Certified Energy Manager®

Training Program
Certified Energy Manager® Introduction

Class Introductions
• Please let us know:
• Your name
• Location
Listen for your potential “study partners”
• Experience

Certified Energy Manager® Introduction 2

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 Section 1.1
Introduction To AEE & CEM

Certified Energy Manager® Introduction

© Copyright
Association of Energy Engineers 2021. All rights reserved.
We at Association of Energy Engineers (AEE) recognize and respect intellectual property rights and are committed to fulfilling our moral and legal obligations with
respect to our use of copyright-protected works. As a matter of moral integrity and adherence to copyright law, AEE sets forth these policies as it relates to our
copyrighted works. No one is permitted to reproduce any copyrighted work in print, video or digital form in violation of the law. Works are considered protected
even if they are not registered with the U.S. Copyright Office or any registering agency outside the U.S. and even if they do not carry the copyright symbol (©).
Reproducing and distributing this material without the written permission of AEE is prohibited. The term Certified Energy Manager and the mark CEM are the
property of AEE. All training material and supplemental documents included in the material are copyright and must not be used or copied without express written
permission. All training materials may be used by and for the individual registered and attending the training course for private and research study purposes and
must not be copied or circulated in whole or in part.
Under no circumstances can the material be used for third party training or commercial activities without written agreement from AEE. Any unauthorized use of
AEE’s materials will constitute an infringement of copyright. AEE reserves the right to grant permission to use its copyright materials to approved training
providers, valid licensing agreements with AEE must be in place for the material to be presented.
AEE makes every effort to provide the most reliable material, should there be any omissions or errors we cannot be held responsible. We however, always
welcome your valuable feedback so please complete the seminar evaluation you will receive as a part of the course.
For questions:

AEE
3168 Mercer University Drive
Atlanta, GA 30341
tel: 770-447-5083

Certified Energy Manager® Introduction 4

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 Safety & Housekeeping
For an “In Person” Course

Follow instructions of the facility and know:

• Exit locations
• Bathrooms

Please silence phones… we want you “engaged” and to participate!

During breaks attendees are encouraged to:

• Network with other course participants
• Schedule time to discuss special situations with instructors

Certified Energy Manager® Introduction 5

Safety & Housekeeping

For a “Virtual” Course

Please keep Your Webcam ON…

we want you “engaged” and to participate!

Wave at us to get our attention

If a presenter loses power/internet or ability to present:

Take a 20-minute break and the backup instructor will resume the course.

Certified Energy Manager® Introduction 6

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 Contents
• Introduction to AEE and the CEM
• Career Development Roadmap
• CEM Training Goals
• Workbook/Course Schedule
• Exam Information & Tips
• Supplemental Training
• Meet your classmates and instructor(s)

Certified Energy Manager® Introduction 7

About AEE/CEM:
AEE has tens of thousands
of active certified
professionals operating in
100+ countries!

Certified Energy Manager® Introduction

v2021.01.SI 4
 Credentials:
The CEM program is ANSI accredited and is the first program to be recognized under
the Better Buildings Workforce Guidelines. The CEM is also recognized worldwide by
government agencies and many employers.

Certified Energy Manager® Introduction 9

Jobs:
Many employers and government
agencies already require CEM
certification for particular jobs.
https://www.aeecenter.org/certifications/certification-benefits

Certified Energy Manager® Introduction

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 Typical CEM Job Titles
• Energy Engineers & Managers
• Facility Managers (Commercial, Govt, Industrial, etc.)
• Utility Account Managers
• Energy Service Company Employees
• Consultants
• Project Engineers
• Resource Efficiency Managers (REMs)
• Sustainability Managers

Certified Energy Manager® Introduction 11

Career Development Roadmap

When you want to ”go deeper” into a topic… AEE has courses available
Energy Purchasing

Lighting

Industrial

CEM Sustainability

Measurement &
Verification

Financing

Others…

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 CEM Training Program Goals
To raise the professional standards of those engaged in energy
management… (see AEE Website for more)

To provide practical, cost-effective, ideas that save energy and $$$

To help you understand energy-related equations and prepare for the exam
Although anyone can solve calculations via software/spreadsheets… we teach the
“energy relationships” and “equations”, because it is easier to “optimize” a system
when you understand it!

Certified Energy Manager® Introduction 13

All CEMs should be able to:

• Discuss energy supplies and management

• Understand energy related terminology, relationships and basic concepts

• Conduct energy surveys and present cost-effective improvement ideas

• Know where to get additional assistance when needed

Certified Energy Manager® Introduction 14

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 Workbook & Course
Information

Certified Energy Manager® Introduction 15

Lead Instructors and Content Creators

Dr. Eric Woodroof, CEM, CRM, PCF Mr. Richard Costello, PE, MSEM, CEM
• AEE Hall of Fame & Fellow • AEE Hall of Fame & Fellow
• Chairman of Energy Management Professional • President - Acela Energy Group, Norfolk, MA 02056
Council • [email protected]
• [email protected]

Mr. Tim Janos, CEM, CIEP, CEA

• AEE Hall of Fame & Fellow
• Director of Special Projects, CEA & CIEP Board
Chairman
• [email protected]

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 Workbook Contributors
Mr. Mark Roche, CEM, BEP Mr. Jim McCool, PE, CEM, LEED AP
• AEE Fellow • [email protected]
• [email protected]

Mr. Barry Benator, PE, CEM Mr. Bill Sommer, CEM, REP, LEED AP
• [email protected]
• AEE Fellow
• [email protected]
Mr. Samer Zawaydeh
Mr. Clint Christenson, CEM • 2020 AEE President
• Assistant Director of International Special Activities
• 2018 AEE President
• [email protected]
• [email protected]

Certified Energy Manager® Introduction 17

International Workbook Content Creators

Alain Aoun Ian Boylan Eric Mazzi
[email protected] [email protected] [email protected]

Albert Williams Ismael Alhinti Tareq Obedio

[email protected] [email protected] [email protected]

Amjad Alkam Jon Feldman Ziad Haddad

[email protected] [email protected] [email protected]

Louis Lagrange
[email protected]
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 Instructors Emeritus
Dr. Barney L. Capehart, CEM, BEP Dr. Warren M. Heffington, PE, CEM
• Professor Emeritus and Founding Director • Associate Professor Emeritus and Founding
• University of Florida Industrial Assessment Center Director
• [email protected] • Texas A&M Industrial Assessment Center
• [email protected]
• Armadillo Engineering, Marble Falls, TX

Dr. Wayne C. Turner, PE, CEM, BEP

• Professor Emeritus and Founding Director
• Oklahoma State University Industrial Assessment
Center
• [email protected]

Certified Energy Manager® Introduction 19

Workbook Organization & Course Flow

This course and workbook is:
• Ordered in the way that Energy “flows” through a building’s systems
• Also from “simple” to more “complex” subjects

• Within each Section:

• Learning Objectives show what we expect you to be “Aware of”, and have “Ability to do”
• “QUIZ” questions are worked in class to ensure comprehension
• Blue Italicized Text usually is additional information to enhance the learning experience
• Red Underlined Text usually describes “Action” or “Steps” in a multi-step exercise

We appreciate your suggestions to make the workbook even better

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 Day 1 Schedule
8:30 Introduction to AEE/CEM; Why Energy Management is Important
9:45 Energy Basics, Fuel Supply and Pricing
10:15 Coffee Break
10:30 Energy Basics, Fuel Supply and Pricing (cont’d)
12:00 Lunch Break
1:00 Energy Basics, Fuel Supply and Pricing (cont’d)
2:30 Coffee Break
2:45 Energy Audits; Instrumentation;
Codes and Standards; High Performance Green Buildings
5:00 End of Day

Certified Energy Manager® Introduction 21

Day 2 Schedule
8:00 Energy Accounting and Economics
10:00 Coffee Break
10:15 Electrical Power Systems
12:00 Lunch Break
1:00 Motors & Drives
2:30 Coffee Break
2:45 Lighting Systems
4:15 Maintenance and Commissioning
5:00 End of Day

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 Day 3 Schedule
8:00 HVAC Systems
10:00 Coffee Break
10:15 Building Envelope
12:00 Lunch Break
1:00 Building Automation and Control Systems
2:30 Coffee Break
2:45 Thermal Energy Storage Systems
3:30 Practice Problems, Open Q&A (Bring Your Questions)
5:00 End of Day

Certified Energy Manager® Introduction 23

Day 4 Schedule
8:00 Boiler and Steam Systems
10:00 Coffee Break
10:15 CHP Systems and Renewable Energy
12:00 Lunch Break
1:00 Industrial Systems
2:30 Coffee Break
2:45 Energy Savings Performance Contracting, Measurement & Verification

3:30 Practice Problems, Open Q&A (Bring Your Questions)

5:00 End of Day

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 Day 5 Schedule
If taking the CEM Exam on-site

1. Open Time for Study

2. Be in the Exam Room 1 hour before the Exam Start Time
3. Register for the Exam (if unregistered)

Begin the 4-hour CEM Examination (optional for attendees)

• Picture ID is required to take the CEM Exam
• Proctors administer the CEM Exam

Certified Energy Manager® Introduction 25

Special Workbook Notes

Do these Actions Now

• Look at Appendix A: Sample Equations, Full Size Tables and Charts

• Look at Appendix B: Sample Problems (organized by Section)
• Look at Appendix C: Solutions to the Sample Problems

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 Screenshots of Appendices B & C
Solutions are Provided

Certified Energy Manager® Introduction 27

CEM Exam Information

Formal Testing Environment (silence, test rules, etc.)
• 4 hours long, but you can leave anytime
• Open notes (bring any notes, books, etc.)
• It is multiple choice (A, B, C, D or E)
• All questions are equally weighted (worth the same amount of points)
• Each question is worth 8 points, must answer 88 questions correctly to earn a passing score

• 170 total questions, first 130 questions are scored

• 15 total sections, first 11 sections are scored
• Two Mandatory Sections
• Section 1: Energy Accounting and Economics (20 questions)
• Section 2: Energy Auditing and Instrumentation (20 questions)
• Must Choose 9 of the remaining 13 optional sections (10 questions per section)

