
reaches the Earth's atmosphere, some of it is reflected back to space and the rest is absorbed and re-
radiated by greenhouse gases.

Greenhouse gases include water vapour, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, ozone and some
artificial chemicals such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).

The absorbed energy warms the atmosphere and the surface of the Earth. This process maintains the
Earth's temperature at around 33 degrees Celsius warmer than it would otherwise be, allowing life on
Earth to exist.

Causes of greenhouse effect

The main reason for greenhouse effect is the emission of gases like nitrous-oxide, carbon-dioxide,
methane, ozone and water vapor. The causes of these emissions have been listed below.

1) Deforestation: One of the major reasons for the greenhouse effect is deforestation. With the
increase in population, more and more forests are being cut to provide accommodation and other
amenities to people. This has led to an increase in the amount of carbon di-oxide in the atmosphere.
2) Burning of Fossil Fuels: We all know that burning of fossil fuels, like petroleum and oil, wood and gas
results in release of pollutants into the atmosphere. With time, the consumption of fossil fuels, be it
for industrial purposes or consumer purposes, has increased and with it, the pollution levels in the
world.
3) Electrical Appliances: Electrical appliances are amongst the major contributors to the greenhouse
effect. Refrigerators, air conditions or some other electric appliances emit gases, known as
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).
4) Industries: Most of the industries today add to the pollution levels and in turn, lead to the
greenhouse effect. Aerosol cans, some foaming agents used in the packaging industry, fire
extinguisher chemicals and cleaners used in the electronic industry contribute to this. Even some
processes of the cement manufacturing industries can be counted amongst the culprits.
 5) Automobiles: Automobiles, whether they run on petrol or diesel, create pollution and release
harmful gases into the atmosphere. These gases, in turn, create the greenhouse effect in the
atmosphere. The forever-increasing use of automobiles has only added to the problem.

3) Global Warming
Global warming is the slow increase in the average temperature of the earth's atmosphere because an
increased amount of the energy (heat) striking the earth from the sun is being trapped in the
atmosphere and not radiated out into space.
Since the pre-industrial period, human activities are estimated to have increased Earth's global average
temperature by about 1 degree Celsius (1.8 degrees Fahrenheit), a number that is currently increasing
by 0.2 degrees Celsius (0.36 degrees Fahrenheit) per decade.

Causes global warming

Global warming occurs when carbon dioxide (CO2) and other air pollutants collect in the atmosphere
and absorb sunlight and solar radiation that have bounced off the earth's surface.
Normally this radiation would escape into space, but these pollutants, which can last for years to
centuries in the atmosphere, trap the heat and cause the planet to get hotter.
These heat-trapping pollutants-specifically carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, water vapor, and
synthetic fluorinated gases-are known as greenhouse gases, and their impact is called the greenhouse
effect.
Our current era of global warming is directly attributable to human activity-specifically to our burning
of fossil fuels such as coal, oil, gasoline, and natural gas, which results in the greenhouse effect.
The carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has increased by 31% since pre-industrial times, causing more
heat to be trapped in the lower atmosphere. Many countries have signed a convention to reduce
Green House Gases (GHG) under the United Nations Frame work convention on climate change
(UNFCC).
Effects of global warming
As the heat waves, droughts, and floods associated with climate change become more frequent and
more intense, communities suffer and death tolls rise.
If we're unable to reduce our emissions, scientists believe that climate change could lead to the deaths
of more than 250,000 people around the globe every year and force 100 million people into poverty by
2030.
Disappearing glaciers, early snowmelt, and severe droughts will cause more dramatic water shortages
and continue to increase the risk of wildfires.
Rising sea levels will lead to even more coastal flooding on the Eastern Seaboard.
Forests, farms, and cities will face troublesome new pests, heat waves, heavy downpours, and
increased flooding. All of these can damage or destroy agriculture and fisheries.

4) Ozone layer depletion

Ozone layer depletion is the gradual thinning of the earth's ozone layer present in the upper
atmosphere.
When chlorine atoms react with ozone molecules, it leads to the depletion of ozone layer and releases
oxygen molecules which do not absorb UV radiation.
Cause of ozone depletion
The main cause of ozone depletion and the ozone hole is manufactured chemicals, specially
manufactured halocarbon refrigerants, solvents, propellants, and foam- blowing agents
(chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), HCFCs, halons).
Since the early 1970's, scientists observed reduction in stratospheric ozone and it was found more
prominent in Polar Regions.

