Environmental Education Study Guide

Preface
This study guide covers key concepts from the Environmental Education textbook for Class XI,
as prescribed by the Assam Higher Secondary Education Council. It encompasses topics

🌍
ranging from basic environmental concepts to disaster management and road safety.

Unit 1: Basic Concepts of Environment

Definition of Environment
“The term environment refers to surroundings. It originates from the French word
"environner," meaning "to encircle" or "to surround." It is a composite term for the
conditions in which organisms live, including air, water, soil, and sunlight, which are
essential for all living beings and plant life.”

The environment also includes factors like temperature, wind, and energy, consisting of both
biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) components. It creates favorable conditions for the
existence and development of living things.

Components of Environment 🧱
The environment consists of three main components:

1. Abiotic Component: Non-living components.

2. Biotic Component: Living components, including flora, fauna, and humans.

3. Energy Component: Includes solar, geothermal, hydroelectrical, and atomic

energy.

Abiotic Component Subdivisions

Lithosphere: The solid part (e.g., rocks, soil).

Hydrosphere: The liquid part (e.g., water bodies).

Atmosphere: The gaseous part (e.g., air).

Environmental Segments ➿
There are four segments of the environment:

1. Atmosphere:

The protective blanket of gases surrounding the Earth.

It sustains life by absorbing cosmic rays and electromagnetic radiation.

Filters out tissue-damaging ultraviolet radiations.

Maintains the heat balance of the Earth.

Composition:

Nitrogen (N2): 78.09%

Oxygen (O2): 20.94%

Argon (Ar): 9.34 x 10^-1 %

Carbon dioxide (CO2): 3.25 x 10^-2 %

Trace gases: Neon, helium, methane, water vapor, krypton, nitrous

oxide, xenon, hydrogen, sulfur dioxide, ozone, ammonia, carbon
monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, etc.

Classified into four regions:

Region Altitude (km) Temp. Range (°C) Important Chemical Species

Troposphere 0 - 11 15 to -56 N2, O2, CO2, H2O

Stratosphere 11 - 50 -56 to -2 O3

Mesosphere 50 - 85 -2 to -92 O2+, NO+

Thermosphere 85 - 500 -92 to 1200 O2+, O+, NO+

The ozone (O3) in the stratosphere acts as a protective shield against harmful
ultraviolet radiations.

2. Hydrosphere:
 Includes all types of water resources: oceans, seas, rivers, lakes, glaciers,
polar icecaps, and groundwater.

About 97% of Earth's water supply is in the ocean and is unfit for human
consumption due to salinity.

Only 3% is fresh water:

79% is locked in polar icecaps and glaciers.

20% is underground water.

1% is readily available in rivers, lakes, and streams for direct human use.

3. Lithosphere:

The outer mantle of the solid Earth, consisting of minerals and soil.

Soil: A complex mixture of minerals, organic matters, air, and water.

Functions:

Storehouse of minerals

Reservoir of water

Conserver of soil fertility

Producer of crops

Home of wildlife and livestock

4. Biosphere:

The layer on Earth in which life can exist.

Extends 6-8 km into the atmosphere and 8-10 km into the sea.

It denotes the realm of living organisms and their interactions with the

📚
environment (atmosphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere).
Environmental Education
“Environmental Education is education through the environment, about the
environment, and for the environment. It is an educational process dealing with man's
relationship with his natural and man-made surroundings.”
 Environmental Education includes the relation of population, pollution, resource
allocation and depletion, conservation, transportation technology, and urban
and rural planning to the total human environment.

Recognizes values and clarifying concepts to develop skills and attitudes

necessary to understand and appreciate the interrelatedness among man, his
culture, and his biophysical surroundings.

Tbilisi Declaration (1977)

The report of the first intergovernmental conference on environmental education held at
Tbilisi, USSR, provided broad guidelines:

Be interdisciplinary in its approach.

Consider the holistic environment.

Be continuous, starting at the preschool level.

Examine major environmental issues critically from local, regional, national, and
international points of view.

Dwell on current and future environmental trends.

Help learners discover the symptoms and real causes of environmental

problems.

Promote the value and necessity of local, national, and international

cooperation.

Objectives and Guiding Principles

1. Awareness and sensitivity to the environment and environmental challenges.

2. Knowledge and understanding of the environment and environmental

challenges.

3. Attitude of concern for the environment and motivation to improve or

maintain environmental quality.

4. Skills to identify and help resolve environmental challenges.

 5. Participation in activities that lead to the resolution of environmental

🌳
challenges.
Multidisciplinary Nature
Environmental education is a multidisciplinary subject, requiring knowledge from various
disciplines:

Botany, zoology, biotechnology: Understanding biotic components.

Physics, chemistry, mathematics: Understanding different phenomena in the

environment.

Computer science and information technology: Integral part of

environmental education.

Environmental engineering: Control of pollution.

Sociology, economics, education, philosophy: Involved in numerous ways.

Environmental laws: Enacted for the protection of the environment.

Need for Environmental Awareness ⚠️

The world faces environmental degradation and pollution.

Problems include:

Pollution

Depletion of forest resources

Population explosion

Industrialization

Unplanned urbanization

Mining

Soil erosion

🌿
Public awareness is essential to protect the environment.

Unit 2: Ecological Concepts

Meaning of Ecology and Ecosystem
 “Ecology is derived from the Greek words "oikos" (home) and "logos" (study). It deals
with the study of organisms in their natural homes interacting with their surroundings or
environment. It is the study of the interconnections and interdependence of plants,
animals, and their environment.”

Ecology focuses on the levels (hierarchy) of organization: organisms, species, population,

communities, and ecosystems.

Ecological Hierarchy
Organisms: Any form of life.

Species: Groups of organisms that resemble one another in appearance,

behavior, chemistry, and genetic structure.

Population: A group of individuals of the same species occupying a given area

at a given time.

Communities: Populations of various species occupying a particular area and

interacting with each other.

Ecosystem: A community of organisms involved in a dynamic network of

biological, chemical, and physical interactions between themselves and with
the non-living components.

Types of Ecosystem 🌱
1. Natural Ecosystem:

Found in nature without human interaction.

Divided into:

Terrestrial Ecosystem: Forests, grasslands, deserts.

Aquatic Ecosystem:

Freshwater: Lotic (rivers) and lentic (ponds, lakes).

Marine.

2. Artificial or Man-Made Ecosystem:

Created by humans.
 🧬
Examples: Croplands, fisheries.
Structure of Ecosystem
Composition and organization of biotic and abiotic components.

Biotic Structure
The plants, animals, and micro-organisms present in an ecosystem.

Autotrophs (Producers):

Produce their food through photosynthesis.

Use carbon dioxide, water, and sunlight.

Heterotrophs (Consumers):

Cannot produce their food.

Obtain organic food from producers.

Types:

Macro Consumers:

Herbivores: Consume producers (e.g., cows, deer).

Carnivores: Feed on other consumers (e.g., frog, snake).

Omnivores: Feed on both plants and animals (e.g., man, fox).

Detritivores: Feed on dead animals and wastes (e.g., beetles,

ants).

Micro Consumers (Decomposers):

Derive nutrients by decomposing dead plants and biotic

compounds (e.g., bacteria, fungi).

Abiotic Structure
Physical and chemical components:

Physical factors: Sunlight, temperature, rainfall, wind velocity.

Edaphic factors: Soil factors.