If you have not registered yet… you still can on the test day

Certified Energy Manager® Introduction 28

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 Study Guide & Body of Knowledge
Body of Knowledge Percent of Exam
The following sections are Mandatory:
Energy Accounting and Economics 11-13%
Energy Audits, Instrumentation 11-13%
Choose 9 Out of the Following 13 Sections:
Electrical Power Systems 5-7%
Heating, Ventilating, and Air Conditioning Systems 5-7%
Motors and Drives 5-7%
Industrial Systems 5-7%
Building Envelope 5-7%
Combined Heat and Power Systems and Renewable Energy 5-7%
Building Automation and Control Systems 10-14%
Thermal Energy Storage Systems 5-7%
Lighting Systems 5-7%
Boiler and Steam Systems 5-7%
Maintenance and Commissioning 5-7%
Energy Savings Performance Contracting - Measurement and Verification 5-7%

Certified Energy Manager® Introduction 29

CEM Exam Rules

For an “In-Person” Exam:
• Cell phones and wireless devices must be put away, and cannot be used for any
purpose – including use as a “clock”
• No computers or devices with a camera are allowed

For an “Online” Exam:

• Please see: https://www.aeecenter.org/remoteproctoring
• The proctor will access your computer remotely and close all applications
• You can “FLAG” any question that you skip… which makes going back easy
• You do get your results immediately, (although not “officially”)

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 CEM Preparation & Exam Tips:
Preparation:
• Do the practice problems in Appendix B
• Mark/Highlight the CEM Seminar Workbook (so you can find info quickly)
• Make your own “equation sheet”
• Form a “study group” to leverage each member’s strengths
• A traditional calculator (non-wireless) is needed
• Especially these functions: multiply, divide, add, subtract, square root and x 2, x3
On Exam:
• Manage your time
• Don’t spend too much time on a difficult question… “move on” and answer as many questions
as you can, then return to difficult questions.

Certified Energy Manager® Introduction 31

Certification Requirements
CEM or EMIT (Energy Manager in Training)
• Submit the Application & pass the CEM certification exam
• FYI- The EMIT certification is valid for six years, which allows you time to meet the
full CEM certification eligibility requirements

Once certified… you must maintain your credentials via activities/continued

education, etc.

Every 3 years, you may consider taking the “Annual Update for CEMs” course
to earn CEUs (and get updates)

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 Supplemental Training

Certified Energy Manager® Introduction 33

Supplemental Training
• AEE has free resources to help you prepare for the CEM exam
• Free videos to help you master energy concepts
Search on YouTube: “CEM Basic Series”
• 25 CEM Question Quiz with Answers

• More at: www.aeecenter.org/certifications/resources/cem-resources

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 Resources to help You Prepare for the Exam
Search “CEM Resources” on AEE Website

Certified Energy Manager® Introduction 35

Free Videos to help you…

Search “CEM Helpful Videos” on AEE Website

Certified Energy Manager® Introduction 36

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 Free Videos to help you…
An Example – Extra Review of Key Concepts (if needed)…

Informal teaching notes by

Dr. Eric Woodroof:

Certified Energy Manager® Introduction 37

Practice Quiz to help you…

Search “CEM Practice Questions” on AEE Website

Answers are given too:

Certified Energy Manager® Introduction 38

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 Review:
• Introduction to AEE and the CEM
• Career Development Roadmap
• CEM Training Goals
• Workbook/Course Schedule
• Exam Information & Tips
• Supplemental Training
• Meet your classmates and instructor(s)

Certified Energy Manager® Introduction 39

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 Section 1.2
Why Energy Management is
Important

Why Energy Management is Important

Learning Objectives & Contents

Awareness of:
• Global Trends on Energy, Economy and our Environment
• Non-Technical ”Drivers” that create the need for energy projects

• Selling Points for Energy Projects

• Additional Resources (pursue after your CEM exam)

Energy Projects only save $$ when they are approved

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 Big Picture: Energy, Environment & Economy
We are all linked together on a planet with limited resources
Energy access & affluence is growing!

Thus reducing energy waste:

• Preserves resources and our environment
• Helps cost-competitiveness and our economy

Generally- the more energy management & conservation… the better.

Certified Energy Manager® Why Energy Management is Important 3

1.5% improvement from 2018

* 1 Quad = 293 TWh

100.2 Quads = 29 366 TWh
4
Certified Energy Manager® Why Energy Management is Important

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 What is “Energy Management”
Energy Management: the use of engineering and economic principles to
control energy costs while providing needed services in buildings and
industries.

Generates energy savings via:

• Improvements in energy efficiency
• Changing patterns of energy use
• Shifting to other sources of energy

Certified Energy Manager® Why Energy Management is Important 5

Interface Areas with Energy Management

• Productivity Improvement
• Lean Manufacturing, Total Quality Management,
• Six Sigma, “Treasure Hunts”
• Health & Safety (especially post-COVID)
• Water Conservation
• Renewable Energy
• Sustainability / GHG Management / Green Buildings
• Your energy conservation projects help reduce the amount of carbon offsets
needing to be purchased as well as other “benefits” to a sustainability mission.

Certified Energy Manager® Why Energy Management is Important 6

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 Energy and CO2e Emissions
For fossil-fueled energy sources: when you use energy, you are causing
emissions

Example: 1 GWh used in the USA causes the following:

• 707 metric tonnes of CO2 equivalent emissions Source: Current EPA Calculator
• ~ 350,660 kg of coal being burned

When you reduce energy consumption, you usually reduce emissions too!

Certified Energy Manager® Why Energy Management is Important 7

”Drivers” that Create Demand for Energy Projects

• Cost-Competitiveness
• Government Regulations
• Industry Requirements
• Special Tax Benefits
• Energy Independence, Self-Reliance or Resiliency
• Sustainability Marketing and Image
• Occupant Comfort, Morale, Attraction and Retention
• Improved Product Sales or Image

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 Summer Temperatures Have Shifted
2004 – 2020

0.5
Cooler than average Baseline (1951 - 1980) mean
Average
0.4
Warmer than average The “extreme”
Frequency of Occurrence

Extremely hot temperature events used

0.3 to cover 0.1% of the Earth.
2020: covered 22.1%.

0.2

0.1

0
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Deviation from Mean

Why Energy Management is Important

Melting Ice:

Implications:
• Sea level rise
• Less reflectivity (more solar energy
is absorbed)

Certified Energy Manager® Why Energy Management is Important 10

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 Selling Points for Energy Management
Additional Reading (after your CEM Exam)

• A typical low-risk, energy management project has a long lifetime and

yields a 25% to 50% return on investment, which is better than:
• Many other potential investments
• Compared to Energy Savings (a profit)…What would you have to do (how many widgets
would you have to sell) to keep an equivalent profit?
• Many renewable energy projects
• and if you reduce the energy consumed, you don’t need to buy as many renewable
products (# solar panels, size of a bio-reactor, etc.)

• But you must “position” the project such that it meets the customer
requirements, and so that the buyer sees it is a “better deal” for them

Certified Energy Manager® Why Energy Management is Important 11

Selling Points for Energy Management

Additional Reading (after your CEM Exam)

“Energy Management Projects Out-Performed

the Dow Jones Index in 8 out of 10 years!”

Source: E. Woodroof (2018) ”Energy Efficiency BEATs Wall Street Returns”, Buildings.com

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 Selling Points for Energy Management
Additional Reading (after your CEM Exam)

Non-Utility Benefits:
• Maintenance, Material & Labor Savings
• Better Cost-Competitiveness
• Often, the Project ROI > Company’s Profit Margin
• Often, the Project ROI > Cost of Finance
• Improved “Green”, “Sustainable” Image
• Boost Sales and/or Employee Recruitment
• Ability to Meet Supplier/Govt. Requirements
• Reduced Need to Purchase “Offsets”

Source: E. Woodroof, W. Turner, W. Heffington and B. Capehart (2012) ”Energy Conservation also Yields:
Capital Operations, Recognition and Environmental Benefits”, Energy Engineering Vol. 109 (5).

Certified Energy Manager® Why Energy Management is Important 13

Selling Points for Energy Management

Additional Reading (after your CEM Exam)

Non-Utility Benefits:
• Improved Building Value
• Tangible benefit to building owner

• Other external societal benefits

Free webinars: search “Selling Energy Projects” playlist on AEE YouTube Channel
Sources: E. Woodroof (2017) ”Increase Your Building’s Value with an Energy Project”, Buildings.com
International Energy Agency (2014) ”Capturing the Multiple Benefits of Energy Efficiency”

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 Review
Awareness of:
• Global Trends on Energy, Economy and our Environment
• Non-Technical “Drivers” that create the need for energy projects

• Selling Points for Energy Projects

• Additional Resources (pursue after your CEM exam)

Energy Projects only save $$ when they are approved

Certified Energy Manager® Why Energy Management is Important 15

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 Section 1.3
Energy Basics,
Fuel Supply and Pricing

Energy Basics, Fuel Supply and Pricing

Learning Objectives & Contents

Awareness of:
• Energy Fundamentals
• Energy & Power Definitions, Unit Conversions
• Point of Use Fuel Costs and Comparisons
• Electric, Natural Gas, Water & Sewer Rate Components
• Procurement
• Natural Gas & Electric Procurement (including Demand-Side Management)
• Benchmarking Energy Usage and Costs

Ability to:
• Calculate an Electric Energy Bill from Rate & Usage Information
• Conduct “Point of Use” Cost Comparisons for Equipment
• Calculate Energy Usage Index & Energy Cost Index

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 What is Energy?
Energy is the ability to do work, or work that was done.
• As such, energy is important to all living things in order to maintain life functions
from the smallest part of a cell to the organism as a whole.
• Humans also use energy to modify their environment and perform work.

The unit for measuring energy in SI units is joules

• A joule (J) is equal to 1 newton metre.
• 1000 joules = ± energy produced by burning a blue tip kitchen match.
• The basic unit of electrical energy is the watt-hour, or Wh

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Basics, Fuel Supply and Pricing 3

Definition of Power
Work can be done at different rates, sometimes slow, sometimes fast.

Power is defined as the rate at which work is done.

Work Done Energy

Power = =
Time Required Time Required

Units of power would be 1 joule per second, which is equal to 1 watt (W)

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 Electrical Power
Devices provide resistance, which describes the amount of work that needs to be
done for a specific task.
• A certain amount of work must be done to move electrons through the resistance.
• More resistance means more work must be done to move electrons through the resistance and
allow the device to operate.