Effects Of Ozone Layer Depletion

The depletion of the ozone layer has harmful effects on the human health, animals, environment and
marine life.
Studies demonstrate that an increase in UV-B rays causes a higher risk of skin cancer, plays a major
role in malignant melanoma development, sunburns, quick ageing, eye cataracts, blindness and
weekend immune system.
UV-B rays negatively affect plants, crops. It may lead to minimal plant growth, smaller leaf size,
flowering and photosynthesis in plants, lower quality crops for humans. And decline in plant
productivity would in turn affect soil erosion and the carbon cycle.
Direct exposure to ultraviolet radiations also leads to skin and eye cancer in animals.
Planktons and zooplankton are greatly affected by the exposure to UV-B rays. These are higher in the
aquatic food chain. If the plankton’s declines, it would likely have wide-reaching effects for all marine
life in the lower food chain.

Solutions to Ozone Layer Depletion

Montreal Protocol was proposed in 1987 to unite the world to cut out production and import of ozone-
depleting substances.
One should avoid using pesticides and shift to natural methods to get rid of pests instead of using
chemicals.
The vehicles emit a large amount of greenhouse gases that lead to global warming as well as ozone
depletion.

Air quality standards

• Air quality standards are generally health-based guidelines which seek to establish the
concentrations of air pollutants to which the public can be exposed throughout their lifetime without
significant adverse effects at a population level.

• Such standards cannot be totally protective, but risks to all but the most susceptible individuals
should be negligible at concentrations below the air quality standard.
Types

The Clean Air Act identifies two types of national ambient air quality standards.
■ 1. Primary standards
■ 2. Secondary standards

Primary standards
■ Apply exclusively to human health
• Primary standards provide public health protection, including protecting the health of "sensitive"
populations such as asthmatics, children, and the elderly.

Secondary standards
• The secondary standards are concerned with protecting the environment.
• Apply to property damage and general welfare.
• These are designed to protect public welfare, transportation hazards, damage to animals, crops,
vegetation, and buildings.
The six criteria air pollutants (CAP), or criteria pollutants, for which limits are set in the NAAQS (U.S.
National Ambient Air Quality Standards) are
• Ozone (03)
• Atmospheric particulate matter.
•Lead
•Sulphur oxides (SOx)
• Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Nitrogen oxides (NOx).
• These are typically emitted from many sources in industry, mining, transportation, electricity
generation and agriculture.
• In many cases they are the products of the combustion of fossil fuels or industrial processes.
AIR (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981
• This is an Act for prevention, control and abatement of air pollution. It is also a comprehensive
legislation with more than fifty sections.
It makes provisions for Central and State Boards, power to declare pollution control areas, restrictions
on certain industrial units, authority of the Boards to limit emission of air pollutants, power of entry,
inspection, taking same samples and analysis, penalties, offences by companies and Government and
cognizance of offences etc.
• The Act specifically empowers State Government to designate air pollution areas and to prescribe
the type of fuel to be used in these designated areas.
• According to this Act, no person can operate certain types of industries including the asbestos,
cement, fertilizer and petroleum industries without consent of the State Board. The Board can
predicate its consent upon the fulfilment of certain conditions.
The main objectives of the Act are as follows:
(a) To provide for the prevention, control and abatement of air pollution.
(b) To provide for the establishment of central and State Boards with a view to implement the Act.
(C) To confer on the Boards the powers to implement the provisions of the Act and assign to the
Boards functions relating to pollution.

METEOROLOGICAL PARAMETERS INFLUENCING AIR POLLUTION

 Air movements influence the result of air pollutants. So any study of air pollution should
include a study of the local weather patterns (meteorology).
 If the air is calm and pollutants cannot disperse, then the concentration of these pollutants will
build up.
 On the other hand, when strong, turbulent winds blow, pollutants disperse quickly, resulting in
lower pollutant concentrations.
 Air movements influence the result of air pollutants. So any study of air pollution should
include a study of the local weather patterns (meteorology).
 If the air is calm and pollutants cannot disperse, then the concentration of these pollutants will
build up.
 On the other hand, when strong, turbulent winds blow, pollutants disperse quickly, resulting in
lower pollutant concentrations.

Meteorological data helps:

 identify the source of pollutants
 predict air pollution events such as temperature inversions and high- pollutant concentration days
 simulate and predict air quality using computer models.
 The meteorological parameters which have the most important influence on the diffusion of
pollutants in the atmosphere are
1) wind direction and speed
2) Temperature
3) Humidity
4) Rainfall
5) Solar radiation
Wind speed and direction

When high pollutant concentrations occur at a monitoring station, wind data records, can determine
the general direction and area of the emissions.

