3: Reproductive strategies in vertebrates

Introduction The amniotic egg consists of

External and internal fertilisation
Activity 2: Amniotic
Introduction
egg
External fertilisation
Reproduction ensures the continued existence of a species. Different species display
Internal fertilisation Precocial and Altricial
different reproductive strategies to make sure that their offspring survive.
development
Comparison of external Reproductive strategies differ in:
Major differences between the number of eggs produced by the female
vs internal fertilisation
precocial and altricial the site of fertilisation, inside or outside the body of the female
Ovipary, ovovivipary and vivipary development the place of development of the embryo and its nourishment
Parental care how quickly the young can fend for themselves
Comparison of ovipary,
the type of parental care given to offspring.
ovovivipary and vivipary
Activity 3:
Activity 1: Development and Key terminology
Fertilisation care reproductive structural, functional and behavioural adaptations that improve
strategy the chances of fertilisation and the survival of offspring
The amniotic egg
external fertilisation that , usually in
fertilisation water
internal
fertilisation has deposited its sperm
ovipary eggs are laid; the embryo
young develop from eggs fertilised internally and retained within
ovovivipary
the mother's body after fertilisation until they hatch
the young develop inside the uterus of mother after eggs are
vivipary
fertilised internally; young are nourished through the placenta
the embryo inside the egg is protected by a hard shell; the egg
amniotic egg consists of many extra-embryonic membranes that serve
different functions
extra-
membranes that surround the developing embryo inside the
embryonic
amniotic egg or uterus.
membranes
produces amniotic fluid which cushions embryo and protects it
amnion
from mechanical injury, temperature changes, dehydration
collects nitrogenous waste and assists in the
allantois
exchange of gases
allows for gaseous exchange in the amniotic egg and forms the
chorion
placenta in mammals

61 62
 yolk sac contains the food reserves for the developing embryo
Internal fertilisation
precocial when hatchlings are well developed as they hatch, able to move
development and feed themselves, with eyes open limited parental care . No water is required. See
when hatchlings are underdeveloped as they hatch, unable to Figures 2 and 3.
altricial
move or feed or fend for themselves young require more
development
parental care
includes the building of nests, protection, teaching of young and
parental care feeding the care, or lack thereof, directly influences the
survival of the young

External and internal fertilisation

Fertilisation occurs when a sperm cell and egg cell fuse to form a zygote.
Figure 2: Internal fertilisation in Figure 3: Internal fertilisation in
mammals via a penis birds
its water dependency.
Comparison of external and internal fertilisation
External fertilisation Table 1 compares external with internal fertilisation.

External f Water is required for

Table 1: Comparison external vs. internal fertilisation
fertilisation (Figure 1A and 1B).
External fertilisation Internal fertilisation
Requires water for fertilisation No water required for fertilisation
Gametes (sperm and egg cells) are Sperm cells are released into the
released into water
Many gametes released Fewer gametes released
Lower mortality rates among young
High mortality rates among young
protection provided by the
due to lack of protection. Eggs can
easily desiccate or be predated on
calcareous / leathery shell.
e.g. fish and amphibia e.g. reptiles; birds and mammals

Figure 1A: Salmon breeding Figure 1B: Fertilised salmon eggs

(spawning) in a lake
Ovipary, ovovivipary and vivipary
Ovipary, ovovivipary and vivipary are reproductive strategies that differ in respect to:
where the zygote is formed
where development occurs
how the embryo receives its nourishment
the type of egg or its presence or absence

63 64
Comparison of ovipary, ovovivipary and vivipary The amniotic egg
Table 2 compares the three reproductive strategies, namely, ovipary, ovovivipary The amniotic egg (Figure 4) is a major development in the evolution of animal life on
and vivipary. land from being water dependent for sexual reproduction, to being able to
reproduce without the availability of water.
Table 2: Three reproductive strategies
Ovipary Ovovivipary Vivipary shell
fertilisation external or internal internal internal amniotic cavity
development external to the body of inside the body of the inside the (filled with
of embryo the female female albumen amniotic fluid)

Yolk is the only form of Young receive

Yolk present in the
nutrition for the nutrition from the
egg. Young are yolk
nutrition developing embryo mot
independent of the amnion
and is usually present through the
in small quantities placenta
embryo
jelly-like or calcareous or
type of egg None
calcareous leathery allantois

yolk sac chorion

Activity 1: Fertilisation
The diagram below shows a certain species of fish mating.