Electrical power is defined to be measured in units of watts

• One watt of power in one hour, is equal to one Wh of energy
• OR, one J/s of power in 3600 seconds, is equal to 3600 joules of energy
• Thus, 1 Wh of energy = 3600 J
• And, 1kWh = 3600 kJ = 3.6 MJ = 0.0036 GJ

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Basics, Fuel Supply and Pricing 5

Energy (kJ’s & kWh’s) vs. Power (kJ/s & kW)

Energy and power are often confused with each other.

A useful analogy can be found in a car:

• The odometer is like an energy meter that tells us the total
amount of energy in kWh that we’ve used.
• The speedometer is like a power meter that tells us the rate at which
we have used that amount of energy in kW.

With our car, the units are kilometres and km/h.

With our electrical and mechanical equipment, the units are kWh and kW.

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 Energy Conversion Units
Energy source Specific energy*
1 kWh 3600 kJ = 3.6 MJ = 0.0036 GJ
1 GW 1000 MW = 106 kW
1 kg #2 fuel oil (diesel) 42 MJ
1 m3 #2 fuel oil (diesel) 39 GJ
1 litre #2 fuel oil (diesel) 39 MJ
1 litre gasoline (petrol) 35 MJ
1 kg #6 bunker C oil (HFO) 42.7 MJ
1 litre #6 bunker C oil (HFO) 40.5 MJ
1 m3 natural gas 37 MJ
1 kg natural gas 54.2 MJ
1 m3 propane (LPG) 25.5 GJ
1 kg propane (LPG) 45.7 MJ
1 kg Bituminous Coal 31.9 MJ
1 kg Sub-Bituminous Coal 23.5 MJ
1 kg Green Wood 12.2 MJ
*All fuel values in HHV (where applicable)
Certified Energy Manager® Energy Basics, Fuel Supply and Pricing 7

Energy Conversion
Example 1

5000 kJ is equal to
(A) 1.39 Wh (B) 1.39 kWh (C) 1.39 kW (D) 1.39 W

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 Energy Conversion
Solution- Example 1

5000 kJ is equal to
(A) 1.39 Wh (B) 1.39 kWh (C) 1.39 kW (D) 1.39 W

1kWh
# kWh = 5000 kJ x 3600kJ

= 1.39 kWh (B)

In this example, the two kJ units cancel out, leaving the remaining unit on the right side as
kWh, our desired unit

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Basics, Fuel Supply and Pricing 9

Energy Conversion
Example 2

1 m3 natural gas is equal to

(A) 10.28 kWh (B) 10.28 kW (C) 30.6 kWh (D) 30.6 kW

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 Energy Conversion
Solution- Example 2

1 m3 natural gas is equal to

(A) 10.28 kWh (B) 10.28 kW (C) 30.6 kWh (D) 30.6 kW

kWh =
37MJ 1000kJ 1kWh
= 1m3 × 1m3
× 1 MJ × 3600kJ

= 10.28 kWh (A)

In this example, the two m3 units cancel out, and the two MJ and kJ units cancel out,
leaving the remaining unit on the right side as kWh - our desired unit

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Basics, Fuel Supply and Pricing 11

Energy Conversion Quiz

Example for Class to Do

How many GJ did your electric boiler consume if the electric sub-
meter on the boiler showed a usage of 68,500 kWh?

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Basics, Fuel Supply and Pricing 12

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 How Energy Flows through a System
Impact of Efficiency or COP
Always use units in your calculations.
Output Input - Losses (kJ, kW, kg, m3, etc.)
= Input = Input

Losses
Power or Power or
Energy In Motor, Furnace, Hot Water Heater, etc. Energy Out
(Pi or Ei)  = efficiency (Po or Eo)

Pi = Po /  Po = Pi ∙ 
Ei = Eo /  Eo = Ei ∙ 

(Pi or Ei) Chiller (Pmoved or Emoved)

COP
Pi = Pm / COP Pmoved = Pi ∙ COP
Ei = Em / COP Emoved = Ei ∙ COP

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Basics, Fuel Supply and Pricing 13

Point of Use
The Cost to Deliver a certain Amount of Energy
Gas Boiler
“Point of use” (POU) cost depends on energy
purchase price and efficiency of equipment (%)

• Energy sources can be compared using POU costs Oil Boiler

converted to a common basis (or Common Unit)
(kJ, kWh, etc.).

• GJ is often used as the common basis unit.

Electric Boiler

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Basics, Fuel Supply and Pricing 14

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 Point of Use Example
A steam boiler for a facility can operate on natural gas or oil.

• Using LPG gas at $3.00 per kg, the boiler is 75% efficient.

• Using #6 oil at $0.70 per litre and 40.5 MJ per litre, the boiler is 78%
efficient.

Which fuel source provides the lowest operating cost?

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Basics, Fuel Supply and Pricing 15

Point of Use Example

Solution

$3.00 1 kg 1000 MJ 1 $87.5

LPG Gas = ∙ ∙ ∙ =
1 kg 45.7 MJ 1 GJ 0.75 GJ

$0.70 1 litre 1 000 MJ 1 $22.16

#6 Oil = ∙ ∙ ∙ =
litre 40.5 MJ 1 GJ 0.78 GJ

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Basics, Fuel Supply and Pricing 16

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 Price Point Determination for Fuel Switching
If electricity costs $ 0.06 per kWh and is used for electric heating with an
efficiency of 100 %. What would the equivalent price of natural gas be per GJ if it
can be burned with an efficiency of 80 %, to make these two heaters operate at
the same operating cost?

POU = Price / Efficiency

Set POU electricity = POU natural gas, then solve for X below
$0.06 1 kWh 1 $X 1
1 kWh ∙ 0.0036 GJ ∙ 1 = GJ ∙ 0.8

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Basics, Fuel Supply and Pricing 17

Price Point Determination for Fuel Switching

First Solve for POU for electricity
$ $0.06 1 kWh 1 $16.67
= ∙ ∙ =
GJ kWh 0.0036 GJ 1 GJ

Next: Solve for the price of the Natural Gas

$16.67 $X 1
= ∙
GJ GJ 0.8

$ 13.33
Thus X =
GJ

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Basics, Fuel Supply and Pricing 18

v2021.01.SI 9
 Point of Use Cost QUIZ
For a large boiler, you have the choice of the following energy sources.
Calculate the POU cost per GJ for each.

• Natural gas at $3.00 per kg, Eff = 75%

• #2 Fuel oil at $1.80/litre, Eff = 80%

• Electricity at $0.18/kWh, Eff = 99%

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Basics, Fuel Supply and Pricing 19

Electric, Natural Gas, Water & Sewer Rates

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Basics, Fuel Supply and Pricing 20

v2021.01.SI 10
 The Structure of Electric Rates
Electric rate structures vary greatly from utility to utility, but most rate structures have three common features:
❑ Customer Charge
❑ Energy Charge
❑ Demand Charge Example of a Typical Monthly Electric Bill
Customer Monthly Electric Bill
Other typical electric rate components Charge
❑ Fuel Adjustment Charge 3%
Customer Charge
❑ Power Factor Adjustment
❑ Voltage Level Charge Other
❑ Capacity Cost Components Demand Charge
❑ Conservation Recovery Clause 21%
Demand
❑ Environmental Recovery Clause Charge Energy Charge
Energy Charge 42%
❑ Solar Programs 34%
❑ Sales Tax Other Components

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Basics, Fuel Supply and Pricing 21

Customer Charge
The customer charge is generally a fixed monthly cost, and covers the
utility’s expenses in providing a meter, reading the meter every month,
billing, and maintenance of service connections.

This monthly charge is independent of the amount of electricity

supplied to the consumer each month.

This charge can range from $10/month to $1,000/month depending on

the type of service option and the current rates & tariffs.

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Basics, Fuel Supply and Pricing 22

v2021.01.SI 11
 Energy Charge

The energy charge exists to cover the utility’s fuel cost and their operating
and maintenance (O&M) costs.
• Associated with the amount of energy consumption (kWh)
• Not associated with the amount of power required by a consumer (kW)
• The units for the energy charge are $/kWh
• Typically between 3 and 9 cents per kWh

Some utilities now split this charge into two separate line item components:
Energy: which pays for the utility’s O&M costs
Fuel: which pays for the utility’s fuel costs

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Basics, Fuel Supply and Pricing 23

Demand Charge
The demand charge is based on the peak power over a small interval of time
(measured in kW) used by the customer in the month.
• Exists to repay the utility’s cost to build its power plants, transmission and
distribution.
• Utility companies charge for the peak power rather than the average power during
a month because the utility company must have enough capacity to supply the
peak load amount of power required by the customer at any given time during the
entire month.
The demand charge is independent of the energy consumption. The units
for the demand charge are $/kW/month.
• Typically: $6 - $15/kW/month, but it can go to $30 or more per kW per month.

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Basics, Fuel Supply and Pricing 24

v2021.01.SI 12
 Measurement of Demand
Utility companies do not actually measure instantaneous values of the
demand for a facility.
• Instead, they will average the value of the demand over a short period of time - usually
in 15, 30, or 60-minute intervals.
• Over the entire month, the company charges the consumer on the peak load which is
just the largest demand required during any one of these time intervals.

For example, if a facility uses 100 kW of demand for the entire month except for one hour
when the demand increases to 200 kW, then the peak load is 200 kW and the consumer
will pay a demand charge based on this peak load.

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Basics, Fuel Supply and Pricing 25

Demand Ratchet Clause

Penalty for high spike in demand
Billed demand “ratchets up” and will
never be less than X% of the highest
measured demand in the past N
months.
• X varies from 50% to 100%
• N can vary; 11 months is common
Normal Billing Ratcheted Billing

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Basics, Fuel Supply and Pricing 26

v2021.01.SI 13
 Power Factor Adjustment
If a facility has a poor (or low) power factor, then the utility may assess an
additional fee.
• Low power factor means that electrical capacity is not being used very effectively.
• Example: if the power factor for the month is less than eighty-five percent 85%
(utility’s minimum), the Billed Demand will be increased by:
Minimum PF Required by the Utility
Billed Demand = Metered Demand ∙
Measured PF during that month

Some utility companies do not charge extra for poor power factor OR they
may just charge for kVA.

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Basics, Fuel Supply and Pricing 27

Fuel Adjustment Charge (or Credit)

Utilities use fuel adjustment charges (or credits) to compensate for the
variance in fuel (coal, methane, etc.) costs.

If a utility has to pay more (or less) for fuel than is included in the energy
charge, then these additional costs (or credits) will be passed on to the
customer through the fuel adjustment charge, without the need to adjust
the rate structure.