Identifying the sources means planning to reduce the impacts on air quality can take place.

An instrument called an anemometer measures wind speed. At our monitoring stations, the type of
anemometer we use is a sonic anemometer.

Temperature

Measuring temperature supports air quality assessment, air quality modelling and forecasting
activities

Temperature and sunlight (solar radiation) play an important role in the chemical reactions that occur
in the atmosphere to form photochemical smog from other pollutants.

Favourable conditions can lead to increased concentrations of smog.

Humidity

Like temperature and solar radiation, water vapour plays an important role in many thermal and
photochemical reactions in the atmosphere.

As water molecules are small and highly polar, they can bind strongly to many substances.

If the water molecules attach to corrosive gases, such as sulfur dioxide, the gas will dissolve in the
water and form an acid solution that can damage health and property.

Rainfall

Rain has a 'scavenging' effect when it washes particulate matter out of the atmosphere and dissolves
gaseous pollutants.

Removing particles improves visibility. Where there is frequent high rainfall, air quality is generally
better.

If the rain dissolves gaseous pollutants, such as sulfur dioxide, it can form acid rain resulting in
potential damage to materials or vegetation.

Solar radiation

It is important to monitor solar radiation for use in modelling photochemical smog events, as the
intensity of sunlight has an important influence on the rate of the chemical reactions that produce
the smog

The cloudiness of the sky, time of day and geographic location all affect sunlight intensity.

An instrument called a pyranometer measures solar radiation from the output of a type of silicon cell
sensor.
Environmental lapse rate

The environmental lapse rate (ELR), is the rate of decrease of temperature with altitude in the
stationary atmosphere at a given time and location.

As an average, the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) defines an international standard
atmosphere (ISA) with a temperature lapse rate of 6.49 °C/km (3.56 °F or 1.98 °C/1,000 ft) from sea
level to 11 km. From 11 km up to 20 km, the constant temperature is -56.5 °C (-69.7 °F), which is the
lowest assumed temperature in the ISA.

Temperature inversion

Temperature inversion, also called thermal inversion, a reversal of the normal behaviour of
temperature in the troposphere (the region of the atmosphere nearest Earth's surface), in which a
layer of cool air at the surface is overlain by a layer of warmer air.

Under normal conditions air temperature usually decreases with height.

Inversions play an important role in determining cloud forms, precipitation, and visibility. An
inversion acts as a cap on the upward movement of air from the layers below.
ROLE OF NATIONAL GREEN TRIBUNAL IN INDIA

The National Green Tribunal, established in 2010, as per the National Green Tribunal Act is a
specialised judicial body equipped with expertise solely for the purpose of adjudicating
environmental cases in the country.

Recognising that most environment cases involve multi-disciplinary issues which are better
addressed in a specialised forum, the Tribunal was setup as per recommendations of the
Supreme Court, Law Commission and India’s international law obligations to develop
national laws on environment and implement them effectively.

The Tribunal is tasked with providing effective and expeditious remedy in cases relating to
environmental protection, conservation of forests and other natural resources and
enforcement of any legal right relating to environment. The Tribunal’s orders are binding
and it has power to grant relief in the form of compensation and damages to affected
persons.

The Tribunal has a presence in five zones- North, Central, East, South and West. The
Principal Bench is situated in the North Zone, headquartered in Delhi.

The Central zone bench is situated in Bhopal, East zone in Kolkata, South zone in Chennai
and West zone in Pune.

The Tribunal is headed by the Chairperson who sits in the Principal Bench and has at least
ten but not more than twenty judicial members and at least ten but not more than twenty
expert members.

Any person seeking relief and compensation for environmental damage involving subjects in
the legislations mentioned in Schedule I of the National Green Tribunal Act, 2010 may
approach the Tribunal.

The statutes in Schedule I are:

1. The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974;

2. The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act, 1977;
3. The Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980;
4. The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981;
5. The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986;
6. The Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991;
7. The Biological Diversity Act, 2002.

The Tribunal has jurisdiction over all civil cases involving a substantial question relating to
environment and the question. Additionally, any person aggrieved by an order/direction of
any of the Appellate Authorities under the legislations mentioned above can also challenge
them before the National Green Tribunal.