Figure 4: The amniotic egg

male

female
The amniotic egg consists of

The developing embryo

Three extra embryonic membranes:
1. Identify the type of fertilisation displayed by the fish species. (1)
o the amnion produces amniotic fluid which cushions the embryo and
2. State two visible ways in which the chances of fertilisation in these fish are protects it against mechanical injury, temperature changes and
increased. (2) dehydration
3. Name the reproductive strategy used by these fish that involves the o the allantois collects nitrogenous waste and assists in the exchange
production of eggs. (1) of gases
4. Give two reasons why there is no need for the eggs of these fish to be o the chorion allows for gaseous exchange in reptiles and birds, where
covered by a hard or leathery shell. (2) a shell is present and in mammals, where no shell is present, it forms
5. Explain the challenge that external fertilisation poses and how organisms with the placenta.
external fertilisation overcome this challenge. (4)
(10)

65 66
 The yolk sac Major differences between precocial and altricial development
The yolk sac contains the food reserves for the developing embryo. If yolk is
present in smaller quantities, the young are hatched sooner, are under- (see Figures 5, 6, 7 and 8)
developed and usually require more parental care. If yolk is present in larger Table 3: Comparing precocial and altricial development
quantities, the incubation period is longer, and the young are usually well
Precocial development Altricial development
developed when they hatch.
A hardened calcareous or leathery shell Development of the body well developed under developed

The shell helps to protect the developing embryo from mechanical injury and Eyes after birth open closed
prevent desiccation, while still allowing gases to move through. Presence of fur / feathers have fur / feathers usually naked
low degree of parental high degree of parental
The amniotic egg: https://youtu.be/Qq0kMEWzdHg Parental care required
care required care required
young can move soon young have limited ability
Mobility
Activity 2: Amniotic egg after birth to move freely
Study the diagram and answer the questions that follow. Yolk amount in egg greater quantity lower quantity

1. Identify the membrane numbered 1 and 2. (2) Figure 5: Ducklings with down Figure 6: Salmon fry with fins and
2. Describe any two functions of the fluid found in part 1. (2) feathers and open eyes open eyes

3. Identify the organ that will replace the function of membrane 3 in the adult
organism. (1)
4. Explain why the allantois and yolk sac are non-functional in a human foetus.
(2)
5. Briefly explain how the amniotic egg allowed life to evolve onto land. (5)
(12)

Precocial and altricial development Figure 7: Nesting birds note the rat (mammal)
eyes are closed and their bodies babies note no fur and eyes are
Precocial and altricial development are terms used to describe how well-developed naked closed
offspring are at birth.

67 68
Parental care
4: Human reproduction
In higher-order animals, parental care is a behaviour that increases the survival of
the young. As a reproductive strategy, those animals which invest more energy pre-
natally (before birth) usually display very little parental care once young have been Introduction
Uterine cycle
born. In animals where less energy is invested pre-natally, more post-natal parental
care is offered. The male reproductive system
Hormonal control of the
Parental care can be seen in the following examples: menstrual cycle
The female reproductive system
Building of nests and incubation of eggs
Activity 3: Hormones
Guarding from predators Activity 1: Reproductive
Teaching offspring systems
Activity 4: Menstrual
cycle
Puberty
Examples of parental care: https://youtu.be/7Ko07Md3XmU Fertilisation and development of
Gametogenesis
zygote to blastocyst
Spermatogenesis
Activity 3: Development and care Implantation of the blastocyst and
Oogenesis gestation
Study the diagrams below showing different forms of development Activity 5: Fertilisation
Activity 2: Gameto-
genesis

The menstrual cycle

End of topic exercises
Ovarian Cycle

A B C D

1. Write down the letters of the organisms which show

a) altricial development (2)
b) precocial development (2)
2. Ovoviviparous animals can display either precocial or altricial development.
Explain how these development approaches differ in respect to
a) the degree of parental care offered (4)
b) how well young are developed at birth (2)
c) the amount of yolk present in eggs (2)
3. Tabulate three differences between precocial and altricial development. (7)
(19)

69 70
 All the body cells (somatic cells) of a human being are diploid (2n) i.e. have two sets
of each chromosome. For humans to grow or to repair damaged tissues, the somatic
cells divide by mitosis. The new cells produced by mitosis are identical to the
original cells which divided.
Introduction Sexual reproduction requires two parents. Both the male and the female produce
gametes (egg and sperm) by a reduction division referred to as meiosis. Meiosis
In this chapter we will be studying human reproduction. All organisms must ensures that the gametes are haploid i.e. they have only one set of chromosomes.
reproduce to ensure the survival of the species. We will look at the structure of the When two gametes fuse (a sperm and an egg) as a result of fertilization, a diploid
male and female reproductive systems, puberty, how gametes are produced, and zygote is formed. The zygote then divides by mitosis to form a human.
hormonal changes that occur in the menstrual cycle. We will also briefly study
fertilisation and the development of the zygote, including implantation and gestation. Key terminology
The understanding of this topic necessitates understanding the role of meiosis, gamete an egg or sperm cell with half the number of chromosomes
mitosis and fertilisation in the human life cycle as illustrated in Figure 1 below. the process in which gametes are produced in the testes
gametogenesis
and ovaries through meiosis
haploid gametes (n = 23) the process that occurs when egg cells are made in the
haploid (n) oogenesis
ovary through meiosis
ovum (n)
diploid (2n) the process that takes place when sperm cells are made in
spermatogenesis
the testes through meiosis
cuboidal epithelium found on the surface of the testes and
germinal
ovaries which gives rise to the cells which mature to form
epithelium
sperm cells and egg cells respectively
sperm
cell (n)