Units for the Fuel Adjustment Charge are $/kWh

• Typically $0.001 to $0.01 per kWh.

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Basics, Fuel Supply and Pricing 28

v2021.01.SI 14
 Generation Costs
For facilities that are located in areas that allow for choice of generation
(kWh) and/or natural gas (Therms), the costs for these services provided by
Power and/or Gas Marketers can appear on your normal Local Distribution
Company (LDC) bill or they can be billed separately.

One must be diligent in including both of these costs when calculating the
total electric or gas costs at one’s facility.

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Basics, Fuel Supply and Pricing 29

Capacity Costs
Recovery of payments made by the utility for capacity, net of revenues
received by the utility for capacity sales.
• Pays for the siting, design, licensing, and construction of specific power plant types
or upgrades as approved.

When purchasing generation (kW) from a Power Marketer, the capacity cost
may be included in that price, and can be either fixed or pass-through.

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Basics, Fuel Supply and Pricing 30

v2021.01.SI 15
 Recovery Clauses
Environmental - recovery of expenses made by the utility for types of
emissions compliance for utility owned power plants, measurement and
reporting of emissions as specified for compliance, and research for
controlling of emissions for compliance.

Conservation/Energy Efficiency Programs - recovers the costs associated

with providing conservation/efficiency activities.

Renewables – recovers subsidization of wind & solar energy purchases.

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Basics, Fuel Supply and Pricing 31

Electrical Tariff or Rate Schedule

Tariff Sample 1

• Customer Charge is $250.00/bill/month • Demand Charge:

• On-peak season
$18.27/kW/mo.
• PF Penalty if below 80%: • Off-peak season
.8
Billed kW = Metered kW ∙
Measured PF during month
$9.82/kW/mo.
Definition of season:
• On-peak season: June-September
• 75% Ratchet Clause:
Billing Demand is the higher of: • Energy Charges:
The current month’s (power-factor corrected) kW; OR • Generation charge: $0.070/kWh
75% of the highest kW during the past 11 months • Distribution kWh charge:
$0.035/kWh

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Basics, Fuel Supply and Pricing 32

v2021.01.SI 16
 How to Calculate an Electrical Bill
Example 1

Using the rate schedule on the previous page, calculate the September bill
for this facility given the following meter information:
Actual demand 475 kW
Consumption 250,000 kWh
Previous high billed demand (July) 810 kW
Power Factor 70%
Tax 5.0%
Fuel adjustment: $0/kWh
because this facility purchases generation from a power marketer at a fixed rate

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Basics, Fuel Supply and Pricing 33

How to Calculate an Electrical Bill

Example 1 Solution

Step 1: Calculate the Demand Charge Step 2: Calculate the Other Charges
Actual demand adjusted for PF correction, Generation charge:
OR = 250,000 kWh × $0.070/kWh = $17,500
Minimum demand by ratchet clause
Distribution charge:
= 250,000 kWh × $0.035/kWh = $8,750
PF corrected demand = actual demand × (0.80/PF)
= 475 kW×(0.80/0.70) = 542.86 kW
OR Step 3: Customer Charge: = $250
Minimum demand charge (ratchet clause)
= 810 kW× 0.75 = 607.5 kW
Step 4: Total Bill Before Taxes:
$11,099 + $17,500 + $8,750 + $250= $37,599
Ratcheted demand is higher… use: 607.5 kW: Tax = 5% = $1,880
= 607.5 kW x $18.27/kW = $11,099
Total Bill After Taxes = $39,479
Energy Basics, Fuel Supply and Pricing 34

v2021.01.SI 17
 Electrical Tariff or Rate Schedule
Tariff Sample 2

• Customer Charge is $150.00/bill/month • Demand Charge:

• On-peak season $15/kW/mo.
• Off-peak season $8.5/kW/mo.
• PF Penalty if below 80%: Definition of season:
0.8 • On-peak season: June-September
Billed kW = Metered kW ∙
Measured PF during month

• 70% Ratchet Clause: • Energy Charges:

• Generation charge: $0.080/kWh
Billing Demand is the higher of:
• Distribution kWh charge: $0.04/kWh
The current month’s (power-factor corrected) kW; OR
70% of the highest kW during the past 11 months

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Basics, Fuel Supply and Pricing 35

Electrical Tariff Quiz

Using the rate schedule on the previous page (Tariff Sample 2),
calculate the bill for this facility given the following meter information
for the month of September:
Actual demand 500 kW
Consumption 200,000 kWh
Previous high billed demand (July) 950 kW
Power Factor 72%
Tax 6.0%

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Basics, Fuel Supply and Pricing 36

v2021.01.SI 18
 Natural Gas Utility Bill Components
Customer charge Environmental charge
Distribution charge Franchise fee adjustment
Purchased gas adjustment charge Gross receipts
Conservation cost recovery clause State and city tax
Competitive rate adjustment Ratchet rate
Max daily quantity Gas Marketer Charge for Commodity

Natural gas and electric bills have many of the same components or calculations

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Basics, Fuel Supply and Pricing 37

Example Of A
Natural Gas Bill
A: Account Information

B: Specific Message from Utility

C: Calculation of Gas Bill

D: Previous Gas Consumption

Information

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Basics, Fuel Supply and Pricing 38

v2021.01.SI 19
 Water and Sewer Rates
• Rate Components:
• Customer Charge
• Meter Charge - based on the size of the line running to the meter
• Usage Charge- the commodity charge
• Sewer Charge- based on water usage
• Miscellaneous fees

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Basics, Fuel Supply and Pricing 39

Actual Rates
Example A

Per 1,000 Per 1,000

(m3/day) Liters Liters

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Basics, Fuel Supply and Pricing 40

v2021.01.SI 20
 Actual Rates
Example B
Customer Class Liters Day Rate Block Water Rate Sewer Rate Combined

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Basics, Fuel Supply and Pricing 41

Energy Procurement
• Natural Gas

• Electricity

• Demand Response

• Benchmarking

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Basics, Fuel Supply and Pricing 42

v2021.01.SI 21
 Energy Choice
States Jan- 2019

Energy procurement
options across the
United States

www.electricchoice.com

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Basics, Fuel Supply and Pricing 43

Introduction Demand for clean-burning natural gas (composed primarily of methane) is growing around
the world. In North America, a dynamic gas-energy marketplace offers an array of
competitive choices - and risks - from wellhead to burner tip. Many gas utilities and
consumers gain enhanced security and flexibility - while reducing the overall cost of
energy supply - using propane peak shaving and standby systems. Most of these systems
produce "propane-air" for direct replacement of natural gas during peak demand periods.
Glossary North American Gas Energy Grid: Natural Gas and Propane (LPG)
NGL Fractionation Plant Underground LPG Storage Oil Refinery
LDC Local (Ethane, Propane, Butane, +)
Im port /
LPG Rail
Distribution Transport
Export

Natural Gas Production

Company & Gas Gathering Systems
LPG

LDCs operate natural - On land & Offshore -

gas distribution

Natural Gas System

High Pressure NG Transmission
systems linking to Load Centers
consumers & NGLs LPG
pipelines. LDCs may Terminal
also provide gas Refridgerated
storage & peaking Gas LPG Export LPG
Processing Storage
services.
Production LNG Liquefied NG Pipeline
Plant
Im port

Compressor Station LPG Ship Transport

Natural Gas
NG Pipeline
When cooled to about Interconnects Vaporization
-260°F, methane - Offshore -
(NYMEX) Determines Price becomes a liquid for
Underground
Vaporization

storage or transport in LNG Refridgerated LNG

NG Storage LNG
Base Load
insulated tanks, trucks Station Storage
Export
and ships.
Im port LNG Ship Transport
LPG Liquefied LNG
Petroleum LPG / LPG-Air Peak Shaving
System Station Refridgerated
Gas LNG LPG-Air System
Transportation LPG or LP-gas refers
Liquefaction
Storage Peak Shaving or Base Load
to several gas liquids, Vaporization
including propane and
(Gas Marketer) Determines Price butane. Critical
Infrastructure
NG Natural Gas Military Installation High Pressure
NG Transmission Town
NG is a mixture of Or To Load Centers
Border
Electric Power Producer
methane and various Station
other hydrocarbons “City Gate”
LPG / LPG-Air System
and inert gases. Base Load Satellite LNG System
Base Load / Peak Shaving
NGLs Natural Gas
Liquids Future / Remote
Natural Gas
Distribution NGLs are hydrocarbon
components of natural
Consumers

gas other than

methane, including LPG-Air St a nd b y Sy st e m
(Local Gas Utility) Determines Price ethane, propane and
Firm Natural Gas
Consumers
butane. Hospital

School
Propane is derived
during both natural gas
Standby Systems,
productionInc.
and crude
Interruptible
BIG WIDGET
Natural Gas INC.
oil refining. Common
Consumers
trade names include
Certified Energy Manager® LPG, LP-gas and HD-5 Energy Basics, Fuel Supply and Pricing 44
Propane.
What is Synthetic Natural Gas commonly refers to the output of 'coal gasification' plants or
SNG? refinery and petrochemical process streams. SNG may also be used to indicate a mixture
of propane or other LPGs and air. Substitute Natural Gas and Supplemental Natural Gas
almost always refer to 'LPG-air' mixtures - and 'propane-air' is the most common form.
Propane Propane Standby Systems ...an overview offers a brief look at consumer-owned standby
Standby Systems systems, including general design considerations and equipment types.
...an overview For further information, contact Standby Systems, Inc.
v2021.01.SI Internet: www.standby.com Telephone: 612.721.4473 Email: [email protected]
22
 Influences on Future Natural Gas Pricing
• Current Weather – Both Summer & Winter
• Natural Gas Storage Levels
• Economy
• Oil Prices
• Drilling Activity
• World Events
• Politics (both Foreign & Domestic)
• Supply & Demand
• Exporting to Foreign Countries

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Basics, Fuel Supply and Pricing 45

Purchasing Natural Gas

Two main reasons to purchase natural gas competitively:

• Customer believes they can purchase the pipeline transportation

portion at a lower rate than local gas utility.

• Customer wants to lock-in (for budgeting purposes) or float the actual

cost of the natural gas itself, depending on the customer’s risk level.