Some of the major objectives of the National Green Tribunal (NGT) are as follows:

 Effective and expeditious disposal of cases that are related to the protection and
conservation of the environment, forests, and other natural resources.
  To give relief and compensation for any damages caused to persons and properties.
 To handle various environmental disputes that involve multi-disciplinary issues.

FUNCTION OF REGULATORY BOARDS

1) CPCB
 To promote cleanliness of water resources streams and wells in different areas of the
States through prevention, control and abate
 To improve the quality of air and to prevent, control or abate air pollution in the country;
 Advise the Central Government on any matter concerning prevention and control of
water and air pollution and improvement of the quality of air;
 Plan and cause to be executed Nation-wide program for the prevention, control or
abatement of water and air pollution
 Provide technical assistance and guidance to the State Boards
  Plan and organize training of persons engaged in programs for prevention, control or
abatement of water and air pollution
 Organize through mass media, a comprehensive mass awareness program on prevention,
control or abatement of water and air pollution.
 Collect, compile and publish technical and statistical data relating to water and air
pollution and the measures devised for their effective prevention, control and abatement.
 Prepare manuals, codes and guidelines relating to treatment and disposal of sewage and
trade effluents as well as for stack gas cleaning devises, stacks and ducts.
 Lay down and modify, the standards for stream or well, and lay down standards for
quality of air (in consultation with the State Government concerned)
 Establish or recognize laboratories to enable the Board to perform such other functions
as and when prescribed by the Government of India.
 To issue directions to any industry, local bodies, or other authority for violation of the
notified general emission and effluent standards, and rules relating to hazardous waste, bio-
medical waste, hazardous chemicals, industrial solid waste, municipal solid waste including
plastic waste under the Environment (Protection) Rules, 1986.

2) SPCB
 To plan a comprehensive programme for prevention, control or abatement of pollution of
stream and well in the state.
 To advise the State govt. On matters relating to prevention control or abatement of water
pollution
 To collect or disseminate information relating to prevention and control or abatement of
water pollution
 To encourage, conduct and participate in investigations and research relating to
prevention control of pollution.
 To collaborate with CPCB in organizing the training of person engaged in programmes
relating to prevention, control or abatement of water pollution.
 To inspect sewage or trade effluent, works and plants for treatment of sewage.
 To lay down, or modify or annul effluent standards for the sewage and trade effluents
and for the quality of receiving water and to classify the waters of the state
 To evolve economical and reliable method of treatment of sewage and trade effluent.
 To evolve methods of utilisation of sewage and suitable trade effluents in agriculture.
 To evolve efficient methods of disposal of sewage and trade effluents on land.
 To lay down standard of treatment of sewage and trade effluent to be discharge into in
any particular stream.
 To make vary or revoke any order for the prevention and control or abetment of
discharge of waste into streams or well.
 To lay down effluent standard to be complied with the person while discharging sewage
 UNIT-4 (ENERGY ENVIRONMENT CLIMATE CHANGE)

An overview of bureau of energy efficiency (BEE)

 BEE was established on 1st March 2002, under the provisions of the Energy Conservation Act, 2001,
under the Ministry of Power.
 The mission of BEE is to assist in developing policies and strategies for energy efficiency with the
primary objective of reducing the energy intensity of the Indian economy.
 Functions: It is responsible for regulatory and promotional functions outlined in the Energy
Conservation Act, 2001.
 BEE has helped India reduce its energy consumption by around 3.5%.
 The 22nd Founda on Day of the Bureau of Energy Efficiency was recently celebrated with the
theme "Energy Transi on through Electrifica on and Decarboniza on in India" and the State
Energy Efficiency Index 2023 was released.
 The Bureau of Energy Efficiency is an agency of the Government of India, under the Ministry of
Power created in March 2002 under the provisions of the nation's 2001 Energy Conservation Act.
The agency's function is to develop programs which will increase the conservation and efficient use
of energy in India. The government has proposed to make it mandatory for certain appliances in
India to have ratings by the BEE starting in January 2010.
 The Bureau of Energy Efficiency is a statuary agency under the Ministry of Power.
 It was created in March 2002 under the provisions of the nation's 2001 Energy Conservation Act.
 BEE's function is to develop programs which will increase the conservation and efficient use of
energy.
 It mandatory for certain appliances in India to have BEE ratings.

Standards & Labelling Program (BEE star label)

 The Objectives of Standards & Labelling Program is to provide the consumer an informed choice
about the energy saving.
 The scheme targets display of energy performance labels on high-energy end-use equipment &
appliances and lays down minimum energy performance standards.

