Slender columns

LECTURER: Ayan

April 2025
Elastic design, defections, cracks
and moment of curvature

In structural design, we focus on two types of Limit States to ensure safety

and usability:

a) Ultimate Limit States (ULS)

This is when the structure reaches a point where it can no longer carry the
load, leading to failure or collapse.

This is related to safety.

Example: A beam breaking under too much weight.

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Elastic design, defections, cracks
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b) Serviceability Limit States (SLS)

These are conditions where the structure doesn't collapse, but its use is
negatively affected.

This is related to comfort and functionality.

Example: Excessive deflection, cracking, or vibrations that make the
structure uncomfortable or unusable.

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Elastic design, defections, cracks
and moment of curvature

In the past, deflection and cracking were not major concerns in reinforced
concrete (RC) structures.

But when Strength Design was introduced:

•The stress levels in steel reinforcement increased by about 50%.

•As a result, serviceability issues like cracks and deflection became more
noticeable.

Why? Because both crack width and deflection are closely linked to the stress
in the steel.
So, when steel stress goes up → cracks and deflection become more critical in
design.

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Under service load conditions, the stress distribution in the compression zone of
a cracked concrete beam remains approximately linear, and the steel
reinforcement continues to behave elastically (i.e., within the linear range of its
stress-strain curve).

When designing a beam under service loads (regular use, not ultimate loads), we
assume it behaves elastically (i.e., returns to its original shape when the load is
removed).

This elastic analysis helps us to:

📉 Calculate beam stiffness (EI), which is needed to find

deflections.

📏 Determine steel stress, which is then used to estimate crack

widths.

🛠 Apply these in prestressed concrete design as well.

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Elastic design, defections, cracks
and moment of curvature

Assumptions in Elastic Analysis of Beams

To apply elastic analysis in beam sections under service loads, we make the following
key assumptions:

1.Plane sections remain plane after bending

→ This means strain distribution is linear (Bernoulli’s principle).
2.Concrete's tensile strength is ignored

3.Stress-strain relationships are linear

→ Both steel and concrete are assumed to behave elastically under service loads.
4.Only service loads (dead + live) are considered
→ No ultimate or accidental loads are used in this stage.
5.Perfect bond between steel and concrete
→ At any point, both materials deform equally – no slipping between them.

6. Only the initial (elastic) parts of stress-strain curves are considered

→ We do not model full material behavior, just the linear elastic region up to allowable
stress.
7. Design is based on allowable stresses, not ultimate capacities
→ We stay within the safe zone to check for deflections and cracking.
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Elastic design, defections, cracks
and moment of curvature

Modulus of Elasticity for Concrete and Modular Ratio

To perform elastic analysis, we need to know the stiffness of the materials:

•🧱 Modulus of Elasticity for Concrete (Ec):
TS 500 provides a formula:

where fck is the characteristic compressive strength of concrete.

•🔩 Modulus of Elasticity for Steel (Es):
Typically taken as 200,000 MPa (200 GPa).

•📊 Modular Ratio (n):

The ratio of steel to concrete stiffness:
n=Es/Ec
→ This tells us how many times stiffer steel is compared to concrete, and it’s
used to create a transformed section for analysis.

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Modulus of Elasticity for Concrete and Modular Ratio

•📊 Modular Ratio (n):

The ratio of steel to concrete stiffness:
n=Es/Ec
→ This tells us how many times stiffer steel is compared to concrete, and it’s
used to create a transformed section for analysis.

We use the transformed section to:

1.✅ Apply elastic beam theory consistently
→ It allows us to calculate stresses and strains using a single material model.
2.📐 Determine the neutral axis and moment of inertia of the beam
→ Needed to compute deflections, internal stresses, and crack widths.
3.🔧 Simplify design and analysis under service loads

→ Especially helpful in serviceability checks like deflection and crack control.

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 Elastic design, defections, cracks
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when the steel is located in the compression zone or in an uncracked section, it

already occupies space where concrete would resist compression.
Therefore, in this case, the additional stiffness contributed by the steel is
represented by an equivalent concrete area of (n − 1) × As.