 Chemical components: Nutrients like carbon, nitrogen, phosphorous,

⚙️
compounds like carbohydrates, proteins, etc.
Function of Ecosystem
The ecosystems perform their functional attributes in a systematic way under natural
conditions. Major functional characteristics are:

Food chain

Food webs

Trophic levels

Energy flow

Nutrient cycles

Food Chain, Food Web, and Trophic Levels 🍽️

Food Chain:

“A sequential chain of eating and being eaten in an ecosystem.”

Examples:

Grasses → cattle → tiger

Phytoplankton → water fleas → small fish → tuna

Types:

Grazing food chain

Detritus food chain

Unidirectional.

Food Web:

“A network of interconnected food chains.”

Different organisms are connected at different trophic levels.

 Trophic Level:

“The feeding level assigned to every organism in an ecosystem.”

Organisms deriving energy from the same source belong to the same
trophic level.

Green plants (producers) → herbivores (primary consumers) → carnivores

🌲
(secondary consumers)
Ecological Pyramids
“The graphical representation of the trophic structure and functions of an ecosystem
with producers at the base and successive trophic levels of consumers forming the
higher layers.”

Types:

1. Pyramid of Numbers: Depicts the number of individual organisms.

2. Pyramid of Biomass: Based on the total dry weight of living matter.

🦋
3. Pyramid of Energy: Shows energy assimilated at successive trophic levels.

Unit 3: Biodiversity and its Conservation

The Term Biodiversity
“Biodiversity refers to the number, variety, and variability of all life forms on Earth,
including plants, animals, micro-organisms, the genes they contain, and the intricate
ecosystems of which they are a part.”

Biodiversity is described at three levels: genetic, species, and ecosystem diversity.

Genetic Biodiversity:

“Genetic diversity refers to the variation in genes within a particular

species.”

🌿 Biodiversity and Its Conservation

Genetic Diversity
Genetic diversity refers to the variation of genes within a species, passed down through
generations. This variation leads to the different varieties within a species.

“Genetic diversity is the variety of genes within a species.”

Basmati rice vs. Joha rice are examples.

Variations can be easily seen (size, color) or perceived by other senses (taste,
flavor).

Species Biodiversity
Species diversity classifies the millions of life forms on Earth, where each species is distinct.

“Species diversity is the variety of different species within a defined area.”

Horses and donkeys are distinct species.

Lions and tigers are distinct species.

Members of a species can produce fertile offspring due to genetic similarity.

Measured by the total number of species within a defined area.

Ecosystem Biodiversity
An ecosystem involves living organisms (plants, animals, microorganisms) interacting with
each other and non-living elements (soil, air, water, minerals).

“Ecosystem diversity is the variety of habitats and life forms within them.”

Diversity of habitats includes different life forms.

💰 Value of Biodiversity
Refers to the variety of ecosystems within a geographical or political boundary.

Biodiversity impacts nearly every aspect of our lives, providing food, medicine, clothing,
shelter, and spiritual and recreational resources.
 Maintains ecological functions like clean water supply, nutrient cycling, and soil
protection.

Loss of biodiversity threatens human survival.

Consumptive Use
Consumptive use refers to the utilization of biodiversity products such as fuel, food, drugs,
and fibers.

“Consumptive use is the direct utilization of biodiversity products.”

90% of the world's food comes from plant species.

Genetic diversity is vital for breeding crops and livestock to resist pests and
diseases.

Loss of crop diversity can severely impact global food security.

80% of people in developing countries rely on traditional medicine, derived

from plants, animals, and minerals, for primary healthcare.

Examples: Penicillin from penicillium fungus, tetracycline from a bacterium,

aspirin from Filipendula ulmaria, and quinine from cinchona tree bark.

Fuel wood, fossil fuels (coal, petroleum), and minerals are also utilized.

Productive Use
Productive use involves commercial products manufactured from biodiversity resources.

“Productive use refers to the commercial applications of biodiversity.”

Traditional communities rely on natural resources for food, shelter, clothing,

household goods, medicines, fertilizers, and entertainment.

Examples: Tusks from elephants, silk from silkworms, wool from sheep, and lac
from lac insects.

Industries dependent on plant materials: paper and pulp, sugar, plywood,

railway sleepers.

Social Use
Social use includes the ritual and cultural significance of plants and animals.

“Social use pertains to the cultural, religious, and spiritual roles of biodiversity.”

Plants and animals have ritual significance in India.

Examples: Hibiscus for Goddess Kali, datura flowers for Shiva.

Mango, tulsi, lotus, and bel tree parts are used for various purposes.

Animals like cows, goats, and buffalo are considered sacred.

Certain animals are believed to be vehicles (vahanas) of deities and are

venerated.

Sacred groves: Pockets of forests protected by local communities due to

religious beliefs, preserving rich biodiversity.

Ethical Use
Ethical use emphasizes the right of each species to exist.

“Ethical use is based on the principle that every species has a right to exist.”

Humans do not have the right to eliminate any species.

Ethics provide a basis for deciding what is right or wrong.

The World Charter for Nature (1982) states every life form is unique and
warrants respect, guiding human actions by a moral code.

Aesthetic Use
Aesthetic use refers to the beauty and joy derived from nature.

“Aesthetic use pertains to the appreciation of the beauty and richness of life on Earth.”

Natural ecosystems cannot be recreated once destroyed.

Examples: Sunsets over the ocean, leaping deer, bird songs, and the smell of
wet earth after rain.
 Visiting natural sites like national parks and wildlife sanctuaries indicates

⚠️ Threats to Biodiversity
aesthetic value.

Extinction is a natural process, but recent human activities have accelerated species
elimination.

Habitat Destruction
Habitat destruction is caused by commercial tree felling, encroachment for settlement and
agriculture, shifting cultivation (jhum), and developmental activities.

“Habitat destruction involves the loss of natural environments due to human activities.”

Construction of roads, railways, industries, and mega dams significantly

impacts biodiversity.

Overgrazing
Overgrazing by livestock is a major problem, especially in grasslands.

“Overgrazing refers to excessive grazing by livestock, leading to soil erosion and habitat
degradation.”

Accelerates soil erosion and destroys biodiversity.

Poaching
Poaching is a significant threat after habitat loss, targeting species like elephants, rhinos, and
tigers.

“Poaching involves the illegal hunting or capturing of wild animals.”

Rhinos in Assam have been killed for their horns.

Smuggling of wildlife items (fur, hides, horns, tusks) continues despite trade
bans on endangered species.

Natural Calamities
Natural calamities such as floods, earthquakes, tsunamis, and storms cause irreparable loss to
biodiversity.

“Natural calamities are events like floods and earthquakes that can decimate
biodiversity.”

Climate Change and Global Warming

Climate change poses a serious threat, as many species cannot tolerate altered climatic
conditions.

“Climate change refers to long-term shifts in temperature and weather patterns, posing
a serious threat to biodiversity.”

Tropical and subtropical regions are more affected due to warmer

temperatures.

Soil moisture decreases, and evapotranspiration increases, affecting

agricultural production.

Global warming may lead to a mass extinction, threatening 15-30% of all

species in the next 50-60 years.

Biopiracy
Biopiracy involves the procurement of biological resources and indigenous knowledge from a
country, followed by patenting products without proper authorization.

“Biopiracy is the unethical acquisition and patenting of biological resources and

traditional knowledge.”

Companies or individuals collect indigenous knowledge and living materials,

then seek patents for commercial use.

🛡️ Conservation of Biodiversity
Unethical means are used to acquire marketing rights for these products.

Conservation involves protecting and managing biological wealth and ecosystems.

 “Conservation of biodiversity is the protection and management of biological wealth and
ecosystems for the benefit of all living organisms.”