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Basics, Fuel Supply and Pricing 46

v2021.01.SI 23
 Determination of Natural Gas Prices (NYMEX)
• The NYMEX is used to determine the monthly price of the natural gas
commodity for North America “Price Discovery”, as well as the current price
of natural gas for up to 72 months into the future.
• Knowing the current worth of future months allows gas marketers to fix prices for
customers over long periods of times using futures contracts. This is called “Hedging”.
• Traders on NYMEX buy and sell Futures Contracts to allow hedging to
happen. One “Futures Contract” is 10,000 GJ.
• The monthly price of gas is assumed to be located at “Henry Hub” which is a physical
pipeline exchange point in Erath, Louisiana. Your ultimate monthly cost will be less
than or greater than Henry Hub, depending on your location. This “Basis Difference”
is also known as “Transportation Costs”.

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Basics, Fuel Supply and Pricing 47

Historic NYMEX Monthly Settlement Prices ($/MMBtu)

1MMBTU = 1.055 GJ
14

12
Jan
Feb
10 Mar
Apr

8 May
Jun
Jul
6
Aug
Sep
4
Oct
Nov
2 Dec

0
2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020

Acela Energy Group, Inc.

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Basics, Fuel Supply and Pricing 48

v2021.01.SI 24
 Example – Index Priced Gas Commodity ($/MMBtu)
1MMBTU = 1.055 GJ

$10.0

$9.0 Customer
$8.0 Pays Index The NYMEX Monthly
$7.0
Settlement Price is what the
$6.0
customer will pay for the
Natural Gas Commodity
$5.0
Portion of their overall bill
$4.0

$3.0

$2.0

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Basics, Fuel Supply and Pricing 49

Example – Fixed Gas Commodity Pricing ($/MMBtu)

1MMBTU = 1.055 GJ
$10.0
Index
$9.0

$8.0 Gas Marketers

$7.0
Customer purchase futures
Pays $4.20/MMBtu
$6.0 FIXED PRICE contracts to provide
customers with fixed
$5.0
long-term prices
$4.0

$3.0

$2.0
L

T
B

PR

EC
P
UG
N

N
R

V
SE
FE

JU

C
A

O
JA

JU
A

D
M

A
M

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Basics, Fuel Supply and Pricing 50

v2021.01.SI 25
 Example – Collar Priced Gas Commodity ($/MMBtu)
1MMBTU = 1.055 GJ
$10.0

$9.0

$8.0 Cap Customer Pays

$7.0 1. MINIMUM of $3.50
$6.0
2. Index, or
$5.0
Index
3. MAXIMUM of $6.00
$4.0

$3.0
Floor
$2.0
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Basics, Fuel Supply and Pricing 51

Purchasing Electricity
Key Questions to Ask:

• Are you on the correct rate with your Local Distribution Company (LDC) ?

• Can or do you want to participate in DSM or Demand Response?

• What is your “Risk Tolerance” – Do you purchase Fixed, Index , or some

combination of the two with regards to generation?

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Basics, Fuel Supply and Pricing 52

v2021.01.SI 26
 Review of Electric Grid – 3 Pricing Areas

Federal Energy Regulatory Commission

Generation Transmission Distribution

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Basics, Fuel Supply and Pricing 53

Independent System Operators

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Basics, Fuel Supply and Pricing 54

v2021.01.SI 27
 Marketers & Consultants
Marketers take Title to Power or Gas
Generally are the company that signs a power or gas purchasing agreement with the
customer

Consultants:
Generally paid by customer to assist in selection of a Power Marketer or Gas Marketer
Paid based on hours of effort, not energy quantity

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Basics, Fuel Supply and Pricing 55

Brokers
Brokers may also be used by a customer to select a Power or Gas Marketer
Broker’s fees can be based on quantity of energy sold to customer and the length of
the contract

Be careful of some Brokers being paid by kWh or m3 consumed, because

some may:
• Promote long-term contracts to increase quantity they are paid
• Select only with marketers who pay the broker the most $

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Basics, Fuel Supply and Pricing 56

v2021.01.SI 28
 Aggregation Programs for Purchasing Energy
Often times, a company, like a supermarket chain for example, will
aggregate all their stores for “bulk purchasing”
Other times, Aggregation Groups are formed to increase purchasing power,
however, in many commercial customer situations, joining a group may not
be the best choice.
• For increased purchasing power, aggregation groups need similar contracts,
averaged out credit ratings, averaged load profiles, and need to pay an aggregator
for putting the group together.
• If you have a good credit rating, an advantageous load profile (use a lot of off-peak
power for example), and like to negotiate your own contract, then carrying out the
process without joining the group may be best for you.

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Basics, Fuel Supply and Pricing 57

4 Major Areas that Affect a Customer’s Generation Price

Credit Rating
Power Marketers usually cannot shut off your meter, so your credit rating is very important
Load Profile
The time of day you consume energy can help or hurt you.
The more energy used during off-peak times, the lower your overall costs

Risk Tolerance
As mentioned in the natural gas section – “Fixed”, “Index”, or a combination will effect prices
Voltage Level
If you are a large customer and receive “Primary” (high voltage) service, you will receive a
discount for suffering the line loss through the transformer

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Basics, Fuel Supply and Pricing 58

v2021.01.SI 29
 Voltage Level Charge
Primary vs Secondary Rates

Many facilities receive electric power at approximately 11 kV - 66 kV, while

smaller facilities receive a voltage level of approximately 400 volts.
• This means the utility company must step-down the voltage level for the consumer.
• Most utilities will reduce monthly charges (2-3%) if the customer is willing to receive
the electricity at a higher voltage level (usually called “transmission” or “primary”
service) and the customer agrees to maintain their own transformer.

Primary Meter Location

Secondary Meter Location

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Basics, Fuel Supply and Pricing 59

Additional Energy Purchasing Contract Terms

Bandwidth – the amount over and under a contracted amount of kWh/m3 usage a
customer can use before another pricing mechanism is employed.
This amount is usually given as a +/- %.
Early Termination – When the contract is ended prematurely for any type of reason, the
client may owe money, or be given money.
Depends on the energy’s current value for the remaining period, compared to contracted price.
Pass Thru Charges - Costs that show up on your gas /electric marketers bill that were not
locked down the day you sign the contract. These charges may include capacity charges,
renewable energy charges, etc.
These charges are often difficult to determine in advance.
Evergreen Clause – Contract terms and conditions automatically renew.

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Basics, Fuel Supply and Pricing 60

v2021.01.SI 30
 Demand Side Management
• DSM Rebates or Financing Programs
• http://www.dsireusa.org/

• Interruptible Rates (for Electric or gas)

• Typically saves 10%-20%
• but they can “interrupt/curtail” your flow a specified # of times per year.

• Demand Response

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Basics, Fuel Supply and Pricing 61

Demand Response
• Demand response provides an opportunity for consumers to play a
significant role in the reliability and operation of the electric grid by
reducing or shifting their electricity usage during peak periods in
response to time-based rates or other forms of financial incentives.
• Demand response programs are being used by some electric system
operators (ISO’s) as resource options for balancing supply and demand.
• Such programs can lower the cost of electricity in wholesale markets, and in
turn, lead to lower retail rates.
• Methods of engaging customers in demand response include: offering time-
based rates such as time-of-use pricing, critical peak pricing, variable peak
pricing, real time pricing, and critical peak incentives.
US DOE

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Basics, Fuel Supply and Pricing 62

v2021.01.SI 31
 Supermarket Demand Response Application
400

350

300

250
DR Provider Responds 20 kW from DR Provider Restores
Automatically within 30 Backup Generator
kW 200
Minutes
Operations Automatically

20 kW from Store
150
AC or Air Handler
ISO Calls “Event” 30
Minutes Prior to Required
100 Response 30 kW from 1/3
Lights
50

0
12:00 am 2:00 am 4:00 am 6:00 am 8:00 am 10:00 am 12:00 pm 2:00 pm 4:00 pm 6:00 pm 8:00 pm 10:00 pm 12:00 am
Courtesy of Enel X
Time of Day
Energy Basics, Fuel Supply and Pricing

Benchmarking – Energy Usage & Costs

Building energy benchmarking is the comparison of whole-building
energy use relative to a set of similar buildings and provides a useful
starting point for individual energy audits or for targeting buildings for
energy-saving measures in multiple-site audits.

A useful tool to prioritize facility audits with regards to reducing:

Power: kW or GJ/h
Energy: kWh or GJ
Costs: $
Amount of CO2

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Basics, Fuel Supply and Pricing 64

v2021.01.SI 32
 CBECS 2012 Data (kWh/m2 per year)
Education 217 Warehouse 103
Vacant 40 Food Sales 659
Food Service 890 Health Care 545
Inpatient 729 Outpatient 299
Lodging 305 Retail Stores 211
Office 245 Assembly 272
Safety 291 Churches 120
Service 185 All Bldgs. Avg. 344

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Basics, Fuel Supply and Pricing 65

CBECS Study
2003 – 2012
Comparison

kWh/m2 per year

157 315 472 630 787

Total kWh energy use per annum per square meter

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Basics, Fuel Supply and Pricing 66

v2021.01.SI 33
 Common Benchmarking Units
Energy Utilization Index (EUI)… aka Energy Use Index
Is the basic measure of a facility’s energy performance and provides the
statement of the number of kWh or MJ of energy used annually per
square meter of conditioned space.

Energy Cost Index (ECI)

Is the basic measure of a facility’s energy costs and provides the
statement of the number $ paid annually for energy sources per square
meter of conditioned space.

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Basics, Fuel Supply and Pricing 67

Review
Awareness of:
• Energy Fundamentals
• Energy & Power Definitions, Unit Conversions
• Point of Use Fuel Costs and Comparisons
• Electric, Natural Gas, Water & Sewer Rate Components
• Procurement
• Natural Gas & Electric Procurement (including Demand-Side Management)
• Benchmarking Energy Usage and Costs

Ability to:
• Calculate an Electric Energy Bill from Rate & Usage Information
• Conduct “Point of Use” Cost Comparisons for Equipment
• Calculate Energy Usage Index & Energy Cost Index

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Basics, Fuel Supply and Pricing 68

v2021.01.SI 34
 Benchmarking Quiz
A 10,000 Conditioned m2 facility has a yearly electrical usage of
2,000,000 kWh at a cost of $240,000. The building also has a yearly
natural gas usage amount of 6,800 GJ per year at a cost of $62,000.