The male reproductive system

diploid As shown in Figure 2 below, the male reproductive system consists of

zygote
the main male sex organ a pair of testes in the scrotum
(2n)
various ducts and tubules seminiferous tubules, epididymis, vas deferens
and the urethra
testis accessory glands
ovary
mitosis and the external genitalia penis
development

multicellular diploid
adults (2n = 46)

Figure 1: Human life cycle

71 72
 vas deferens The testes contain seminiferous tubules (see Figure 3).
seminal
The tubules are lined by germinal epithelium cells which produce sperm cells.
vesicle
Some of the cells develop into Sertoli cells which provide nutrients for the
urethra spermatids to become mature sperm cells. The seminiferous tubules are
prostate gland
surrounded by connective tissue that contain the Cells of Leydig which
produce testosterone.

epididymis
testis

testes vas deferens

(sperm duct)
scrotum seminiferous
tubules
epididymis
Figure 2: The male reproductive system

The functioning of each part of the reproductive system is explained in Table 1.

Table 1: Structure and function of the male reproductive system

Part Structure Function
oval shaped glands, suspended produce sperm cells and the
testes Sertoli cells
in the scrotum hormone testosterone
protects the testes and holds germinal epithelium cells
scrotum skin sac that holds the testes the t
2°C lower than body temp. spermatids
temporarily stores spermatids mature sperm cells
coiled tubule on the outside of
epididymis until they mature into sperm
the testes but still in the scrotum
cells Cells of Leydig
muscular tube passing from the transports sperm from the
vas deferens
epididymis to the urethra epididymis to the urethra
tube which runs through the transports urine and semen out
urethra
penis of the body
gland found below the bladder,
produces a nutrient-rich fluid Figure 3: Cross-section through the seminiferous tubules of the testes
prostate at the point where the urethra
that provides energy for the
gland begins; the largest accessory
sperm cells
gland
Testosterone has the following functions:
small pair of glands found below produces mucus that helps with
glands the prostate gland. the movement of sperm cells development of the male secondary sexual characteristics

medium sized pair of glands produces alkaline fluid to neu- stimulating the maturation of sperm cells
seminal
attached to the end of the vas tralise vaginal acids which
vesicles
deferens would kill sperm

73 74
It is vitally important that the testes are suspended on the outside of the body, as this Table 2: Structure and function of the female reproductive system
allows for temperature regulation to occur. The optimum temperature for sperm
Part Structure Function
production is 2 to 3°C lower than normal body temperature.
found as a pair, one on either side produce egg cells, secrete
If the temperature in the scrotum is high, it interferes with the quality of the sperm
ovaries of the uterus, and surrounded by the hormones progesterone
resulting in male infertility.
germinal epithelium and oestrogen
By having the testes suspended in the scrotum, the temperature of the testes can be connect the ovaries to the uterus
adjusted by moving the testes closer to the body in cold conditions or further away transports egg cells from the
fallopian are lined with ciliated columnar
from the body during warm conditions. ovary to the uterus; the site
tubes epithelium which helps the
of fertilisation
movement of the egg cells
houses and protects the
The male reproductive system: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k60M1h-DKVY
uterus hollow, pear-shaped organ embryo and foetus during
pregnancy
The female reproductive system endometrium inner lining of the uterus
site of implantation and
where the placenta forms
stretches and opens to allow
The female reproductive structure consists of: lower, narrow opening of the
cervix the baby through during
uterus
the main female sex organ the ovaries childbirth
the ducts fallopian tubes receives the penis and
muscular tube which runs from the semen during sexual
the accessory organs the uterus and the vagina vagina
cervix to the exterior intercourse; the birth canal;
the external genitalia the vulva passage for menstrual blood
opening to the vagina; covered by protects the entrance to the
vulva
two vagina covers called the labia vagina