In-situ Conservation
In-situ conservation is the preservation of wild species in their natural habitats.

“In-situ conservation means conserving species in their natural habitats.”

Examples: biosphere reserves, national parks, wildlife sanctuaries, and reserve

forests.

India has a network of over 533 national parks and sanctuaries, covering about
4.5% of its territory.

Special projects have been launched to protect specific animal species.

Assam: 5 national parks and 22 wildlife sanctuaries.

Kaziranga National Park and Pobitora Wildlife Sanctuary protect the Asiatic
Rhino.

Manas National Park is home to the golden langur and pygmy hog.

Ex-situ Conservation
Ex-situ conservation involves conserving plants and animals away from their natural habitats.

“Ex-situ conservation means conserving species outside their natural habitats.”

Examples: zoological parks, botanical gardens, forestry institutions, and

agricultural research centers.

Efforts are underway to collect and preserve genetic material of crops, animals,
birds, and fish.

Institutions involved: National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (New Delhi),

National Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources (Karnal).

National Conservation Strategies

India has several acts in force related to biodiversity conservation:
Act Description

Environment Protects the environment by restricting industrial activities in specified areas and
Protection Act, 1986 controlling hazardous substances.

Forest Focuses on regulating non-forest use of forest lands.

(Conservation) Act,
1980

Wildlife (Protection) Restricts hunting of animals, protects specified plants, establishes and manages
Act, 1972 sanctuaries and national parks, controls zoos, regulates captive breeding, and
manages trade in wild animals.

Wildlife (Protection) Deals with restriction and prohibition of hunting of animals, and with the protection
Amendment Act, of specified plants.They also deal with the setting up and management of
1991 sanctuaries and national parks, setting up of the central zoo authority, control of
zoos and captive breeding. They also control trade and commerce in wild animals,
animal articles and trophies.

🏞️ Natural Resources
Definition
Natural resources are resources obtained from nature that are essential for human welfare
and development.

“Natural resources are materials or substances occurring in nature which can be

exploited for economic gain.”

Examples: land, water, air, minerals, coal, forests, and wildlife.

Types of Natural Resources

Natural resources are classified into two types:

1. Renewable resources: Resources that are inexhaustible and can be

regenerated within a given time span.

Examples: solar energy, forests, and wildlife.

2. Non-renewable resources: Resources available in finite quantities that cannot
be replenished once exhausted.

Examples: fossil fuels like coal and petroleum, and minerals.

Different Types of Natural Resources

1. Forest resources: Provide essential commodities and ecological services.

Commercial goods: timber, wood, food items, fuel, fodder, medicines, and
drugs.

Ecological services: oxygen production via photosynthesis, carbon dioxide

absorption, habitat for diverse life forms, soil erosion control, and
regulation of local climate and hydrological cycle.

Deforestation causes: timber industry, conversion to agricultural land,

infrastructure development, encroachment, illegal extraction, and
poaching.

2. Water resources: Crucial for life on Earth, with only a small fraction available as
freshwater.

Water resource in Northeast India: rich in freshwater, high rainfall, high

groundwater potential in plains.

Rivers originate from the Himalayan glaciers.

Wetlands cover significant areas.

Water conservation: rainwater harvesting, reducing runoff and evaporation

losses, reuse of water, preventing wastage, controlling pollution, and
implementing strict laws.

3. Land resources: Finite and valuable for food, fiber, and fuel.

Soil degradation causes: soil erosion, waterlogging, salinization, and

contamination with industrial waste.
 Land conservation: afforestation, banning pesticides and fertilizers, proper
disposal of industrial waste, and cultivation of traditional crops.

4. Mineral resources: Naturally occurring inorganic solids with defined

composition.

Types: metallic (bauxite, copper, iron), non-metallic (graphite, diamond),

and energy-generating (coal, petroleum).

Mineral resources of NE India: Meghalaya (uranium, coal, limestone), Assam

(petroleum, natural gas, coal, limestone).

Conservation of natural resources: use resources frugally and without

wastage, avoiding overuse and misuse.

5. Food resources: Provides nourishment to the population.

🌍 Environmental Pollution
6. Energy resources: Powers society and infrastructure.

Introduction
Environmental pollution is the unfavorable alteration of our environment due to human
activities.

“Environmental pollution is an undesirable change in physical, chemical, and biological

characteristics of air, water, and soil that may harm living organisms or property.”

Causes: population increase, deforestation, industrial and automobile exhausts,

burning of fossil fuels, and modern agricultural practices.

Types of Pollution
1. According to environment:

Air pollution

Water pollution

Soil pollution
 2. According to pollutant:

Thermal pollution

Noise pollution

Radioactive pollution

Solid waste pollution

Oil pollution

Industrial pollution

Marine pollution
Pollutant and Contaminant
Pollutant: A substance present in nature in greater than natural abundance due
to human activities.

Contaminant: A substance not naturally occurring but introduced into the

environment by human activities.

Classification of Pollutants
Pollutants are classified into primary and secondary based on their form after release.

Primary pollutants: Released directly from an identifiable source.

Examples: oxides of sulfur, oxides of nitrogen, and hydrocarbons.

Secondary pollutants: Derived from primary pollutants by chemical reactions.

Example: peroxy acetyl nitrate (PAN) formed from hydrocarbons and

nitrogen oxides in sunlight.

Causes of Environmental Pollution

Natural causes: earthquakes, volcanoes, floods, landslides, and weathering of
rocks.

Anthropogenic causes: population increase, deforestation, industrial and

automobile exhausts, burning of fossil fuels, war, and construction works.

Air Pollution
Air pollution is the presence of pollutants in the atmosphere that are injurious to humans,
plants, and animals.

“Air pollution is the imbalance in quality of air that causes adverse effects on living
organisms.”

Sources of Air Pollution

1. Natural sources:

Volcanic eruption: releases gases like SO2 , H2 S , and CO.

​ ​

Forest fires: large quantities of smoke and particulate matter.

Decomposition of organic substances: releases methane and carbon

dioxide.

Dust: always present in the atmosphere.

Pollen grains: cause allergies.

Fungal spores: present as variable particles in the atmosphere.

Radioactive materials: present in the Earth's crust.

2. Man-made sources:

Deforestation

Burning of fossil fuels

Emission from vehicles

Rapid industrialization

Modern agricultural practices

Deforestation
Forests provide essential environmental services, but forest cover has declined due to
deforestation.

“Deforestation is the clearing of forests for other land uses, such as agriculture,
urbanization, or timber harvesting.”
 Causes: population increase, shifting cultivation, fuel requirements, raw
materials for industries, developmental projects, growing food needs, and
overgrazing.

Consequences: global warming, climate change, loss of soil fertility, and loss of
biodiversity.

Vehicular Emissions
Vehicular emissions are a dangerous form of air pollution.

“Vehicular emissions are the release of pollutants from motor vehicles into the
atmosphere.”

Principal pollutants: carbon monoxide (CO), hydrocarbons (HC), oxides of

nitrogen (N Ox ), and suspended particulate matter (SPM).
​

Petroleum-based vehicles emit polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons and

aldehydes in trace amounts.

Varying amounts of sulfur oxides (SOx ) are emitted depending on the sulfur
🚗 Vehicular Pollution
​

content of the fuel.##

Sources of Pollution
Petrol-based fuel vehicles emit sulfur dioxide (SO₂) and may contain lead
particles and compounds from tetraethyl lead additives.

Diesel vehicles contribute more NOx and particulate matter.