Calculate the Facilities EUI [MJ/m2/Year]

Calculate the Facilities ECI [$/m2/Year]

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Basics, Fuel Supply and Pricing 69

v2021.01.SI 35
 Section 1.4
Energy Audits

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Audits

Energy Audits 1

Learning Objectives & Contents

Awareness of:
• Energy Programs
• ISO 50001
• Energy Audits
• Audit Strategies & Approaches
• Benchmarking and Utility Rates
• Level 1, 2 and 3 Audits
• Investment Grade Audits
• Report Components & Best Practices

Ability to:
• Do Basic Energy Audit Functions and Estimates

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Audits 2

v2021.01.SI 1
 If you want to start an Energy Mgmt. Program
ASK: Why the organization is interested in Energy Management?
• Are utility bills perceived as high?
• New government programs or regulations?
• Benchmarking requirements?
• Some other compelling event?

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Audits 3

Starting An Energy Management Program

• Designate an Energy Manager/Energy Management Team
• Should not necessarily be added to someone’s existing job duties

• Top management must provide support for:

1. Setting goals and getting inter-company cooperation
2. Collecting energy use and cost data
3. Funding to implement the most cost-effective improvements as well as on-going
training, behavior modification, etc.

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Audits 4

v2021.01.SI 2
 Running an Energy Management Program
• A lot of effort goes into performing the energy audit, as well as the
management system (for continuous improvement).

• Prioritize:
1. Waste elimination & conservation projects
2. Low-risk projects
3. Projects requiring significant capital investment

There is “no end” to a good program

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Audits 5

Approach Model: Continual Improvement

• Mgmt. commitment
• Management review • Energy policy
• Review policy, obj. & Act Plan • Obj. & targets
targets, resources, • Scope & boundaries
results • Resources, Energy Team Roles &
• Cont. improvement responsibilities
actions 4 1 • Review baseline, Significant
Energy Users
• Recognition
• Opportunities, action plans
• Legal conformities

• M&V analysis
• Internal audit
3 2 •
•
Implementation, operation
Design
• Performance against • Document
energy policy & obj. Check Do • Training & awareness
• Non-conformities • Communication
• Corrective action • Operational controls
• Preventive action • Procurement
ISO.org

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Audits 6

v2021.01.SI 3
 Benefits of ISO 50001
ISO – International Standards Organization

• Globally applicable energy management standard that integrates with ISO

9001 and ISO 14001
• Requires that top management must establish, implement and maintain an
energy policy
• ISO 50001 designed to:
• Help companies better use their energy-consuming assets
• Evaluate and prioritize the implementation of energy-efficient technology
• Promote efficiency throughout the supply chain

www.energy.gov/ISO50001

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Audits 7

DOE and EPA

Resources Available

• DOE and EPA resources are available today to help your facility

• “Guidelines for Energy Management” discusses how to form an

energy management team and set corporate energy policy

• “U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Energy Treasure Hunt Guide:

Simple Steps to Finding Energy Savings”

www.energy.gov/eere/amo/advanced-manufacturing-office

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Audits 8

v2021.01.SI 4
 “Treasure Hunts”
Energy Star Program

• Good training guides

• Checklists and “Treasure

Maps” for different facility
types

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Audits 9

General Energy Audit Approaches

Do Energy Conservation First
Audit Approaches Typical Returns on Investment
Energy Conservation > 100%
Fixing Leaks, Traps, Turning Equipment or Lights Off,
Correcting Control Over-rides, Correcting VFDs that
are in “bypass” mode, etc.
Demand Side Management > 50%
Demand Response, Shifting Loads to use equipment
during “off peak” hours

Equipment Replacement > 20%

Lighting, Motors, etc.
Renewable Energy Varies
Certified Energy Manager® Energy Audits 10

v2021.01.SI 5
 Typical Energy-Related Systems
• Maintenance
• Building Automation
• Steam and Water
• Compressed Air
• Motors and Pumps
• Lighting
• HVAC and Refrigeration
• Onsite Power, Microgrids, Renewable Energy
• Data Centers
• Conveyance: Elevators and Escalators
• Building Envelope
• Plug Loads

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Audits 11

Finding the Savings Opportunities

Finding Saving Opportunities
Start at the point of end-use and work back.
Focus on the “End Use” and best way to deliver that result
PURCHASE CONVERSION END USE LOST

MECHANICAL
MOTOR ENERGY
FLOW HEAT
PUMP/FAN
HEAT

LIGHT
WORK AREA HEAT

HEAT
HEATERS
COMPRESSOR
MOTOR
ELECTRICITY
HEAT

LIGHTING
WORK AREA HEAT

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Audits 12

v2021.01.SI 6
 Energy Audit & Project Development Process
Understand Estimate Confirm Implement
Level I Audit Level II and/or
Level III Audits and/or
Define Areas to Investment Grade Audits
Investigate & If Needed,
Share Information Approve
Detailed
Analysis

Implement Measure
Project
Project &
Approval
Verify

Initial Present Conduct

Introduce Project
Walk- Preliminary Detailed
Concept Presentation
Through Findings Analysis

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Audits 13

Critical Data to Collect Before a Site Visit

1. Customer’s Goals
• Why they want to do energy management?
• “Financial Criteria” to approve projects (what is their MARR?)
• Do they have a budget to fund projects?

2. Utility Data:
• Rate and tariff structures
• 24 months of bills

3. Customer’s Information:
• Facility map and operational hours for each area
• List of major energy consuming equipment
• Benchmarking data if available
• Prior audit reports

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Audits 14

v2021.01.SI 7
 Energy Audit Types Level 1 Level 2 Level 3

Accuracy Accuracy Accuracy

• Benchmarking Audit
•-30% to -50% Savings •-15% to -25% Savings •-5% to -10% Savings
•+30% to + 50% Costs •+15% to + 25% Costs •+5% to + 10% Costs

Uses Uses Uses

•Monitoring •Detailed feasibility •Advanced Investment

• Level I •Scoping
•Qualification
•Firm internal funding
requests
Feasibility Study – more
detail for a larger, more
complex facility
•Key feasibility study for
small facilities or simple •External Funding Requests
energy systems LOE (Typical) •System Specific Detailed
Feasibility Study

• Level II
•Small-Medium
Building
•1 week on site
Level of Effort “LOE” LOE generally the same as
(Typical) •2 weeks office Level 2
report writing
•Small-Medium Building •LOE determined by detail
•Large Building
•1 days on site required and / or

• Level III
•2 Weeks on site complexity of a sub system
•1 week office report •4 weeks office
writing report writing
•Large Building
•2 days on site
•2 weeks office report
writing
Source: Econoler

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Audits 15

Benchmarking Audit
Can be done without a Site Visit

Generally thought of as a “Preliminary Energy Audit”

• Essentially an analysis of energy use based on actual utility bills which is then
compared to some normative, i.e. Portfolio Manager by EPA/DOE

• Energy Use Index (EUI) and Energy Cost Index (ECI) and/or other benchmarks

• Used by many ESCOs and consultants because it can quickly identify facilities
that use significantly more energy than the average

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Audits 16

v2021.01.SI 8
 Level I Energy Audit
“Walk-Through”

• On-site visual inspection and review of prior audits

• Identify operation & maintenance issues and practices
• Identify “No-Cost / Low-Cost” opportunities
• Include rough estimates of potential projects’ costs and savings
• or rough payback per project

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Audits 17

Level II Energy Audit

“Energy Survey and Analysis” (More Detailed Audit with Measurements)

• Breakdown of energy use in the building by category (“Energy Balance”)

• Review O&M procedures
• Qualitative assessment of maintenance practices
• Review setpoints, schedules, etc.
• Take measurements, collect data, etc.
• Produce a detailed savings & cost analysis of projects using calculations
that estimate energy use according to the size, load, efficiency, hours, etc.
• List potential capital-intensive improvements requiring further analysis

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Audits 18

v2021.01.SI 9
 Level III Energy Audit
“Detailed Analysis of Capital-Intensive Modifications”

• Determination of selected opportunities with owner

• Provides detailed project cost and savings information with a level of
confidence high enough for major capital investment decisions
• Requires detailed field data gathering and engineering analysis
• May involve computer modeling
• Requires a Life Cycle Cost analysis (LCCA)
• Requires “Risk Assessment”
• Present “High”, “Low” and “Most Likely” potential outcomes

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Audits 19

Investment Grade Audit “IGA”

Essential Components

• This audit includes weighing financial risk into the economic calculations
of a Level II or III Energy Audit

• Enhanced financial analysis including Life Cycle Cost

• Includes analysis of potential changes or other variances
• May require computer modeling of the facility

• This audit can be utilized to obtain funding for the projects identified

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Audits 20

v2021.01.SI 10
 Choosing the Level of the Energy Audit
• A progression from Level I, then Level II or III is normal, with each
increasing level costing more $
• Tips:
• A small facility with basic HVAC and lighting systems might not need a Level 3 Audit
• A facility with compressed air or steam systems, etc. likely needs a minimum of a
Level II Audit (and to really evaluate a particular system, a Level III Audit is common)
• The larger the potential investment of funds (or the number of potential projects)
will frequently determine which audit is best

The experience and skill of the energy auditor is very important

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Audits 21

Energy Audit Report Components

• Executive Summary… Prioritize projects to the reader’s needs!
• Site Information:
• Facility identification, owner, address, floor area, use(s) of building, number of stories,
year constructed and renovations, occupied hours, number of occupants, dates of any
previous energy studies, historical energy bills, current rate/tariff structure.
• Benchmarking, EUI and ECI calculations
• Established Target and Estimated Savings
• Low-Cost/No-Cost Recommendations
• Energy Efficiency Measures that require capital investment