The Major Promotional Functions of BEE include:

 Create awareness and disseminate information on energy efficiency and conservation.
 Arrange and organize training of personnel and specialists in the techniques for efficient use of
energy and its conservation.
 Strengthen consultancy services in the field of energy conservation.
 Promote research and development.
 Develop testing and certification procedures and promote testing facilities.
 Promote use of energy efficient processes, equipment, devices and systems.
 Take steps to encourage preferential treatment for use of energy efficient equipment or appliances.
 Promote innovative financing of energy efficiency projects.
 Give financial assistance to institutions for promoting efficient use of energy and its conservation.
 On this occasion, BEE expanded the coverage of its star labelling programme by including energy
efficient Deep freezer and Light Commercial Air Conditioners (LCAC).
 With this inclusion BEE will cover 26 appliances.
 Deep freezer and Light Commercial Air Conditioners (LCAC) are major energy guzzlers in commercial
space.
 The program will be initially launched in voluntary mode from 2nd March, 2020 to 31st December,
2021. Thereafter, it will be made mandatory after reviewing the degree of market transformation in
this particular segment of appliances.
 Through this initiative, it is expected to save around 2.8 billion Units by FY2030, which is equivalent
to Green House Gas (GHG) reduction of 2.4-million-ton Carbon Dioxide.

Na onal Ac on Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC)

The Na onal Ac on Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) was released by the Prime Minister on 30th
June 2008.
It outlines a na onal strategy that aims to enable the country to adapt to climate change and
enhance the ecological sustainability of India ‘s development path. It stresses that maintaining a
high growth rate is essen al for increasing living standards of the vast majority of people of India
and reducing their
vulnerability to the impacts of climate change.

There are eight National Missions on climate change:

1. National Solar Mission
2. National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency
3. National Mission on Sustainable Habitat
4. National Water Mission
5. National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Eco-system
6. National Mission for a Green India
7. National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture
8. National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change

The Principles of NAPCC are:

● Protec ng the poor through an inclusive and sustainable development strategy, sensitive to
climate change
● Achieving na onal growth and poverty allevia on objec ves while ensuring ecological
sustainability
● Efficient and cost-effective strategies for end-use demand-side management
● Extensive and accelerated deployment of appropriate technologies for adaptation and mitigation
● New and innova ve market, regulatory, and voluntary mechanisms for sustainable development
● Effec ve implementa on through unique linkages – with civil society, LGUs, and public-private
partnerships

Challenges faced by NAPCC

1. The policy was formulated in haste. There was a lot of delay in the approval of ministries.
2. There was a change in government at the centre.
3. The monitoring system was ineffective.
4. Budgetary support was very limited.
En Na onal Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency
Na onal Ac on Plan on Climate Change wanted to tackle the energy aspect, which resulted in the
formula on of the Na onal Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency. It was introduced with an
objec ve to promote the market for energy efficiency by encouraging innova on.

The Na onal Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency (NMEEE) is one of the eight na onal missions
under the Na onal Ac on Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC).

NMEEE aims to strengthen the market for energy efficiency by crea ng conducive regulatory and
policy regime and has envisaged fostering innova ve and sustainable business models to the energy
efficiency sector. The Mission is implemented since 2011.

NMEEE consist of four ini a ves to enhance energy efficiency in energy intensive industries which
are as follows:

Schemes under NMEEE

1. Perform Achieve and Trade Scheme (PAT)

2. Market Transformation for Energy Efficiency (MTEE)
3. Energy Efficiency Financing Platform (EEFP)
4. Framework for Energy Efficient Economic Development (FEEED)

Perform Achieve and Trade Scheme

This is applicable for large scale energy-intensive industries. It is a market-based mechanism to

improve on the cost-effectiveness of energy efficiency and certification of energy savings that could
be traded.

The energy savings achieved by notified industries is converted into tradable instruments called
Energy Saving Certificates (ESCerts). The ESCerts after issuance by Bureau of Energy Efficiency are
traded at Power Exchanges.

PAT is a cyclic scheme where certain no fied energy intensive units having threshold energy
consump on are given Specific Energy Consump on (SEC) reduc on targets over a cycle of three
years. PAT Scheme or the Perform, Achieve and Trade Scheme was launched by the Bureau of Energy
Efficiency (BEE) in July 2012.