Activity 1: Reproductive systems

fallopian tube Study the diagrams below showing the male and female reproductive systems.
uterus
ovary
endometrium
F

cervix
B
vagina C
G
E
vulva A
D
H

Figure 4: The female reproductive system

Male reproductive system Female reproductive system

75 76
 1. Identify the parts labelled A H. (8) Spermatogenesis
2. State one function of the each of the following:
a) The fluid produced by C. (1) Spermatogenesis is the production of male gametes (sperm cells) in the testes of the
male. It occurs in the germinal epithelium of the seminiferous tubules in the testes.
b) Part E (1) This process happens under the influence of testosterone. During puberty the
3. Provide two functions of part H. (2) germinal epithelium contains a diploid number of chromosomes (46). These cells go
through the process of meiosis forming haploid sperm cells with 23 chromosomes.
4. Explain why it is
The gametes may have (22 + X) or (22 + Y) chromosomes.
males. (2)
(14) Spermatogenesis takes places as follows:
Under the influence of testosterone, the diploid germinal epithelial cells (2n)
Puberty lining the seminiferous tubules go through meiosis
Each cell that goes through meiosis produces 4 haploid spermatids (n)
Puberty is the period during which males and females reach sexual maturity. Puberty Each spermatid matures to form a haploid sperm cell (see Figure 3 above)
usually begins between the ages of 11 to 15, though it may occur much earlier or
later depending on the individual. During puberty the sex hormones are produced
Figure 5 below shows the structure of a human sperm cell. Each sperm cell is made
which stimulate gametogenesis and sexual maturity. At the same time secondary
up of a head, middle portion (neck) and a long tail.
sexual characteristics develop. Table 3 below lists the various changes in the
development of males and females that take place during puberty.
long tail middle head
Table 3: The development of males and females during puberty

Males Females
male sex hormone testosterone is female hormones oestrogen and
produced progesterone are produced
growth of hair around the scrotum (pubic growth of hair around the vulva (pubic
hair) hair) mitochondria nucleus acrosome
growth of hair in the armpits growth of hair in the armpits
growth of hair on the face Figure 5: The structure of a sperm cell
larynx enlarges / voice becomes deeper
muscles enlarge and the shoulders the hips become wider and fat is
The head is mostly made up of the nucleus which contains 22 autosomes and
become wider deposited below the skin
one sex chromosome (X or Y).
penis and the testes enlarge development of breasts
The acrosome (also in the head) contains enzymes that dissolve the outer
layer of the egg allowing fertilisation to occur.
Gametogenesis The middle portion contains mitochondria which provide energy for the
movement of the sperm cell.

Gametogenesis is the term used to describe the process by which gametes are The long tail allows the sperm cell to propel itself forward (to swim) through
produced from the germinal epithelium in the sex organs. fluid.
It includes spermatogenesis and oogenesis.

77 78
Oogenesis The structure of sperm and egg cells:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CuxaXghfyeE&list=PLW0gavSzhMlQYSpKryVcE
r3ERup5SxHl0&index=43
Oogenesis is the production of female gametes (ova / egg cells) in the ovaries of a
female. It occurs when the diploid germinal epithelium of the ovaries starts to
produce follicles by mitosis.
Oogenesis takes place as follows: Activity 2: Gametogenesis

The diploid germinal epithelium cells (2n) of the ovaries go through the 1. Name the organ where meiosis takes place in the male and female
process of mitosis to form many follicles reproductive systems respectively. (2)
2. Define gametogenesis. (1)
Every 28 days, the follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) stimulates one follicle.
Only one cell inside of that follicle enlarges and goes through the process of 3. Name the type of gametogenesis that takes place in the male and female
meiosis reproductive systems respectively. (2)
Out of the 4 (four) haploid cells produced through meiosis, only one cell will 4. Draw a fully labelled diagram of an ovum. (5)
survive to form a mature ovum 5. Discuss the functions of the four main parts of a sperm cell. (8)
The other three cells from meiosis will degenerate (18)

Figure 6 shows the structure of a human egg (ovum). Each ovum is made up of
follicle cells, a layer of jelly, cytoplasm and a haploid nucleus.
The menstrual cycle

follicle cells Key terminology

mature follicle inside the ovary filled with fluid in which the
Graafian follicle
ovum grows
nucleus ovulation the release of an ovum from the Graafian follicle of the ovaries
cytoplasm endometrium the inner lining of the uterus wall
the monthly loss of blood and tissue as a result of changes
menstruation
that occur in the lining of the uterus
layer of jelly
stage in the life of a woman when she stops ovulating and
menopause
menstruating; usually occurs between the ages of 45 and 55
the fusion of the haploid sperm cell nucleus and the haploid
fertilisation
egg cell nucleus to form a diploid nucleus of the zygote
Figure 6: The structure of an ovum
the attachment of the embryo to the endometrium lining the
implantation
uterus
The nucleus contains 22 autosomes and one sex chromosome (X)
The cytoplasm nourishes the egg
The menstrual cycle refers to changes that occur in the ovaries and uterus of a
The jelly layer provides protection for the early developmental stages of the female over a period of 28 days. This cycle begins at puberty and ends at
fertilised egg menopause.