Additional report components are on the next few slides…

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Audits 22

v2021.01.SI 11
a Location: ABC Facility
ion Data ]

ergy Daily Load Demand Energy Adjust Sub Total --- Demand Block Allocatio
Wh Days kWh Factor Cost Cost (+/-) Total Cost
06,703 30 33,557 78% $21,250 $50,365 ($11,147) $71,615 $64,701
06,383 31 38,916 85% $22,750 $56,441 ($13,204) $79,191 $70,607
42,286 28 30,082 90% $15,250 $42,144 ($9,263) $57,394 $51,501
02,176 31
13,021 30
35,554
40,434 Load Factor (LF)80%
90%
$22,000
$22,300
$53,315 ($12,132)
$56,641 aka:
$75,315
Facility Electrical
($13,252)
$67,606
$78,941 Load $70,287
Factor (FELF)
39,599 31
50,195 30
43,213
28,340
Used to determine the potential for Demand Shifting or Scheduling
82%
76%
$27,250
$17,650
$60,438
$42,540
($14,716)
($9,438)
$87,688
$60,190
$78,080
$54,304
48,747 31 30,605 81% $17,800 $47,467 ($10,429) $65,267 $58,677
13,798 31
73,054 30
39,155
45,768
Indicates potential for energy management (scheduling loads to minimize
84%
83%
$23,500
$28,750
$56,664
$61,442
($13,308)
($15,111)
$80,164
$90,192
$71,536
$80,337
47,059 31 43,454 energy expenses)86% $25,750 $60,662 ($14,731) $86,412 $76,699
24,475 30 34,149 59% $30,250 $50,984 ($11,685) $81,234 $74,418
67,496 364 • Low LF$274,500
means excessive
$639,104 demand
($148,415) for a short duration
$913,604 $818,752

Monthly Load Factor (%)

Low Load
100% Factor
80% 90% 90%
85% 86%
78% 80% 82% 81% 84% 83%
76%
60%
59% High Load
40%
Factor
20%

0%
Certified Energy Manager® Energy Audits 23

Energy Cost Demand Cost

$100,000
$80,000
$60,000
Cost ($)

$40,000
$20,000

Example: Facility Electric Load Factor

$0
Nov-99
May-99
Mar-99

Sep-99
Apr-99

Dec-99
Oct-99
Feb-99

Aug-99
Jan-99

Jul-99
Jun-99
Dec-99
Nov-99

Actual kWh Used kWAvg

Load Factor = =
Peak kW ∙ Time kWPeak
For Example: Compute monthly load factor when
• Peak kW = 1,250 kW
• Energy use = 500,000 kWh
• Time = 720 hours (24 hours/day x 30 days/month)
500,000 kWh
LF = = 55.6%
1,250 kW ∙ 720 h

Note: A poor load factor probably indicates short periods of high kW: good to calculate during
benchmarking and then observe opportunities when on the site visit.

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Audits 24

v2021.01.SI 12
 Energy Balance for a Facility
Purchased Electricity Purchased Natural Gas
2,597,700 kWh 34,794 GJ

Boilers
Lighting
34,974 GJ
130,560 kWh
Facility
Motors Electric Heaters
1,516,619 kWh
HVAC Miscellaneous 100,100 kWh
34,286 kWh 260,000 kWh
Air Compressors
Chillers
116,376 kWh
274,560 kWh

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Audits 25

Regression Model Example

Used to see if Energy Consumption is correlated to weather, production,
other variables, etc.
Step 1: Get Data
Step 2: Graph (next page)
Step 3: Do Regression Analysis

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Audits

v2021.01.SI 13
 Regression Model Example (Continued)
Can be used to predict the correlation between energy use and weather (or other variables)

y = mx + b
y: kWh Consumption

m: Slope of the line (how much kWh per

independent variable)

x: Independent variable (Degree Days, or

Production Output, Occupancy Hours, etc.)

R2 is the “Coefficient of Determination” and measures the strength of the relationship between your model
and the dependent variable on a convenient 0 – 100% scale

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Audits 27

The Audit should:

• Identify Significant Energy Users (SEU’s)
• Identify Key Performance Indicators (KPI’s)
• Identify, qualify and quantify the opportunities
• Provide an action plan for the client

Be sure to list all the things you considered but did not “make the cut”
for further analysis because of long payback etc.

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Audits 28

v2021.01.SI 14
 Review
Awareness of:
• Energy Programs
• ISO 50001
• Energy Audits
• Audit Strategies & Approaches
• Benchmarking and Utility Rates
• Level 1, 2 and 3 Audits
• Investment Grade Audits
• Report Components & Best Practices

Ability to:
• Do Basic Energy Audit Functions and Estimates

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Audits 29

QUIZ #1
1. Why do you perform an energy audit?

A. To find ways to save energy

B. To identify opportunities for improvement
C. To reduce utility spend
D. All of the above

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Audits 30

v2021.01.SI 15
 QUIZ #2
2. Why would you perform an Energy and Demand Balance on a facility?

A. To breakdown consumption by user

B. To assess the Significant Energy Users
C. To determine where the largest opportunity resides
D. All of the above

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Audits 31

QUIZ #3
3. What distinguishes an ASHRAE Level III Audit from a Level I Audit?

A. A Level III Audit likely comes complete with actual vendor implementation quotes
B. A Level III Audit may involve a computer modeling program, whereas it is
uncommon at Level I
C. A Level I Audit is just as accurate as a Level III for most clients
D. A & B
E. A & C

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Audits 32

v2021.01.SI 16
 QUIZ #4
4. A 100 kW electrically-powered oven operates within a manufacturing
facility that only operates 8am to 5pm. The facility does not have access to
natural gas, and is on the utility’s demand-ratcheted peak kW rate between
the hours of 2pm through 7pm. The oven is only needed 30% of the time to
dry parts in batches (which are assembled in the afternoon on the following
day). Which of the options below should you pursue first (to reduce the
utility bill)?
A. Purchase a propane gas-powered oven, install storage tanks and distribution lines
to the oven.
B. Only operate the electric oven from 8am-Noon.
C. Operate the oven during the afternoon to maximize the ratchet and savings.

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Audits 33

v2021.01.SI 17
 Section 1.5
Energy Audit Instrumentation

Instrumentation

Learning Objectives & Contents

Awareness of:
• Different data collection technologies and instruments related to energy systems
• Data logging and communication technologies
• Advantages and disadvantages

Ability to:
• Apply the correct instruments in the field

Certified Energy Manager® Instrumentation 2

v2021.01.SI 1
 Energy Investigation is about collecting and
analyzing data
• You need to be familiar with instruments that can be used, how they
work, and if the data makes sense.
• Otherwise your entire analysis and project can be compromised.

• The following slides will present an overall view of data gathering

Instruments that are typically used during an energy audit.

• What you will use is driven by what types of systems you will
encounter at the job site.

Certified Energy Manager® Instrumentation 3

Typical Energy Audit Tools

• Flow Meters
• Pressure Meters
• Electrical and Lighting Instruments
• Temperature Measurement
Instruments
• Combustion Analyzers
• Leak Detectors

4
Certified Energy Manager® Instrumentation

v2021.01.SI 2
 SAFETY FIRST
PPE (Personal Protective Equipment)

Certified Energy Manager® Instrumentation 5

Fluid Flow Meters

Turbine-Style Meters

Certified Energy Manager® Instrumentation 6

v2021.01.SI 3
 Fluid Flow Meters
Ultrasonic/Doppler meters
• Doppler ultrasonic flowmeters operate on
the doppler effect RS Hydro

• Transmitted frequency is altered linearly by

being reflected from particles and bubbles in
the fluid

• The result is a frequency shift between

transmitter and receiver that can be directly
related to the flow rate

Certified Energy Manager® Instrumentation 7

Air Flow Measurement Technologies

Flow Hoods for HVAC diffuser outlets

Certified Energy Manager® Instrumentation 8

v2021.01.SI 4
 Air Flow Measurement Technologies
Rotating Vane Anemometer

Certified Energy Manager® Instrumentation 9

Flow Measurement Technologies

Hot Wire Anemometer

Advantages:
• Excellent accuracy of the order of ±0.1% in the measurement of mean velocities
and ± 2% in the measurement of turbulence levels
• Good for low velocities of air (fume hoods, etc.)

Certified Energy Manager® Instrumentation 10

v2021.01.SI 5
 Electrical & Lighting System
Instruments

• Amp Probe/Meter
• Current transducers
• Harmonics analyzer
• Multimeter
• Light meter

Certified Energy Manager® Instrumentation 11

Solar PV Tester and I-V Curve Tracer

• Measurement of I-V curves
• Helps find common problems such as shading,
defective cells or poor electrical connections
• Carries out commissioning tests required by IEC 62446
• Tests individual PV modules or strings
• Irradiance meters

www.seawardsolar.com
1/22/2021
Certified Energy Manager® Instrumentation 12

v2021.01.SI 6
 Pressure Measuring Technologies
• U – Tube Manometer

• Digital Manometer

• Bourdon Pressure Gauge

Note: a Pressure Transducer converts

pressure to an analog electrical signal

Certified Energy Manager® Instrumentation 13

Temperature Measurement
• Thermometer/Portable Electronic Thermometer
• Radiation-Based Thermometer (Pyrometer)
• Infrared Thermometer
• Thermocouple Probe

Thermocouples are metal couples which work on the Seebeck Effect.

In this effect, if any conductor is subjected to a thermal gradient, it will generate a voltage.

Certified Energy Manager® Instrumentation 14

v2021.01.SI 7
 Infrared Measuring Equipment
Based on “Emissivity”: the real temperature of an
object can be found by measuring its emitted radiation

Certified Energy Manager® Instrumentation 15

Infrared Measuring Equipment

DroneNerds.com review of DJI XT FLIR

Certified Energy Manager® Instrumentation 16

v2021.01.SI 8
 Combustion Analyzer
Flue gas analyzers
• Handheld, microcomputer
• Measures: O2, CO, CO2, stack temperature
rise and combustion efficiency

Certified Energy Manager® Instrumentation 17

Ultrasonic Leak Detection

• Air flowing through an orifice makes a high
frequency sound – great tool for compressed
air leaks and testing steam traps

Certified Energy Manager® Instrumentation 18

v2021.01.SI 9
 Ultrasonic + Visual Approach…

https://forms.fluke.com/IG-GL-TI-2019-TIII900RELEASE1-LP-1-A?lcid=46c0db42-4e4b-e911-80cd-
00155d027460&lrpf=TI&plt=200000000&cra=100000001&scl=6925&redir=https://www.fluke.com/en-us/fluke/thank-you-for-contacting-fluke&utm_source=BOM&utm_medium=emedia-
email&utm_campaign=IG-NA-TI-2019-TIII900-USEN-EMEDIA-1-A

Certified Energy Manager® Instrumentation 19

Relative Humidity
• Psychrometer: measures wet bulb and dry bulb temperatures,
and we can then calculate the RH
• Hygrometer: measures electrical conductivity

Certified Energy Manager® Instrumentation 20

v2021.01.SI 10
 RPM Measurement

Mechanical
Tachometers
Laser
Tachometers
(non-contact)

Certified Energy Manager® Instrumentation 21

U-Value meter for wall surfaces

• Measures conduction of heat through
building materials and structures

• Measures indoor and outdoor air

simultaneously, as well as wall surface
resistance – and displays the
automatically calculated U and R
values

Source: Testo
Certified Energy Manager® Instrumentation 22

v2021.01.SI 11
 Data Loggers
• Web based data logging/blue tooth
• Wireless data logger
• Electrical loads, CT’s, multiple
channels,
• Plug load analyzer
• Occupancy/vacancy sensors
• Daylight harvesting
• Events, status, on/off, etc.