Factors Affecting Pollution Load

The pollution load from vehicular exhausts depends on several factors:

Fuel efficiency of combustion

Types of engine used

Age of the vehicle

Congested traffic

Poor road condition

 Outdated automotive technology
Prevention and Control
Upgrading fuel quality and using cleaner fuel

Reducing lead content in motor fuel

Enforcing emission standards for vehicles

Improving public transport facilities

Enhancing roads and traffic systems

🔥 Burning of Fossil Fuels

Modifying internal combustion engines with high technology

Products of Imperfect Burning

Imperfect burning of fossil fuels (coal, wood, petroleum) produces smoke containing:

Fine particles (less than 100µm in diameter): carbon particles, metallic dust,
resins, tars, aerosols, solid oxides, sulfates, nitrates

Coarse particles (over 200µm in diameter)

Nitrogen oxides

Halogens

Radioactive substances

Major Sources
Automobiles, thermal power plants, and industrial processes are major fuel-burning sources.

🏭 Rapid Industrialization
Thermal power plants produce about 2/3 of sulfur dioxide in the air.

Industries Contributing to Pollution

Industrial processes such as chemical plants, metallurgical plants, smelters, pulp and paper
mills, cotton and textile mills, petroleum refineries, and synthetic rubber manufacturing plants
contribute about 20% of air pollution.
Occupational Hazards
Workers in factories and mines are exposed to toxic substances, leading to diseases such as:

Silicosis

Fetal disorders

Paralysis

Skin allergies

Pneumoconiosis

Specific examples include cotton dust in textile industries, flour dust in flour mills, asbestos
dust in asbestos manufacturing mills, and silica dust in factories making bangles and

🌊 Sinks of Atmospheric Gases

glasswares.

Definition of a Sink
“A sink is a medium capable of retaining and interacting with a long-lived pollutant,
though not necessarily indefinitely.”

Major Sinks
Oceans: Gases diffuse to the surface, cross the gas-liquid interface, and go
into the bulk of the oceans.

Vegetation: Plants take up atmospheric gases and may metabolize them,

creating a concentration gradient for further absorption.

Other sinks include limestone for atmospheric acids, and soil micro-organisms for carbon

📜 Classification of Air Pollutants

monoxide (CO).

Air pollutants are classified into gases and particulates, with further subclasses:
Pollutants Subclasses Examples

Gases Oxides of nitrogen Nitric oxide (NO), nitrous oxide (N₂O), nitrogen dioxide
(inorganic) (NO₂)

Oxides of Sulphur Sulphur dioxide (SO₂), sulphur trioxide (SO₃)

Oxides of Carbon Carbon dioxide (CO₂), carbon monoxide (CO)

Other inorganic Hydrogen sulphide, ammonia, chlorine

compounds

Gases (organic) Hydrocarbons Methane, ethane, ethene, ethyne, benzene

Aldehydes & Ketones Formaldehyde, acetone

Other organic compounds Chlorinated hydrocarbons, alcohols

Particulates Solid Dust, smoke, fumes, flyash

Gases Mist, spray

💨 Outdoor and Indoor Air Pollutants

Outdoor Air Pollutants
Vehicles are the highest source of pollutants.

Immoderate chemical substances

Particulates

Sulphur-di-oxide

Carbon monoxide and carbon-di-oxide

Ozone

Lead

Indoor Air Pollutants

Indoor air pollution is a major health problem in industries, homes, and offices. Sources
include:

Air conditioners
 Gas stoves

Smoke

Building materials

Furnishings

Photocopiers

These pollutants can cause allergy, asthma, and diseases of the skin, lungs, and respiratory
tract. Prolonged exposure to oxides of nitrogen from gas stoves may damage the lungs and
increase susceptibility to respiratory infections. Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) like
formaldehyde from paper products, carpets, floor coverings, adhesives, and resins may cause

🤕 Air Pollutants: Sources and Effects on

irritation in mucous membranes, headache, and fatigue.

Humans
Air
Pollutant Sources of Production Effects on Man

Sulphur-dioxide Coal & oil combustion Causes chest constriction, headache,

vomiting, death from respiratory ailments

Nitrogen oxides Soft coal & automobile exhausts, Headache, drowsiness, irritated lungs,
unvented gas stove, kerosene heaters, children's colds, inhibits cilia action so that
wood stoves soot and dust penetrate far into the lungs

Carbon Burning of coal, gasoline, motor exhausts, Causes nausea, reduces oxygen-carrying
monoxide faulty furnaces, unvented gas stove, capacity of blood, headache, drowsiness,
kerosene heaters, wood burning irregular heartbeat

SPM (ash, soot Incinerators & every manufacturing Causes eye irritation, emphysema, cancer
smoke etc.) processes

Hydrogen Refineries, chemical industries, Causes nausea, irritation of eyes and throat
sulphide bituminous fuels

Ammonia Explosives, dye making, fertilizer plants Inflames upper respiratory passages

Phosgene Chemical and dye making Induces coughing, irritation, and fatal
pulmonary edema
Air
Pollutant Sources of Production Effects on Man

Aldehydes Thermal decomposition of soils, fats or Irritate nasal and respiratory tracts
glycerol

Suspended Incinerators and almost every Cause emphysema, eye irritation, cancer
particles manufacturing process

Asbestos Pipe insulation, vinyl ceiling floor tiles Lung diseases, lung cancer

🛡️ Prevention and Control of Air Pollution

Chemists play a key role in protecting the environment by:

Designing synthetic methods to maximize the incorporation of all materials

into final products.

Using and generating substances with little to no toxicity.

Preventing waste rather than treating it after formation.

Avoiding the use of auxiliary substances (e.g., solvents).

Minimizing energy requirements.

Using renewable raw materials.

Encouraging plantation programs in industrial sites.

Using less polluting fuels.

Encouraging the use of non-conventional energy sources.

Conducting proper Environmental Impact Assessments.

💧 Water Pollution
Implementing strict rules and regulations.

Definition
Alteration in physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of water that may cause harmful
effects on man and other aquatic biota. Addition of excess undesirable substances to water
that makes it harmful to humans, animals, and aquatic life, causing significant departure from
normal activities.

Sources
Domestic wastes

Industrial effluents

Agricultural wastes

Runoff from urban areas

Soluble effluents

Oil spills

Seepage pits

Refuse dumps

Solid wastes

Thermal pollutants

Radioactive nuclides

Particulates and atmospheric gases

Infectious agents

Problems Associated with Drinking Water

Water for human consumption must be free from pathogenic micro-organisms and other
substances which are hazardous to health. Contamination of drinking water leads to
introduction of a variety of intestinal pathogens bacteria, virus and parasites causing diseases
starting from mild gastroenteritis to severe and fatal dysentery, cholera or typhoid.

Water Contamination
Most common and widespread health risk associated with drinking water is microbial
contamination. Discharge of untreated sewage and agricultural waste waters, effluents from
the industries, dumping of solid wastes, oil spills from giant oil tankers, mining operations etc
are responsible for the contamination of the drinking water sources.
Water Borne Diseases
Diseases caused by ingestion of water contaminated by human activities or animal excreta,
which contain pathogenic micro-organisms. Brewery, dairy and distillery organic load, dyeing,
leather tanning, textile color, organic load, heavy metals etc can also affect water quality.

Common water borne diseases

Typhoid - salmonella typhi

Cholera - vibrio cholerae

Dysentery - shigella

Diarrhoea - cryptosporidium

Giardiasis - giardia lamblia

Diarrhoea - e coli

Gastroenteritis - viruses

Polio - polioviruses

Safe Water
Safe water is suitable for household activities along with personal cleanliness. Packaged water
should be used for drinking.