79 80
The menstrual cycle is made up of two separate cycles that happen at the same 5. If fertilisation does not take place, the corpus luteum shrinks and stops
time: producing progesterone. The ovum passes down the fallopian tube, enters the
1. Ovarian cycle uterus and leaves the body through menstruation.
2. Uterine cycle
NOTE:
If the ovum is fertilised, the corpus luteum remains active and continues
1. Ovarian cycle secreting progesterone
Oestrogen and progesterone produced by the ovaries during the ovarian
The ovarian cycle refers to the development and release of an ovum (or egg cell). cycle influence the uterine cycle
This takes place inside the ovary. The ovarian cycle begins when FSH (Follicle
Stimulating Hormone) is secreted by the pituitary gland. FSH is transported to the
ovary by the blood. The following diagram (Figure 7) illustrates the ovarian cycle.
2. Uterine cycle

The Uterine cycle shows the changes that occur in the uterus wall as it gradually
growing ovarian follicle ovum corpus luteum thickens and becomes more vascular (richly supplied with blood vessels) over a
period of 28 days.

3
4
1
Graafian follicle ovulation
2

Figure 7: The ovarian cycle

1. FSH stimulates a primary follicle to become a Graafian follicle which

Day 1 Day 14 Day 28
contains a mature ovum (or egg cell).
2. As the Graafian follicle develops, it produces the hormone oestrogen, Figure 8: Illustrating the changes to the endometrium
increasing the oestrogen levels in the blood.
1. The endometrium breaks down and is released (menstruation). This lasts for
3. Around Day 14, the Graafian follicle ruptures and releases an ovum in a
approximately 4 to 7 days.
process called ovulation. Ovulation is stimulated by the Luteinising Hormone
2. The endometrium is stimulated by oestrogen to become thicker and develop
(LH) which is released by the pituitary gland.
more blood vessels and glands.
4. LH causes the ruptured Graafian follicle to change into a structure called the
3. Progesterone stimulates the endometrium to become even thicker and
corpus luteum. The corpus luteum secretes the hormone progesterone
develop more blood vessels and glands. This happens in preparation for
increasing the levels of progesterone in the blood.
possible implantation of the fertilised ovum.
4. If fertilisation does not take place, the endometrium tears away resulting in
menstruation.

81 82
Figure 9 and Table 4 below summarise the changes that occur in the ovarian and
uterine cycles over a period of 28 days (the menstrual cycle)
Hormonal control of the menstrual cycle

The menstrual cycle is controlled by hormones. The ovarian cycle is influenced by

follicle stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone while the uterine cycle is
influenced by oestrogen and progesterone. The levels of the hormones change
during the different stages of the menstrual cycle and have an influence on each
other.
Figure 9: The menstrual cycle The graph in Figure 10 below shows the changes in the levels of the individual
hormones during the menstrual cycle.

ovarian follicle ovum corpus luteum

Table 4: A summary of changes in the ovarian and uterine cycles

Days Ovaries Uterus
new follicles develop and lining breaks down and is released
1 7
secrete oestrogen (menstruation)
mature Graafian follicle oestrogen stimulates the
8 13 develops and secretes endometrium to become thicker,
oestrogen more glandular and vascular
Graafian follicle bursts to
14
release an ovum (ovulation)
progesterone stimulates the
Graafian follicle becomes the
endometrium to become even
15 22 corpus luteum which secretes
thicker, more glandular and more
progesterone
vascular to receive a fertilised ovum
no fertilisation: the corpus luteum shrinks and stops producing
progesterone

23 28 with fertilisation: corpus luteum remains active and continues

producing progesterone
no more follicles develop
no menstruation takes place

The menstrual cycle:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vl2wRbO8LZU&list=PLW0gavSzhMlQYSpKryVc Day 1 Day 7 Day 14 Day 28
Er3ERup5SxHl0&index=11

Figure 10: Hormonal control of the menstrual cycle

83 84
 Activity 3: Hormones
NOTE: This graph often appears in examinations. Make sure that you can
interpret and understand what is happening to the levels of the different Study the graphs below, then answer the questions that follow.
hormones and how they influence each other.

Levels of female hormones during the menstrual cycle

The hormonal control of the menstrual cycle takes place as follows:
Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) released by the pituitary gland stimulates
the development and maturation of a primary follicle in one of the ovaries
As the follicle develops into a mature Graafian follicle it releases oestrogen
The increasing oestrogen levels stimulate the pituitary gland to release
luteinising hormone (LH)
The increase in luteinising hormone (LH) causes ovulation to occur
After ovulation occurs the Graafian follicle is changed into the corpus luteum
which secretes progesterone
The increased amount of progesterone prevents the release of follicle
stimulating hormone and luteinising hormone (it inhibits them)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 .. 12 .. 14 .. 16 ... 18 .. 20 .. 22 ... 24 .. 26 .. 28
As the corpus luteum breaks down the level of progesterone decreases, Days
causing the endometrium to break down
Key:
The endometrium and unfertilised ovum are released through the vagina as Oestrogen
blood during menstruation Progesterone
Due to the decreased level of progesterone, the follicle stimulating hormone Luteinising hormone
and the luteinising hormone are no longer inhibited. They are produced by the
pituitary gland and the cycle begins again 1. On which day did ovulation occur? (1)
2. Give one reason for your answer to question 1 that can be seen on the
graph. (1)