 The chief goal of the scheme is to make India’s industrial sector energy efficient.
 Thescheme sets energy efficiency targets for industries with those failing to achieve the targets
having to pay a penalty. The penalty is based on what remains to be achieved in terms of the target.
 Market Transformation for Energy Efficiency

Give more thrust to innovations to produce appliances that are completely affordable and energy-
efficient.

Two programmes have been developed i.e. Bachat Lamp Yojana (BLY) and Super-Efficient
Equipment Programme (SEEP)

Energy Efficiency Financing Platform

Energy Efficiency Financing Platform (EEFP) was launched as one of the initiatives under National
Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency to provide a platform to interact with Financial Institutions
(FIs) and project developers for implementation of energy efficiency projects.

Framework for Energy Efficient Economic Development (FEEED)

Developing fiscal instruments to leverage financing for Energy Efficiency through risk mitigation:

BEE started 2 different types of funds with the objective of boosting the confidence of investors and
banks thereby avoiding the risk of projects getting stalled due to lack of funds. The 2 types of funds
are

1) Partial Risk Guarantee Fund for Energy Efficiency

2) Venture Capital Fund for Energy Efficiency.

Energy Conserva on Building Code

The Energy Conserva on Building Code (ECBC) set minimum energy performance standards for
commercial buildings.

Under section 14 (p) of the Energy Conservation Act, 2001, Central Government has powers to
prescribe ECBC for non-residential buildings, having connected load of 100 KW and above or a
contract demand of 120 KVA and above or recommended built-up area of 1000 sqm and above. or
building complex for efficient use of energy and its conservation. The state governments have the
flexibility to modify ECBC to suit local or regional needs. Energy performance standards for the
following building systems will be included in the ECBC:

1. Building Envelope
2. Heating Ventilation and Air Conditioning
3. Lighting
4. Service Water Heating
5. Electric Power and Distribution
In exis ng building, we could save upto 30 percent of electricity by applying ecbc code. For this we
could do retrofi ng in the exis ng building and can make building close to ECBC compliant building.

Purpose

The purpose of this code is to provide minimum requirements for energy efficient design and
construction of buildings.
Bio diversity and its conservations

Biodiversity refers to a variety of plant and animal life on Earth. Biodiversity is of three
types:

 Genetic diversity – It refers to the total number of genes in the genetic makeup of a species. For
e.g., the genetic variation shown by Rauwolfia vomitoria (medicinal plant).
 Species diversity – It represents the number of species found in an ecological community. For
example – The Western ghat has a greater number of amphibian species compared to the Eastern ghats.
 Ecological diversity – Greater diversity observed at the ecosystem level in a particular area with its
deserts, mangroves, rain forests, etc.
 Loss of Biodiversity

 Deteriora on in plant produc on,

 Decreased resistance to environmental issues such as drought, global warming, etc.,
and
 High variability in certain ecosystem processes such as plant produc vity, water use
and pest and disease cycles.

Causes of Biodiversity Loss

The following are the causes of the loss of biodiversity.

 Habitat loss and fragmenta on

 Over-exploita on
 Co-ex nc ons

Biodiversity Conserva on

Biodiversity conservation is the protection, upliftment and management of biodiversity to

derive sustainable benefits for present and future generations.

The enormous value of biodiversity due to their genetic, commercial, medical, aesthetic,
ecological and optional importance emphasizes the need to conserve biodiversity. Gradually
we are coming to realize that wildlife is not just a game to be hunted, rather it is a gift of
nature to be nurtured and enjoyed. A number of measures are now being taken the world
over to conserve biodiversity including plants and wildlife. There are two approaches of
biodiversity conservation:

 In situ conserva on (within habitat) – It involves the protec on and conserva on of a variety
of animals and plant species in its natural habitat. It includes biosphere reserves, hot spots,
na onal parks and sanctuaries, wild forests etc.
At present we have 7 major Biosphere reserves, 80 Na onal Parks, 420 wild-life sanctuaries and
120 Botanical gardens in our country covering 4% of the geographic area. The Biosphere
Reserves conserve some representa ve ecosystems as a whole for long-term in situ
conserva on.
In India we have Nanda Devi (U.P.), Nokrek (Meghalaya), Manas (Assam), Sunderbans (West
Bengal), Gulf of Mannar (Tamil Nadu), Nilgiri (Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu), Great Nicobars
and Similipal (Orrisa) biosphere Reserves. Within the Biosphere reserves we may have one or
more Na onal Parks. For example, Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve has two Na onal Parks viz.
Bandipur and Nagarhole Na onal Park. A Na onal Park is an area dedicated for the
conserva on of wildlife along with its environment. It is also meant for enjoyment through
tourism but without impairing the environment. Grazing of domes c animals, all private rights
 and forestry ac vi es are prohibited within a Na onal Park. Each Na onal Park usually aims at
conserva on specifically of some par cular species of wildlife along with others.