Which water is unfit for drinking?

Untreated water is not safe for drinking. If water samples collected from hand pumps, ring
wells and tapes are found highly coloured with objectionable taste, highly turbid, high iron
content, normally these are not fit for drinking. If the ranges of the water quality parameters
are above the permissible level, then also it is not fit for drinking.

What we can do ?
The following suggestions can be made to improve the quality of drinking water at the
community as well as at the individual level:

Common filtration process using sand, stone and charcoal should be carried
out as the first treatment.
 High turbidity and iron can be removed by alum treatment and improved
filtration technique at least in rainy season.

Hardness can be softened by boiling. This process also kills bacteria.

Disinfection with chlorine should be done to minimize bacteriological

contamination.

Defluoridation technique using low cost bio absorbent can be encouraged.

Boiling of drinking water is highly essential.

Protective measures
To keep drinking water sources clean and safe the following measures should be adopted:

Location: Water sources should be on a higher location at least 10m to 15 m

away from polluting sources like latrine, soak pit, garbage etc.

Plateform: A cement concrete plateform around the tube wells and ring wells
extending 1m in all directions having gentle slope outwards towards a drain
should be built. These plateforms should be free from cracks and damages.

Drain: Water sources should have sound drainage systems to check stagnancy.
Waste water should not be allowed to accumulate in these areas.

Covering: The mouth of a ring well should always be covered at all times to
prevent foreign materials from entering it.

Lining: The lining of a ring well should be built of stones set in cement upto a
depth of at least 6m so that water enters from the bottom and not from the

🌱 Soil Pollution
sides.

Definition
Soil is the upper most part of the earth crust and is a mixture of organic as well as weathered
rock and materials necessary for the plant growth. Soil system is indeed very complex and
dynamic. It is formed as a result of long term process of complex interactions, disintegration
and decomposition of rocks due to weathering leading to the production of mineral matrix in
close association with interstitial organic matter.
Sources
Industrial wastes

Urban wastes

Agricultural practices/wastes

Municipal wastes

Radioactive pollutants

Biological agents

Effects
Industrial wastes consist of a variety of chemicals which are extremely toxic.
Chemicals like acids, alkalis, pesticides(weedicides, fungicides, insecticides,
rodenticides ), heavy metals etc affect soil fertility and ultimately affect human
health.

Some of the persistent toxic organic chemicals inhibit the non-target

organisms, soil flora and fauna and reduce soil productivity. These chemicals
accumulate in food chain and ultimately affect man and other animals.

Sewage sludge has many types of pathogenic micro-organisms which may

cause various diseases. Varieties of soil transmitting diseases like giardiasis,
tetanus etc are caused by soil pollution.

Nitrogen and phosphorus from the fertilizers in soil reach nearby waterbodies
with agricultural run off and cause eutrophication.

The problem of radioactive wastes dumped into the soil is more complicated.
This is so because every radioactive element like radium, uranium, thorium,
plutonium etc can remain active in soil for thousands of years. Since radioactive
wastes are produced in huge quantities and have higher activation energy, they
create an extremely difficult public health problem.

Control
Industrial effluents should be properly treated before discharging them on the
soil.
 Solid wastes should be properly segregated as biodegradable and non
biodegradable wastes at source and then disposed off by adopting effective
scientific methods.

Use of bio-fertilizers should be encouraged instead of chemical fertilizers.

Application of pesticides should be controlled.

Bioremediation can be adopted for degradation of toxic chemicals present in

soil.

Necessary enactment of laws should be made for panel action against those
who are involved in polluting soil.

📢 Noise Pollution
Awareness should be created among the people.

Definition
Any unwanted electromagnetic signal that produces a displeasing effect and which interferes
with human communication, comfort and health is termed as noise pollution. Noise pollution is
the unwanted sound dumped into the environment without regard to the adverse effect it
may have.

Sources
Natural: The natural source of noise pollution is thunder.

Man-made: Noise pollution is mainly caused by the different activities of man.

The automobiles such as trucks, buses, scooters, fire extinguisher vehicles,
police vans, ambulances etc, the trains, the aeroplanes, industries, factories,
loudspeakers, musical instruments, sirens, blast of explosions etc produce
unwanted sounds. During dewali, people of all ages enjoy with firecrackers. The
noise produced by the crackers exceeds the permissible level. During the other
festivals people use different forms of noise producers.

Effect
The effects of noise pollution may be auditory effects or non-auditory effects.
 Auditory effects: The most acute and immediate effect of noise pollution is the
impairing of hearing which may cause auditory fatigue and finally lead to
deafness.

Non-auditory effects: The non-auditory effects are also equally serious. It

includes interference with speech communication, annoyance leading to ill
temper, mental anxieties, mental stress, bickering and violent behaviour. Noise
pollution affects human health, disrupts comforts and working efficiency.

🗑️ Pollution from Solid Wastes

Excessive noise pollution causes psychological disorder.

Definition
Solid wastes are all the wastes produced by household, commercial, institutional, agricultural,
mining and industrial activities and are discarded as useless or unwanted. A commercially
viable technology suited to deal with they content of the waste material can put this double-
edged weapon in the service of human race and natural habitat.

Environmental effects of solid wastes

Solid waste has the potential to degrade the air, water and the soil. There are potential risk to
health and to the environment from improper handling of solid wastes. Direct risks concern
mainly the workers in the field, who need to be protected , as far as possible, from the skin
contact with the waste. There are also specific risk in handling wastes from hospitals and
clinics.

The present practice of solid waste disposal in different

cities and towns is highly unscientific and poses a lot of
environmental problems such as:
open dumps are malodorous places in which disease carrying vermins such as
rats and flies proliferate

methane gas is released into the surrounding air due to decomposition of solid
wastes by the micro-organisms.

liquid that oozes and seeps through solid waste heap ultimately find its way
into the soil, surface water and ground water.
 hazardous materials dissolved in this liquid contaminate underground water
and soil strata

the solid waste is highly heterogeneous and is not being segregated at any
stage. It includes wastes from industries, hospitals and nursing homes,
domestic waste etc.

the leachate consisting of a variety of chemical constituents seeps and pollute

the ground water.

absence of landfill liners aggravate the problem furthermore.

health hazards faced by the residents living in the nearby areas of dumping
sites can not be ignored.

the present practice of collecting solid waste from the individual houses results
in wastage of time and thereby increases the cost of collection.

transportation of collected solid wastes openly by the tractors or trucks is

🤝 Social Issues and Environment

unhygienic and the aesthetic look of the city is also affected.

Concept of Sustainable Development

The bourgeoning population, rapid urbanization and accelerated rates of industrialization in
recent times have brought about tremendous pressure on land, water and other natural
resources leading to deterioration of environmental quality, loss of life forms and depletion of
vast natural resources.

“Sustainable development is development that meets the need of the present without
compromising the ability of the future generations to meet their own needs.”

Energy Utilization and Conservation

The capacity to do work is called energy. Energy can not be destroyed, it can be transformed
from one form to other. Energy consumption of a country is usually considered as an index of
its development. Economic development depends on per capita use of energy in a country.

Sources of energy:
 Renewable energy resources: These energy resources are generated
continuously in nature and are in-exhaustible. For example solar energy, wind
energy, hydropower energy, geothermal energy, ocean thermal energy, tidal
energy, wood, biomass energy, bio-fuels, hydrogen etc. They can be used again
and again. They are the non-conventional or alternative sources of energy.

Non-renewable energy resources: These energy sources, accumulated in

nature, have been in uses since a long time and are exhaustible. Once these
sources are finished, they can not be replenished quickly. For example fossil
fuels ( coal, petroleum, natural gas ), nuclear fuels like uranium, thorium etc.