Negative feedback mechanism between progesterone and FSH 3. Which structure in the ovary produces the following hormones?
a) Oestrogen (1)
A negative feedback system occurs in the menstrual cycle. A negative feedback b) Progesterone (1)
mechanism is an interaction between two hormones, where an increase in one
4.
hormone stimulates an increase in the other hormone, which inhibits the first
hormone, thus restoring balance. The negative feedback system can be seen in the a) oestrogen from day 9 to 13. (2)
hormonal control of the menstrual cycle where progesterone influences the secretion b) luteinising hormone from day 13 to 14. (2)
of follicle stimulating hormone. If the ovum is fertilised, the corpus luteum remains 5.
active and continues secreting progesterone. Increased levels of progesterone in
a) Remains high from day 20 to 28? (1)
the blood inhibit the secretion of the follicle stimulating hormone. As a result, no
further development of the follicle occurs. Ovulation does not take place. b) Drops as shown in the graph above? (1)
(10)

85 86
Activity 4: Menstrual cycle 8 cell
2 cell stage 4 cell blastocyst
The diagram shows some of the changes that may take place during the menstrual stage
(48 hours) stage morula (4 days)
implanted
cycle. (72 hours) blastocyst

Growth of
follicle zygote

Thickness of
uterine lining

1 7 14 21 28
Days
ovum

1. The menstrual cycle is controlled by hormones. Name one hormone that will fertilisation
increase in level between days 2 and 10. (1)
2. Give one observable reason for your answer to question 1. (2) Figure 11: Fertilisation and development of the blastocyst
3. Explain what evidence there is in the diagram to indicate that no fertilisation
took place? (3)
Development of the blastocyst to implantation:
(6) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bHYAMjwgeV8

Implantation of the blastocyst and gestation

Fertilisation & development of zygote to blastocyst
The blastocyst moves from the fallopian tube into the uterus where it embeds itself
During copulation (sexual intercourse) the penis is inserted into the vagina and into the endometrium. This is known as implantation and takes place as follows:
sperm cells are released through ejaculation close to the cervix. The sperm cells
The outer cells of the blastocyst secrete enzymes which break down a small
swim through the cervix up into the uterus and through the fallopian tubes.
portion of the thickened uterine wall causing it to become softer
The haploid ovum released during ovulation enters the fallopian tubes. If an ovum
(haploid) is present in the fallopian tubes, one sperm cell (haploid) may penetrate The blastocyst sinks into this softer area and the outer layers develop into two
through the jelly layer and fertilise the ovum resulting in a diploid zygote. The extra-embryonic membranes called the amnion and the chorion
nucleus of the ovum and the nucleus of the sperm cell fuse resulting in fertilisation. The chorion extends finger-like outgrowths called the chorionic villi into the
The zygote divides by mitosis as it moves down the fallopian tube towards the endometrium and form part of the placenta which secretes progesterone.
uterus. Mitosis continues and a solid ball of cells known as the morula is formed. The
morula develops into a hollow fluid-filled ball of cells called the blastocyst. Once the The blastocyst is now called the embryo
ovum is fertilised it takes approximately 5 days to form the blastocyst. The gestation period, also known as pregnancy, is the time in which the embryo
develops inside the uterus. Gestation and the development of the embryo lasts for
about 40 weeks or 280 days. After 12 weeks the embryo is known as a foetus.

87 88
The foetus contains extra-embryonic membranes and other structures which aid in
the development of the embryo and these can be seen in Figure 11 below: uterus

fallopian tube
placenta
umbilical cord
uterus

amniotic fluid foetus umbilical vein O2

CO2
umbilical cord
amnion
area enlarged
umbilical
artery
cervix
vagina placenta umbilical cord

Figure 12: The foetus and its extra-embryonic membranes

The chorion, on the outside, forms the chorionic villi. The inner membrane, the
amnion, becomes filled with amniotic fluid to form the amniotic sac. The amniotic
fluid has the following functions:
Protects the foetus against mechanical injury (shock-absorber) maternal vessels

Prevents dehydration
Maintains the temperature of the foetus Figure 13: The umbilical cord
Allows for free-movement of the foetus as it grows and develops

The placenta has the following functions:

The umbilical cord attaches the foetus to the placenta and it contains umbilical blood It is the point of attachment of the foetus to the mother
vessels (see Figure 13 below): It allows for diffusion of nutrients from the mother to the foetus
Two umbilical arteries which carry deoxygenated blood and waste products It allows for the diffusion of oxygen from the mother to the foetus and for the
from the foetus to the placenta. diffusion of carbon dioxide from the foetus to the mother (gas exchange)
One umbilical vein which carries oxygenated blood, nutrients, water and other It allows for the diffusion of waste products from the foetus to the mother
substances from the placenta to the foetus. After 12 weeks, the placenta secretes progesterone to maintain the
pregnancy
The placenta is a temporary organ that forms in the area where the blastocyst
implants. It allows for substances to be transferred by diffusion between the mother
and foetus without any blood being in direct contact. This means that the mother and The formation of a foetus: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-
ekRRuSa_UQ&list=PLW0gavSzhMlQYSpKryVcEr3ERup5SxHl0&index=126

89 90
Activity 5: Fertilisation
Reproduction in humans: End of topic exercises
The diagram below shows a human ovum about to be fertilised

Section A
Question 1
G

A 1.1 Various options are provided as possible answers to the following questions.
Choose the correct answer and write only the letter (A D) next to the
B question number (1.1.1 1.1.5) on your answer sheet, for example 1.1.6 D.
F
C
1.1.1 The following statements describe the functions of the placenta:
D i. Serves as an attachment of the embryo to the mother
ii. Allows for the diffusion of dissolved nutrients from the mother
E
to the foetus.
iii. Allows for diffusion of excretory wastes from the mother to the
foetus
1. Identify the parts labelled A G. (7) iv. Allows for diffusion of oxygen from the mother to the foetus.
2. Give the Which one of the following combinations correctly describe the
a) contains the mitochondria. (1) functions of the placenta?
b) contains enzymes required to penetrate the ovum. (1) A (i), (ii), and (iii)
c) will enter the ovum during fertilization. (1) B (ii) only
3. Describe the developmental changes in the fertilised ovum until implantation C (i), (ii) and (iv)
occurs in the uterus. (5) D (ii) and (iii)
4. Define gestation. (1)
1.1.2
(16)
A high levels of FSH and progesterone.
B high levels of LH and oestrogen.
C high levels of only FSH.
D high levels of only progesterone.

1.1.3

A seminal vesicles.
B scrotum.
C prostate gland.
D epididymis.

91 92
1.1.4 Which one of the following parts in the diagram of a sperm cell 1.2 Give the correct biological term for each of the following descriptions. Write
contains a haploid number of chromosomes? only the term next to the question number.
1.2.1 The gland which produces a fluid to provide the sperm cells with
1 2 3 4 energy.
1.2.2 The vesicle containing enzymes found in the head of a sperm cell.
1.2.3 The process which produces ova.
1.2.4 The type of fertilisation in which the nucleus of a sperm fuses with
the nucleus of an ovum inside the body of the female.
A 1 B 2 C 3 D 4 1.2.5 A hormone that stimulates the development of the corpus luteum.
1.2.6 The fluid that protects the human embryo against injuries and large-
1.1.5 The graph shows the changes in concentration of female hormones scale temperature changes.
FSH and LH in two females during the first two weeks of the
1.2.7 The blood vessel in the umbilical cord that transports nutrients to the
menstrual cycle.
foetus.
1.2.8 The inner lining of the uterus where implantation of the embryo
occurs.
Both females
1.2.9 A type of reproduction in humans where the foetus develops inside
(A and B)
the uterus.
LH
1.2.10 The stage in humans were sexual maturity is reached.
FSH
(10 x 1) = (10)

1.3 Indicate whether each of the descriptions in Column I applies to A ONLY, B

Female A
ONLY, BOTH A AND B or NONE of the items in Column II. Write A only, B
only, both A and B or none next to the question number.
Female B

Column I Column II

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 A: chorionic villi
1.3.1 Forms the placenta
Days of menstrual cycle B: endometrium
A: menopause
1.3.2 The production of ova by meiosis
Which one of the following statements is correct regarding female B: ovulation
A? 1.3.3 A hollow ball of cells into which A: amnion
A FSH increases on day 14 because the Graafian follicle is fertilised ovum develops B: chorion
secreting progesterone.
1.3.4 The reproductive structures where A: testes
B FSH increased after day 9 as the pituitary gland is secreting meiosis occurs. B: ovaries
progesterone.
1.3.5 Place where fertilisation occurs in A: cervix
C FSH decreased after day 4 to ensure implantation occurs.
humans B: fallopian tube
D FSH increases in the first two days to stimulate the development
of the follicle. (5 x 2) = (10)
(5 x 2) = (10)