 Ex-situ conserva on (outside habitats) – It involves the protec on and conserva on of rare
species of animals and plants outside their natural habitats. These include zoos, aquariums,
botanical gardens, gene banks, etc.

(i) Na onal Bureau of Plant Gene c Resources (NBPGR) is located in New Delhi. Here
agricultural and hor cultural crops and their wild rela ves are preserved by cryo-
preserva on of seeds, pollen etc. by using liquid nitrogen at a temperature as low as -
196°C. Varie es of rice, pearl millet, Brassica, turnip, radish, tomato, onion, carrot, chilli,
tobacco, poppy etc. have been preserved successfully in liquid nitrogen for several years
without losing seed viability.
(ii) Na onal Bureau of Animal Gene c Resources (NBAGR) located at Karnal, Haryana. It
preserves the semen of domes cated bovine animals.
(iii) Na onal Facility for Plant Tissue Culture Repository (NFPTCR) for the development of a
facility of conserva on of varie es of crop plants/trees by ssue culture. This facility has
been created within the NBPGR.

Sustainable development
Development which meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future
genera ons to meet their own needs

Core Elements of Sustainable Development

Three core elements of sustainable development are economic growth, social inclusion and
environmental protec on.
Sustainable economic growth, achieving sustainable livelihood, living in harmony with nature and
appropriate technology are important for sustainable development.
Environmental Sustainability: It prevents nature from being used as an inexhaus ble source of
resources and ensures its protec on and ra onal use. Aspects such as environmental conserva on,
investment in renewable energy, saving water, suppor ng sustainable mobility, and innova on in
sustainable construc on and architecture, contribute to achieving environmental sustainability on
several fronts.
Social Sustainability: It can foster gender equality, development of people, communi es and
cultures to help achieve a reasonable and fairly-distributed quality of life, healthcare and educa on
across the Globe. Economic Sustainability: Focuses on equal economic growth that generates wealth
for all, without harming the environment. Investment and equal distribu on of economic resources.
Eradica ng poverty in all its forms and dimensions.

Kyoto Protocol
The Kyoto Protocol was an international treaty which extended the 1992 United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) that commits state parties to reduce greenhouse gas
emissions, based on the scientific consensus that global warming is occurring and that human-made CO2
emissions are driving it.
The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto, Japan, on 11 December 1997 and entered into force on 16
February 2005. There were 192 parties (Canada withdrew from the protocol, effective December 2012)
to the Protocol in 2020.
 The Kyoto Protocol implemented the objective of the UNFCCC to reduce the onset of global warming by
reducing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere to "a level that would prevent dangerous
anthropogenic interference with the climate system.
The Kyoto Protocol applied to the seven greenhouse gases
1) Carbon dioxide (CO2),
2) Methane (CH4),
3) Nitrous oxide (N2O),
4) Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs),
5) Perfluorocarbons (PFCs),
6) Sulfur hexafluoride (SF6),
7) Nitrogen trifluoride (NF3).
8) Nitrogen trifluoride was added for the second compliance period during the Doha Round.

The Protocol was based on the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities: it acknowledged
that individual countries have different capabilities in combating climate change, owing to economic
development, and therefore placed the obligation to reduce current emissions on developed countries
on the basis that they are historically responsible for the current levels of greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere.

The Protocol's first commitment period started in 2008 and ended in 2012. All 36 countries that fully
participated in the first commitment period complied with the Protocol. However, nine countries had to
resort to the flexibility mechanisms by funding emission reductions in other countries because their
national emissions were slightly greater than their targets. The financial crisis of 2007–08 reduced
emissions. The greatest emission reductions were seen in the former Eastern Bloc countries because the
dissolution of the Soviet Union reduced their emissions in the early 1990s. Even though the 36
developed countries reduced their emissions, the global emissions increased by 32% from 1990 to 2010.