💡
These are used conventionally to meet the energy demands of human society.

Energy Conservation
The formulation of an energy policy framework is essential for regulating the rate of growth
and pattern of energy consumption. Energy conservation strategies should be adopted to
reduce energy consumption.

“Energy conservation refers to efforts made to reduce energy consumption through

increased efficient energy use, decreased energy consumption, and/or reduced
consumption from conventional energy sources.”

Benefits of Energy Conservation 💰

Energy conservation can lead to:

Increased financial capital

Improved environmental quality

Enhanced national security

Enhanced personal security

Improved human comfort

How to Conserve Energy ♻️

Shift to Renewable Energy: Transition from fossil fuels and non-renewable
resources (petroleum, coal, natural gas, uranium) to renewable energy
 resources (solar energy, wind energy, biogas).

Technological Innovation: Promote efficient energy-saving technologies.

Prohibit Unnecessary Use: Avoid unnecessary electricity use (e.g., switch off
street lights early).

Curtail Consumption: Domestic consumers can reduce energy consumption

on many household goods.

Judicious Use: Industries should develop mechanisms for judicious use of raw

🌧️
materials for their energy needs.

Rainwater Harvesting
“Rainwater harvesting is a technique of collecting rainwater from paved or corrugated
roofs and paved courtyards. It also involves increasing groundwater recharge by
capturing and storing rainwater through structures like dug wells, percolation pits,
lagoons, and check dams.”

Rainwater harvesting is increasingly used to meet domestic water needs, especially during dry
periods.

Objectives of Rainwater Harvesting 🎯

Reduce runoff loss

Meet increasing water demands

Reduce pressure on groundwater resources

Raise the groundwater table through recharging

Necessity of Rainwater Harvesting 💧

Rainwater harvesting is crucial in areas:

Experiencing significant rainfall but lacking conventional centralized water

supply.

Where good quality water is scarce.

Example: The northeastern region of India receives ample rainfall during the monsoon but
little to none in winter, making rainwater harvesting vital.

Advantages of Rainwater Harvesting ✅

Provides water at the point of need

Involves little cost and can be easily accommodated by households

Rainwater is free from contamination (fluoride, arsenic, iron, etc.)

Reduces pressure on groundwater, addressing depletion issues

Provides an essential reserve during emergencies or public water supply

breakdowns

⚕️
Simple technologies allow easy training for building storage tanks

Environment and Health

“According to the World Health Organization (WHO), health is a state of complete
physical, mental, and social well-being, not merely the absence of disease or infirmity.”

Human health is affected by the environment, including nutritional, chemical, physical,

biological, and psychological factors, as well as living conditions. Access to safe drinking water
is essential for health.

Water-Related Diseases in India ⚠️

Over 80% of diseases in India are water-related, including:

Typhoid

Cholera

Hepatitis

Polio

Gastro-enteritis

Amoebiasis

Giardiasis
Impact: Over 400,000 children die annually in India due to waterborne diseases.

Environmental Hazards ☢️
Microbial Contamination: The most common and widespread health risk
associated with drinking water.

Toxic Chemicals: Pesticides and heavy metals (mercury, cadmium, lead)

released into water bodies and soil enter the food chain, causing adverse
health impacts.

Air Pollution: Industries and transportation systems release gases (sulfur

dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrous oxide, hydrocarbons, suspended particulate
matter) that cause various health effects.

Solid Waste: Has the potential to degrade air, water, and soil, posing risks to
health and the environment.

Poor Housing: Improper housing with poor hygienic conditions, especially

among slum dwellers, leads to serious health effects.

Factors Contributing to Poor Health 😥

Illiteracy and lack of awareness

Poverty and large family size

Poor drainage and sanitation

🌡️
Absence of proper medical facilities

Greenhouse Effect
Earth is the only planet in our solar system that supports life, thanks to its unique
environmental conditions.

“The greenhouse effect is a process where certain gases in the atmosphere absorb and
re-emit heat, warming the Earth's surface.”

About 30% of incoming solar energy is reflected back to space, while the rest (70%) warms the
Earth, maintaining an average surface temperature of about 15°C. During the day, the Earth
absorbs solar energy (primarily visible light) and releases it as infrared radiation (long
wavelength, less energetic).

Greenhouse Gases (GHGs): Gases in the atmosphere absorb some of the outgoing infrared
radiation and re-emit it back to the Earth's surface.

Major GHGs
Carbon dioxide

Methane

Nitrous oxide

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)

Water vapor

🔥
Ozone

Global Warming
“Global warming is the rise in temperature due to the increased level of greenhouse
gases, which trap heat within the Earth's atmosphere.”

Due to natural and anthropogenic activities, the concentration of greenhouse gases has
increased significantly over the past several decades.

Historical Increase: Since the industrial revolution, man-made activities have added
substantial quantities of greenhouse gases to the atmosphere.

Carbon dioxide: Increased by about 31% between 1750 and 2000

Methane: Increased by about 171% between 1750 and 2000

Nitrous oxide: Increased by about 17% between 1750 and 2000

Scientists estimate that the Earth's average temperature has increased by 0.3-0.6°C since the

🌍
beginning of the last century.

Climate Change
 “Climate is the average pattern of weather in an area over a long period (at least 30-40
years).

Weather refers to the day-to-day atmospheric conditions such as temperature, rainfall,

humidity, wind, intensity of light and cloud cover.

Climate change is defined as statistically significant variations in the mean state of

climate or in its variability over an extended period.”

Climate change manifests as unexpected changes in climate, such as rising temperatures,

🛡️
altered rainfall patterns, increased droughts, and extreme cold.

Depletion of the Ozone Layer

“Ozone is a pale blue gas present in the stratosphere, which extends up to 50 km above
the Earth's surface. It absorbs a large portion of the sun's ultraviolet (UV) radiation,
protecting life on Earth.”

The destruction of ozone in the atmosphere has become a global issue. In the early 1980s,
scientists discovered a large hole in the ozone layer over Antarctica, where ozone levels
dropped by 30%. A similar hole was later found over the northern hemisphere.

Causes of Ozone Layer Depletion 🧪

The main cause of ozone layer depletion is the stratospheric concentration of man-made
pollutants, primarily chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).

CFCs: Invented in the 1930s and widely used in aerosol propellants,

refrigerants, cleaning solvents, and plastic foams. Due to their chemical
inertness, they remain in the atmosphere for over 50 years.

Mechanism of Depletion
1. CFCs are slowly released into the atmosphere.

2. After about 30 years, they percolate into the stratosphere.

3. CFCs produce free chlorine atoms.

4. Chlorine atoms catalyze the destruction of ozone.

 🚧
5. Each CFC molecule can destroy about 100,000 molecules of ozone.
Protective Measures
Find Alternatives: Persistent efforts should be made to find better alternatives
to CFCs.

Hydro-chloro-fluoro Carbons (HCFCs): These have only 1/10th the ozone-

depleting power compared to CFCs.

Helium: Can be used as a coolant in refrigerators.

Montreal Protocol: An international agreement made in 1987, calling for a

freeze on the use of CFCs and a reduction of up to 50% by the end of 2000.

International Cooperation 🤝
International Day for the Protection of Ozone Layer: Observed on September
16 since 1987 to create awareness about the dangerous effects of ozone layer
depletion.

Montreal Protocol: Signed on September 16, 1987, by more than 100 countries,

🌧️
pledging to protect the ozone layer.