Uncracked transformed section - Centroid and moment of

inertia

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Uncracked transformed section - Centroid and moment of

inertia

Location is determined

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Uncracked transformed section - Centroid and moment of

inertia

Since, the moments of inertia of the steel areas about their own centroidal axes are
small, they are neglected.

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CRACKED transformed section - Centroid and

moment of inertia

Let us assume that, the depth of neutral axis is c.

Moment of areas about neutral axis should be ZERO.

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CRACKED transformed section - Centroid and

moment of inertia

Then Icr can be determined by considering compression zone, top and bottom steel
(and the location of neutral axis).
It may be seen that, Icr is much smaller than Igross or
Iuncracked, transformed.
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 Elastic design, defections, cracks
and moment of curvature

Service Load Stresses in a Cracked Reinforced Concrete

Beam

At service load levels, a reinforced concrete beam that has cracked will experience internal
forces redistributed between the concrete (in compression) and the steel reinforcement (in
tension). To analyze the internal stresses under these conditions, the following relationships
apply:
•The compressive force in the concrete, Fc, is given by:

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 Elastic design, defections, cracks
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Service Load Stresses in a Cracked Reinforced Concrete

Beam

The lever arm, z, is approximately:

z=j⋅d=d−c/3 where:
•d is the effective depth of the section,
•j is a coefficient accounting for the shape of the stress block.
It helps evaluate whether the beam will satisfy serviceability requirements (i.e., no excessive
cracking or deformation) under expected loads.
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Elastic design, defections, cracks
and moment of curvature

Cracking due to Direct Tension

•When a structural member is subjected to direct tensile forces, cracks develop
perpendicular to the direction of tension.
•Observation: The width of crack B is greater than crack A, indicating uneven
crack development depending on stress distribution or restraint conditions.

In flexural members (like beams), cracks form due to bending tension, typically
originating from the tension zone (bottom of simply supported beams).
These cracks are vertical and propagate upward.

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Cracking due to Shear

•Shear cracks usually appear at an angle (~45°) near the supports in beams.
•These cracks originate in the web of the beam and are typically diagonal, reflecting the
nature of shear stress paths.

Cracking due to Torsion and Combined Shear

•Pure torsion (twisting moment) results in spiral-shaped cracks that wrap around the
member.
•When torsion is combined with shear, the crack pattern becomes complex, often a
mix of spiral and diagonal.

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Cracking due to Bond Failure

•Bond cracks occur along the interface between steel reinforcement and concrete.
•These cracks typically form parallel to the reinforcement bars, caused by poor
bonding or excessive bar stresses.

Cracks in reinforced concrete can also be caused by non-structural effects, such as:

•Differential settlement of foundations or supports.

•Shrinkage due to loss of moisture in concrete.

•Temperature changes, leading to expansion and contraction.

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Elastic design, defections, cracks
and moment of curvature

Why Control Crack Widths?

The control of crack widths in concrete structures is crucial for the following
reasons:
•A. Appearance: Visible cracks can cause public concern and aesthetic issues.

•B. Leakage: In water-retaining structures, cracks can lead to fluid leakage.

•C. Corrosion: Cracks expose steel reinforcement to air and moisture, increasing
the risk of corrosion.
Crack Width Control – Aesthetic Concerns
•Cracks wider than 0.25 mm may be visibly disturbing and trigger complaints or
alarm, especially in architectural concrete or exposed surfaces.

Crack Width Control – Leakage Risk

•For liquid-retaining structures (e.g., tanks, reservoirs), the leakage potential is directly
related to the crack width.
•Designers must limit crack widths to prevent loss of containment.

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Crack width plays a role in the durability of RC structures.

Factors affecting corrosion risk include:

1.Width of cracks,
2.Thickness of concrete cover,
3.Permeability of concrete,
4.Environmental exposure.