A second commitment period was agreed to in 2012 to extend the agreement to 2020, known as the
Doha Amendment to the Kyoto Protocol, in which 37 countries had binding targets: Australia, the
European Union (and its then 28 member states, now 27), Belarus, Iceland, Kazakhstan, Liechtenstein,
Norway, Switzerland, and Ukraine. Belarus, Kazakhstan, and Ukraine stated that they may withdraw
from the Kyoto Protocol or not put into legal force the Amendment with second round targets. Japan,
New Zealand, and Russia had participated in Kyoto's first-round but did not take on new targets in the
second commitment period. Other developed countries without second-round targets were Canada
(which withdrew from the Kyoto Protocol in 2012) and the United States (which did not ratify). Canada's
decision to withdraw was to the dismay of Environment minister, Peter Kent. If they were to remain as a
part of the protocol, Canada would be hit with a $14 billion fine, which would be devastating to their
economy, hence the reluctant decision to exit. As of October 2020, 147states had accepted the Doha
Amendment. It entered into force on 31 December 2020, following its acceptance by the mandated
minimum of at least 144 states, although the second commitment period ended on the same day. Of the
37 parties with binding commitments, 34 had ratified.

Negotiations were held in the framework of the yearly UNFCCC Climate Change Conferences on
measures to be taken after the second commitment period ended in 2020. This resulted in the 2015
adoption of the Paris Agreement, which is a separate instrument under the UNFCCC rather than an
amendment of the Kyoto Protocol.
 Conference of the parties
A conference of the parties is the supreme governing body of an international convention (treaty,
written agreement between actors in international law). It is composed of representatives of the
member states of the convention and accredited observers. Scope of the COP is to review the
"implementation of the Convention and any other legal instruments that the COP adopts and take
decisions necessary to promote the effective implementation of the Convention".
It is made up of governments and organizations such as the European Union and is responsible for
guiding the Convention so that it can respond to global challenges and national needs.
The first global conference on climate change was held in 1972 in Stockholm, Sweden.
This conference ushered in numerous global negotiations and international agreements on the
environment.
All of these culminated in the establishment of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change (UNFCCC) in Rio de Janeiro in Brazil, in 1992.
The treaty sets limits on GHG emissions in countries, but these are not binding and there are no
enforcement mechanisms either.
However, there are provisions for updates or protocols that can be used to set legally binding emission
limits on countries.
The parties to the convention meet annually in the Conference of the Parties or COP to review the
progress under the convention.

The COP has been meeting biennially since 2001, and has held 14 sessions. UNCCD COP15 was held from
9-20 May 2022 in Abidjan.
The 2023 UN Climate Change Conference will convene from 30 November to 12 December 2023 in
Dubai, United Arab Emirates (UAE). It will comprise:

 The 28th meeting of the Conference of the Parties (COP 28);

 The fifth meeting of the COP serving as the Meeting of the Parties to the Paris
 The 18th meeting of the COP serving as the Meeting of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol
 The 59th meeting of the Subsidiary Body for Implementation (SBI 59); and
 The 59th meeting of the Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice (SBSTA 59).

Clean Development Mechanism

 The UNFCCC adopted the Kyoto Protocol in December 11, 1997, and enforce in 2005.
 The Kyoto Protocol has three Flexible Market mechanisms include:

1) Clean Development Mechanism (CDM)

2) Emission Trading
3) Joint Implementa on (JI)

 Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) is a unique instrument based on understanding and

cooperation among the nations for adopting a new economic outlook for activities aiming at
protecting the world eco-system.
 The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), defined in Article 12 of the Protocol, allows a country
with an emission-reduction or emission-limitation commitment under the Kyoto Protocol (Annex
B Party) to implement an emission-reduction project in developing countries.
 Such projects can earn saleable certified emission reduction (CER) credits, each equivalent to one
tonne of CO2, which can be counted towards meeting Kyoto targets.
CDM OBJECTIVE

 To assist developing countries in achieving sustainable development & in contributing to ultimate

objectives of United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
 To assist developing countries in achieving compliance with their qualified emission limit &
reduction commitments.
 Lower Green House Gas emission and stop Ozone layer depletion.

GOALS

 Guide Developing nations to develop sustainable methods

 Assist the developed nations to reduce their emissions
 Help countries to find new methods to reduce emission.

Advantages

 Based emissions reduction activities in the developing country establishes this mechanism.
 Reducing the dependency on fossil fuels
 Reducing the emission involved in manufacturing process.
 Clean Environment.

Disadvantages

 Focuses too much on carbon emissions and doesn't address other pollutants, such as sulfur
dioxide and nitrogen oxides, which either do direct harm to human health and/or can be
addressed using technology.
 Developing countries emit more than Developed countries.