Acid Rain
“Acid rain is a form of wet and dry acidic deposition resulting from the release of sulfur
and nitrogen oxides into the atmosphere, which then mix with water vapor to form
sulfuric and nitric acids.”

Major Sources: Oxides of sulfur and nitrogen originate from industrial operations and fossil
fuel burning.

Process:

1. Sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides are transported by winds.

2. They come into contact with water vapor and form sulfuric acid and nitric acid.

3. These acids come down to the Earth's surface as acid rain, snow, fog, and
acidic particles.## 🛡️ Disaster Management Agencies in Assam
Assam State Disaster Management Authority (ASDMA)
 Established under the National Disaster Management Act, 2005.

Guidelines framed in 2010.

Nodal agency in the state of Assam.

Primary duty: Creating awareness among the public and streamlining

precautionary measures during disasters.

Headquarters: Assam Civil Secretariat (Capital Complex), Dispur.

Headed by an IAS officer as the Chief Executive Officer.

A Joint Secretary rank officer serves as the Project Officer.

Other disaster management agencies exist at the district, block, and

panchayat levels.

Main functions:

1. Planning

2. Preparedness

3. Operation

4. Coordination

5. Community participation

Assam State Disaster Response Force (SDRF)

Created in 2010 to deal with disasters.

Recruitment ongoing since its creation.

Constituted on the lines of the National Disaster Response Force (NDRF).

Headquarters: Sila, North Guwahati.

Functions under the supervision of the Director, State Fire and Emergency
Services, Assam.
 Works in collaboration with the Fire Services for search and rescue operations
during disasters.

🚦 Road Safety
Also involved in incidents like drowning or fire accidents.

What is Road Safety?

“Road safety refers to the precautionary measures taken by vehicle drivers, cyclists,
pedestrians, and passengers to prevent injuries and accidents, ensuring overall safety on
the road.”

Causes of Road Accidents

Studies indicate numerous reasons for road accidents. These reasons are summarized below:

1. Human Factors (85% of accidents)

Drunk driving

Drowsiness and fatigue

Lack of awareness of road signs

Violation of traffic rules

Distracted driving

Pedestrian errors

2. Infrastructure

Poor road engineering

Dilapidated road conditions

3. Mechanical Factors

Ill-maintained vehicles

Abrupt mechanical failures

 4. Environmental Factors

Unfavorable terrain

Unforeseen natural calamities

Bad weather conditions

4 'E's of Road Safety
1. Engineering: Designing roads systematically and vehicles with advanced
technologies.

2. Enforcement: Strict enforcement of road safety rules and regulations.

3. Education: Imparting education on road rules to all road users.

4. Emergency Services: Well-regulated emergency medical services to reduce

fatalities.

Issues of Road Safety

The Decade of Action on Road Safety (2011-2020): Launched to create
awareness and curb loss of lives due to road mishaps.

Initiated by the United Nations General Assembly in March 2010.

Strategies include enhancing emergency services, building road safety

management, improving legislation, and enforcing rules on helmets,
seatbelts, child restraints, and avoiding drinking, speeding, etc.

India's Initiatives:

Road Safety Week: Organized every January since 1989 to promote

awareness.

National Road Safety Policy: Approved in 2005 based on the Sundar

Committee recommendations, emphasizing public awareness.

Statistical Data Related to Road Accidents

Source Statistic

World Health Organisation 1.25 million deaths and 5 million injuries annually worldwide.
Source Statistic

India 10% of world's accidents with only 1% of the total vehicles.

India Accident rate is three times higher than developed countries.

National Crime Record Bureau (2014) 141,526 deaths and 477,731 serious injuries in 450,898 accidents.

India (2014) Average of 16 deaths in 51 road crashes per hour.

India (2014) One death every 4 minutes.

India (2014) 26.4% of fatalities are bikers.

India (2014) 27.5% of accidents occur on National Highways.

India (2014) 25.3% of accidents occur on State Highways.

India (2014) 36.8% of accidents occur due to over speeding.

India (2014) 3.2% of accidents occur due to bad weather.

India (2014) 54.7% of accidents occur in rural areas.

India (2014) 45.3% of accidents occur in urban areas.

Assam (2014) 2,522 deaths and 6,500 injuries in 7,144 accidents.

Rules of the Road

General Rules

1. Keep to the left-hand side of the road.

2. Use the center of the road when intending to turn right.

3. Overtake from the right.

4. Do not overtake under certain conditions:

When it creates difficulties for vehicles from the opposite side.

At road intersections or hillsides where visibility is unclear.

When another vehicle is trying to overtake you.

 Without proper signals.

5. Yielding rules:

Do not accelerate when being overtaken.

Give priority to vehicles on the main road when entering from a bye-lane.

Give way to fire brigade vehicles or ambulances.

6. Signaling:

Slow down: Extend right arm with downward palm several times.

Stop: Raise right forearm vertically with palm to the right.

Turn right/Overtake: Extend right arm horizontally with palm to the front.

Turn left: Extend right arm and rotate counter-clockwise.

7. Parking:

Do not park at intersections, bends, hills, bridges, footpaths, near traffic

lights, on main roads, opposite parked vehicles, alongside another parked
vehicle, on continuous white lines, near bus stops, school/hospital
entrances, or blocking traffic signs.

8. One-way streets: Do not drive on a declared 'one-way' except in the specified

direction.

9. Horns: Do not blow horns continuously, needlessly, or in silent zones; multi-

toned horns are prohibited.

10. Distance: Maintain adequate distance from other vehicles to avoid collisions.

11. Hill roads: Give precedence to vehicles moving uphill.

12. Explosives: Do not carry explosives or flammable articles, except for vehicle
fuel or lubricants.
13. Obey authorities: Obey uniformed personnel.

14. Lane driving:

Drive within lanes and signal before changing lanes.

Do not overtake touching a yellow line.

Stop before any line at a junction.

15. Intersections: Slow down when approaching and ensure it is safe before
entering.

16. Vehicle condition:

Keep registration number and marks clear.

Do not block number plates or headlights with goods or loads.

Carry driving license, registration certificate, insurance certificate,

pollution control certificate, and permits/fitness certificates for transport
vehicles.

17. Drinking and driving: Do not mix drink and drive.

18. Phone calls: Move to the roadside while attending calls.

19. Night driving: Use the lowest headlight setting when crossing at night.

20. Road work: Do not drive over 25 kmph when passing a procession or road
repair work.

21. Respect: Respect pedestrians, the blind, elders, and differently-abled

individuals.

22. U-turns: Only after signaling and checking the rearview mirror.

23. Interference: Do not allow anything that may interrupt driving.

24. Obey:

Every direction or signal given by any authorized police personnel,

Any direction given by means of traffic sign, signal and indication

applicable,

Any direction given by automatic signaling devices.

Rules for Pedestrians
1. Use zebra crossings to cross the road.

2. Look left, right, and left again before crossing.

3. Use footpaths.

4. Walk on the extreme left side of the road.

5. Use a torch at night.

6. Do not let children move on roads without guidance.

7. Avoid walking in groups.

Rules for Bus Travel

1. Enter one after another.

2. Hold on to a secure place.

3. Hold tightly to avoid injury from sudden braking.

4. Look front and rear before exiting.

5. Have exact fare ready.

6. Secure luggage properly.

7. Report excessive speed by the driver.

8. Report complaints to authorities.

9. Embark slowly and steadily.

10. No foot-board travel is allowed.

11. No hazardous articles are allowed.

12. Do not cause inconvenience to others.
Rules Applicable for School Buses
Driver Experience: 5 years of heavy vehicle driving experience.