Corrosion risk increases when the following conditions are present:

1.Presence of chlorides or aggressive substances,
2.Relative humidity exceeding 65%,
3.High temperatures, which accelerate chemical reactions,
4.Wetting and drying cycles, especially in environments like marine zones or
splash zones.

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According to TS 500, crack width checks may not be required if

all of the following conditions are met:

•Deformed bars are used (better bond),

•Minimum reinforcement is provided in the tension zone,

•No harmful environmental effects are present,

•Rebar spacing is less than 200 mm.

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Elastic design, defections, cracks
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Crack Width Calculation (TS 500 Formula)

The empirical formula for calculating the crack width w according to TS 500 is:

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Deflections
This slide introduces the concept of beam deflections under service
loads:
•Deflections occur due to flexural deformations and can be:
• Short-term (instantaneous): Elastic deformation upon
immediate application of loads,
• Long-term (sustained): Increase over time due to creep and
shrinkage.
🧱 In reinforced concrete:
•Cracks reduce stiffness, increasing deflection near supports,
•With time, creep effects cause further increase in deflection even under
constant load.

The deflection of a reinforced concrete beam is determined by integrating the

curvature along its length:

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Deflec,ons

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and moment of curvature

Deflections
To account for the transition between uncracked and fully cracked states, an effective
moment of inertia is calculated using the following expression:

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Deflec,ons
Surely for non-cracked members (Mmax < Mcr);

Ic can be used while determining deflections.

After Ief (for cracked members) or Ic

(for non-cracked members) is
determined; deflections can be
calculated by using principles structural
mechanics.

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and moment of curvature

Deflections

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Deflections
The increase in curvature is due to creep strains developing over time under sustained
loading.

The deflection continues to grow as concrete deforms slowly under long-term compression
(creep).
When a concrete beam is subjected to sustained loads, it undergoes creep, which leads
to an increase in deflection over time.

🔹 If compression steel reinforcement is present:

•As creep progresses, compressive stresses in concrete increase,
•This causes a load transfer from concrete to the compression steel,
•As a result, compressive stress in concrete reduces, which helps in limiting creep
strains.

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Deflections

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DEFLECTION LIMITS - TS 500

Visual appearance ; l / 250; damage to non-structural elements;

l/500~1000
- Disruption of function ; machinery, drainage problems,
- Damage to structural elements ; cracking, changes in load path
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Moment of curvature

The moment–curvature (M–κ) curve describes how a reinforced concrete beam deforms
under increasing bending moments.

As the applied load increases gradually, the corresponding moment and curvature are
recorded at each step.

This gives a graphical relationship where:

•The slope of the curve at any point indicates the flexural stiffness,
•As the moment increases, stiffness decreases due to cracking and material nonlinearity.

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Moment of curvature

Curvature Defined Through Strains

•Curvature κ is the rotation per unit length in a beam.
•It can be defined as:

Where:
•εc:strain in the extreme compression fiber,
•εs:strain in the extreme tension reinforcement,
•d: effective depth of section,
•c: distance from extreme compression fiber to the neutral axis.

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Moment of curvature

The curve is divided into three zones:

1.A: Cracking point (Mcr, κcr)
1. Initial stiffness based on
uncracked section.
2. First cracks appear in the tension
zone.
2.B: Yielding point (My, κy)
1. Steel reinforcement yields.
2. Significant increase in curvature
with small increase in moment
(plastic behavior starts).
3.C: Ultimate point (Mu, κu)
1. Ultimate moment capacity.
2. Failure is imminent (e.g., crushing
of concrete or rupture of steel).

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and moment of curvature

Moment of curvature

Ductility Ratio
To quantify how much deformation (curvature) a section can undergo after yielding,
the ductility ratio μ is used:

μ=κy/κu

Where:
•κu: curvature at ultimate load,
•κy: curvature at yielding.

📌 A higher ductility ratio means the beam can undergo larger deformations
beyond yielding before failure—an important property for seismic resistance.

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Any questions ?