93 94
1.4 Diagrams I and II below (not to scale) represent gametogenesis in human 1.5.1 Give labels for each of the following:
males and females (not in any particular sequence). a) A (1)
b) B (1)
c) C (1)
1.5.2 State one function of part A. (1)
1.5.3 What is the name of the structure in which part B is enclosed? (1)
1.5.4 Explain the consequences for reproduction if part C is surgically
cut. (3)
1.5.5 Explain why it would still be possible for an HIV-positive man to
infect another person during sexual intercourse after part C is
surgically cut. (2)
(10)
Section A: [50]
1.4.1. Identify the specific type of gametogenesis in Diagram I. (1)
1.4.2. Explain your answer to question 1.4.1 by referring to a visible Section B
difference between Diagram I and Diagram II. (2) Question 2
1.4.3. Where in the human body does the type of gametogenesis shown in
2.1 An investigation was carried out to determine the effects of smoking during
Diagram II take place? (1)
pregnancy on the baby's birth weight. Babies born weighing 2 499 g or less
1.4.4. Give the chromosome number of: have a low birth weight.
a) the cells at 1 (1) The table below compares the percentage of babies with a low birth weight
b) cell 2 (1) born to mothers who smoked with mothers who did not smoke in a certain
1.4.5. Name two processes that take place during Meiosis I that lead to city in 2009.
genetic variation in the four cells at 3 in Diagram II. (2)
Birth weight Percentage of total births in 2009
1.4.6. Explain the implication for the human population size if the three
(grams) Mothers who smoked Non-smoking mothers
cells referred to in Diagram I did not degenerate, but remained as
gametes. (2) < 1000 0,7 0,2
(10) 1000 1499 0,9 0,3
1500 1999 2,2 1,1
1.5 Study the diagram below and answer the questions that follow.
2000 2499 7,1 3,2
(adapted from www.ainw.gov.au)

2.1.1 Draw a histogram to represent the percentage of births in each

C weight group born to mothers who smoked. (6)
2.1.2 Why were babies that weighed more than 2 500 g at birth not
included in the investigation? (1)
2.1.3 State a general conclusion for the investigation based on the data in
A the table. (2)
B 2.1.4 Describe how chemicals from cigarette smoke are able to reach the
baby's blood from the mother's blood. (2)
(11)

95 96
2.2. The diagram below represents the sequence of events that takes place 2.3.2 Some females use an ovulation monitor so that they can be aware of
during the ovarian cycle of a female. the days when they are fertile. These monitors measure the level of
hormones in the blood.
a) Why would females want to know when they are fertile? (1)
b) Explain which hormone is likely to be monitored by the ovulation
monitor. (3)
(8)
[25]

Question 3
3.1 The diagram below represents the relationship between the blood system of
the foetus and that of the mother. The arrows indicate the direction of blood
flow in the blood vessels.

blood vessel B
of the mother
2.2.1 Give the name of the: blood vessel A
a) Hormone that controls the development of structure A. (1) of the mother
blood space /
b) Process taking place at C. (1) sinuses of mother
2.2.2 Structure B degenerates if fertilisation does not take place. Explain placenta
the implications of this for the
a) ovarian cycle (2) blood vessel D blood vessel C
of the foetus of the foetus
b) uterine cycle (2)
(6) umbilical cord
foetus
2.3. The diagram shows some changes during the menstrual cycle.

Growth of
follicle

3.1.1 Apart from playing a role in the diffusion of substances from the
Thickness of blood, and vice versa, state two other
uterine lining functions of the placenta. (2)
3.1.2 Blood vessel D is an artery. Tabulate two differences between the
1 7 14 21 28
composition of the blood found in blood vessel C and blood found in
Days blood vessel D. (5)
3.1.3 Explain one consequence for the foetus if blood vessel D becomes
2.3.1 Describe the developmental changes in the fertilised ovum until blocked preventing blood flow. (2)
implantation occurs in the uterus. (4)

97 98
 3.1.4 If the blood of the mother and the blood of the foetus come into 3.3.3 Name one
contact with each other, it could lead to the death of the foetus. of part D once the baby is born. (1)
Describe why this would occur. (2) 3.3.4 Explain one negative impact on the foetal development if part D
(11) is reduced significantly. (2)
(7)
3.2 Read the following extract and answer the questions that follow. [25]

Several recent studies have suggested a gradual decline in sperm Section B: [50]
production in men. Endocrine disruptions as well as life style have been
suggested as risk factors. One life style factor that may affect human Total marks: [100]
fertility is driving a vehicle for a prolonged period. It is suggested that
the driving position may increase the scrotal temperature.

3.2.1 State any one risk factor identified by the researchers. (1)
3.2.2 Explain why regular long-distance driving with no breaks could
possibly lower the sperm count in healthy males. (3)
3.2.3 Suggest a consequence of lower sperm count in males. (2)
3.2.4 State any one daily life style trend or routine (other than the one
mentioned in the extract) that should be avoided to maintain the
optimum scrotal temperature. (1)
(7)

3.3 The diagram below represents a developing foetus in a human body.

A
D
B

3.3.1 Identify:
a) A (1)
b) C (1)
3.3.2 State two functions of the fluid B. (2)

99 100