Disqualifications: Jumping red lights, parking violations, unlawful overtaking,

and violating stop lines twice a year.

Drugs/Over-speeding: Over-speeding or driving under the influence of drugs

disqualifies a driver.

Uniform: Drivers must wear a uniform.

Color: Yellow with school name and contact details.

Markings: "On school duty" to be inscribed on the front.

Speed Governor: Speed restricted to 40 kmph.

Automatic Doors: Facility to automatically close doors.

Capacity: 1.5 times the seating capacity for adults as per the Supreme Court of
India.

🪖 Safety Equipment and Regulations

Helmet
Mandatory for both biker and rider under Section 129 of the Motor Vehicles
Act, 1988.

Must be certified by the Bureau of Indian Standards.

Reduces fatalities by up to 40% and severe head injuries by up to 70%.

Non-compliance is punishable.

Drunken Driving
Reduces driver response time, causing accidents.

Enforcement agencies conduct regular checks.

Punishment: Minimum fine of ₹2000 or imprisonment or both under Section

185 of the Motor Vehicles Act, 1988 for blood alcohol level of 30 mg or more per
 100 ml of blood.
Use of Mobile Phone During Driving
Prohibited; punishable with suspension or cancellation of driving license.

Vehicular Emission Pollution

Vehicles older than one year must have a "Pollution under control certificate".

Compulsory emission test every 6 months.

Violation punishable under Section 190 of the Motor Vehicles Act, 1988.

Seat Belt
Primary Restraint System, preventing ejection during collisions.

Keeps passenger and driver in the correct position for airbag effectiveness.

Mandatory; non-fastening is punishable under Section 177 of the Motor

Vehicles Act, 1988.

📜 Driving License
Issued by the District Transport Officer of the Transport Department in
Assam.

Classes of Vehicles:

Motor cycle without gear

Motor cycle with gear

Invalid carriage

Light motor vehicle

Transport vehicle

Road-roller

Motor vehicle of a specified description

Steps to Obtain:
 1. Learner's License

2. Main Driving License

Age Eligibility:

Must be 18 years old for a Learner's License.

16 years old to apply for a two-wheeler without gear with parental consent.

Learner's License: Granted after passing a preliminary test on traffic signals,

road signs, and road regulations. Display the letter 'L' in red on a white
background.

Driving License: Apply after 30 days from the Learner's License issuance.
Granted after successfully completing the driving test.
International Driving Permit

Valid for 1 year.

Apply to the local District Transport Officer with:

1. Copy of Indian Driving License

2. Copy of Passport and Visa

3. 3 recent passport photos

4. Medical certificate

5. Necessary fees

🚨 If an Accident Occurs
The driver must stop the vehicle.

Provide medical treatment to the injured, unless refused.

Inform the nearest police station within 24 hours and the insurer in writing.

Major Motor Vehicle Laws

1. Motor Vehicles Act, 1988
 2. Central Motor Vehicles Rules, 1989

3. Assam Motor Vehicles Rules, 2003

4. Assam Motor Vehicles Taxation Act, 1936

5. Assam Motor Vehicles Taxation Rules, 1936

Documents to be Carried
Non-Transport (Personal) Vehicles
1. Registration Certificate

2. Insurance Certificate

3. Pollution under control certificate (if vehicle is older than 1 year)

4. Driving license for the class of vehicle

Transport (Commercial) Vehicles

1. Fitness Certificate

2. Up-to-date Road tax receipt

3. Permit

4. Conductor's license (for buses)

5. Any other documents required by permit conditions

🚦 Traffic Lights
Light Meaning

Red Stop

Flashing Red Stop before the line, proceed when clear

Amber (Yellow-Brown) Be Alert/ Ready

Flashing Amber Proceed with caution

🛣️ Road Signs
Classification
 1. Mandatory Road Signs: Generally circular with a red border or blue. Violation is
an offense.

2. Cautionary Road Signs: Triangular with a red border.

3. Informatory Road Signs: Give information about facilities; normally blue.

Road signs were standardized by the United Nations Economic Commission of Europe
(UNECE) through the Convention on Road Signs and Signals.

Mandatory Road Signs

Sign Description

Stop Stop

Give Way Give way

No Entry No entry

One Way One way

All Vehicles Prohibited All vehicles prohibited

Truck Prohibited Truck prohibited

Bullock Cart Prohibited Bullock cart prohibited

Tonga Prohibited Tonga prohibited

Hand Cart Prohibited Hand cart prohibited

Cycle Prohibited Cycle prohibited

Pedestrians Prohibited Pedestrians prohibited

Right Turn Prohibited Right turn prohibited

Left Turn Prohibited Left turn prohibited

U-Turn Prohibited U-turn prohibited

Overtaking Prohibited Overtaking prohibited

Horns Prohibited Horns prohibited

Width Limit Width limit

Sign Description

Height Limit Height limit

Length Limit Length limit

Load Limit Load limit

Axle Load Limit Axle load limit

Speed Limit Speed limit

No Parking No parking

No Stopping or Standing No stopping or standing

Compulsory Turn Left Compulsory turn left

Compulsory Ahead Only Compulsory ahead only

Compulsory Turn Right Compulsory turn right

Cycle Track Cycle track

Keep Left Keep left

Sound Horn Sound horn

Minimum Speed End Minimum speed end

Restriction End Restriction end

Cautionary Road Signs

Sign Description

Right Hand Curve Right hand curve

Left Hand Curve Left hand curve

Right Hairpin Bend Right hairpin bend

Left Hairpin Bend Left hairpin bend

Right Reserve Bend Right reserve bend

Left Reserve Bend Left reserve bend

Sign Description

Steep Ascend Steep ascend

Steep Descend Steep descend

Narrow Road Narrow road

Wide Road Wide road

Narrow Bridge Narrow bridge

Slippery Road Slippery road

Loose Gravel Loose gravel

Cycle Crossing Cycle crossing

Pedestrian Crossing Pedestrian crossing

School Ahead School ahead

Traffic Signal Ahead Traffic signal ahead

Cattle Ahead Cattle ahead

Ferry Ghat Ahead Ferry ghat ahead

Falling Rocks Falling rocks

Dangerous Dip Dangerous dip

Hump or Barrier Hump or barrier

Men at Work Men at work

Gap in Median Gap in median

Rough Road Ahead Rough road ahead

Cross Road Cross road

Left Side Road Left side road

Right Side Road Right side road

Y-Intersection Y-intersection

Main Road Main road

Sign Description

Staggered Intersection Staggered intersection

Round About Round about

Guarded Rly Crossing Guarded rly crossing

Un-guarded Rly Crossing Un-guarded rly crossing

Quayside or River Bank Quayside or river bank

Informatory Road Signs

Sign Description

First Aid Post First aid post

Light Refreshment Light refreshment

Eating Place Eating place

Resting Place Resting place

No Thorough Side Road No thorough side road

Park Park

Parking Parking

Parking Lots Parking lots

Cycle Parking Lot Cycle parking lot

Public Telephone Public telephone

Petrol Pump Petrol pump

Hospital Hospital

Direction Sign Direction sign

Destination Sign Destination sign

🚧 Road Markings
Roundabout or Rotary
 Intersection with a central traffic island.

Slow down and use indicators.

Use the appropriate lane.

Give way to traffic on the right.

Zebra Crossing
Drawn across the road for pedestrian crossing.

White Broken Line

Indicates that motorists must give preference to oncoming traffic.

White or Stop Line

Stop before the line when signalled.

Lane Separator
Separate lanes on a road in the same direction.

Signal before changing lanes.