Certified Energy Manager® Instrumentation 23

Web-Based Data Loggers

Certified Energy Manager® Instrumentation 24

v2021.01.SI 12
 Review
Awareness of:
• Different data collection technologies and instruments related to energy systems
• Data logging and communication technologies
• Advantages and disadvantages

Ability to:
• Apply the correct instruments in the field

Certified Energy Manager® Instrumentation 25

Quiz
1. What energy audit instrument is used to measure flow of water in a pipe:
A. Bourdon Gauge
B. Turbine Meter
C. Anemometer
D. Thermometer

2. What tool would be best for measuring airflow in a lab hood:

A. Hot Wire Anemometer
B. Infrared Temperature Gun
C. Ultrasonic Leak Detector

Certified Energy Manager® Instrumentation 26

v2021.01.SI 13
 Quiz
3. What energy audit instrument is used to measure the flue gas
composition of a boiler?
A. Amp Meter
B. Thermocouple
C. Combustion Analyzer
D. Pitot Tube

4. Which instrument is used to measure rotational speed?

A. Psychrometer
B. Pyrometer
C. Tachometer
D. Anemometer

Certified Energy Manager® Instrumentation 27

v2021.01.SI 14
 Section 1.6
Codes and Standards

Certified Energy Manager®

Learning Objectives & Contents

Awareness of:
Relevant ASHRAE Standards:
• 55.1 Thermal Comfort Envelope
• 90.1 Energy Efficient Design for Buildings (including the Energy Cost Budget Method)
• 135 BACnet – Interoperability of Control Systems
• 189 High Performance Buildings
• 62.1 Ventilation for Indoor Air Quality
How the above Standards impact Codes Notes:
ASHRAE = American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Engineers
IES = Illuminating Engineering Society
USGBC = United States Green Building Council
Ability to: LEED = Leadership for Energy and Environmental Design

• Estimate Minimum Air Flow Requirements

• Utilize Tax Benefits and Federal Regulations

Certified Energy Manager® Codes and Standards 2

v2021.01.SI 1
 How Are ASHRAE Standards Developed?
• Standards as well as 55, 62, 90, 135 and others are developed and
revised through voluntary consensus and public hearing processes
that are critical to widespread support for their adoption.
• Standards 90.1 and 62.1 are on “continuous maintenance” and are
maintained by separate Standing Standards Project Committees
(SSPCs). Committee membership varies from 10 to 60 voting
members.
• Note that in ASHRAE any xx.1 is Commercial and any xx.2 is Low Rise Residential.

Certified Energy Manager® Codes and Standards 3

ASHRAE STANDARDS =“Minimum Compliance”

• Committee membership includes representatives from many groups to
ensure balance among all interested parties.
• Since these Committees are comprised of engineers, contractors,
manufacturers, government agencies, etc., the resulting Standard is a
COMPROMISE and does NOT represent the BEST or MOST EFFICIENT
possible design.
• ASHRAE Standards are based on minimum standards that should
routinely be life-cycle cost (LCC) effective; in most cases, buildings can be
designed much better than minimum requirements and still be LCC
effective.

Certified Energy Manager® Codes and Standards 4

v2021.01.SI 2
 Doing Better than Required
• Advanced Energy Design Guides for designers and contractors:
• The “Zero Energy Guides” offer tools for achieving zero energy buildings.
• The “50% Guides” offer tools for achieving a 50% energy savings compared to
buildings that meet the minimum requirements of Standard 90.1-2004,
• The “30% Guides” offer tools for achieving a 30% energy savings compared to
buildings that meet the minimum energy requirements of Standard 90.1-1999.
• These Guides give a prescriptive path to achieving LEED v4 credits for New
Construction and Major Renovation projects.
• AEDGs are free downloads at www.ashrae.org and www.energycodes.gov

Certified Energy Manager® Codes and Standards 5

Updating Standards
• Most of the standards are updated every three years, with interim updates
for the most critical ones, i.e. 90 and 62.

• For example, 90.1-2016 was judged by the DOE to be better than the 90.1-
2010 version and has ruled that states must comply by February 2020.

• Likewise the International Energy Conservation Code (IECC) provided by

the International Code Council (ICC) covers residential construction energy
improvements.

Certified Energy Manager® Codes and Standards 6

v2021.01.SI 3
 Standard 55
Thermal Comfort

Research has determined that the highest

percentage of occupants will find the
environment of a facility acceptable within the
temperature and humidity boundaries as
indicated on the Psychrometric Chart shown
here.

Note the slight differences for Winter and

Summer which is influenced by the way we
dress seasonally.

“Generally between 20.5oC and 26.7oC dry bulb temperature with relative humidity less that 78%”
Note that Standard 55 also takes into account metabolic rates, clothing/insulation, radiant temperature,
and air speed. It does not cover Indoor Air Quality.

Certified Energy Manager® Codes and Standards 7

Standard 90.1
• 90.1 is commonly used as the Energy Standard for New Building Design
• 90.1 is a jointly issued standard by ASHRAE/ANSI/IES
• The Technical Sections provide prescriptive requirements covering:
• Building Envelope
• HVAC Systems
• Lighting
• Electrical Power
• Water Heating
• Other equipment

• ANSI = American National Standards Institute

• IES = Illuminating Engineering Society

Certified Energy Manager® Codes and Standards 8

v2021.01.SI 4
 Standard 90.1
Continued

• 90.1 addresses the process of creating a building that has a reasonable

amount of “Energy Efficiency” by specifying both prescriptive and
mandatory provisions of each section. However, in many cases- it allows
performance options.

• This Energy Cost Budget Method recognizes that building architectural

styles vary quite a bit and it may not be possible to comply with every
section’s technical requirements.
• Allows “trade-offs” to satisfy the facility owner’s requests as well as obtain
compliance.

Certified Energy Manager® Codes and Standards 9

Energy Cost Budget Method

• The ECB method permits trade-offs between building systems (ex: lighting
and fenestration), if the annual energy cost estimated for the proposed
design does not exceed the annual energy cost of a base design that fulfills
the prescriptive requirements.
• Using the ECB approach requires simulation software that can analyze energy
consumption in buildings and model the energy features in the proposed design.

• Standard 90.1 sets minimum requirements for the simulation software;

suitable programs include DOE’s EnergyPlus, DOE-2 (many variants such as
PowerDOE and EQuest), BLAST, Trane Trace and Carrier HAP.

Certified Energy Manager® Codes and Standards 10

v2021.01.SI 5
 Example: Energy Cost Budget Method Application

Rock and Roll Hall of Fame

• Cleveland, Ohio

• Architect develops 185’ of South

facing glass on the pyramid!

• Requires the use of the ECBM!

Certified Energy Manager® Codes and Standards 11

Changes within 90.1-2019 for ECBM

• Addendum CL – Many changes to ECBM to Align with Appendix G
• Updates simulation program definition to engine and GUI
• Requires 8,760 hour simulation (from 1,400)
• Updates documentation and submittal requirements
• Requires weather files include solar radiation, wind speed and direction
• Adds requirements for exceptional calculations
• Adds equipment sizing rules for cases when HVAC zones are combined into thermal blocks
• Allows credit for demand control ventilation
• Sets requirements for baseline system airflow (fan) sizing
• Sets requirements for fan, temperature, and humidity setpoint schedules
• Specifies that piping losses shall not be modeled
• Various other language improvements for consistency

Certified Energy Manager® Codes and Standards

v2021.01.SI 6
 Changes within 90.1-2019 for ECBM
Standard 90.1-2019 Includes 2 “Whole Building Performance Path Options”

• Both compare the energy cost of a proposed building design to a baseline

1. Energy Cost Budget (ECB), Section 11
• Baseline systems and components are same as proposed building,
but at minimum, current prescriptive efficiency (dependent baseline)

2. Performance Rating Method (PRM), Appendix G

• Baseline systems and components based on the architectural
program and location of a building (independent baseline) $
• Baseline set at efficiency ~ equal to 2004 standard with proposed
design required to exceed the baseline (stable baseline) Proposed $
Design
Baseline
Design

Codes and Standards

Changes within 90.1-2019 for ECBM

Renewable Energy Tradeoffs
• Allows credit for renewable energy generated on site even if the building owner
does not own the system provided that:
• The owner has signed a lease agreement for a minimum of 15 years
• The owner has signed an agreement to purchase the renewable energy for a minimum of 15
years

Certified Energy Manager® Codes and Standards

v2021.01.SI 7
 Standard 135
BACnet

• Created to specify methods for various control

manufacturers to interoperate with each other.

• Prior to BACnet (Building Automation Control) all manufactures were

using proprietary communication protocol creating a problem for
building owners. (Similar to how Gillette and Schick razors are not interchangeable)

• Specifies many optional levels of interoperability.

Certified Energy Manager® Codes and Standards 15

ASHRAE Standard 189

High Performance Green Buildings

• Is the product of a joint effort between ASHRAE, the United States Green
Building Council (USGBC) and the Illuminating Engineering Society (IES).

• It is based upon current ASHRAE Standards 90.1 for Energy Efficient

Design, 62.1 Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality and 55.1 for
Thermal Environmental Conditions for Human Occupancy while also
incorporating LEED practices.

• LEED = Leadership for Energy and Environmental Design

• USGBC = United States Green Building Council (LEED)

Certified Energy Manager® Codes and Standards 16

v2021.01.SI 8
 Green Energy Codes and Standards
• ANSI/ASHRAE/USGBC/IES Standard 189.1
• 2009, 2011, 2014, 2017 “Standard for the Design of High-Performance Green
Buildings Except Low-Rise Residential Buildings”

• ICC IgCC
• 2010, 2012, 2015,2018 “International Green Construction Code”
• American Institute of Architects (AIA) is a cooperating sponsor
• http://www.iccsafe.org/cs/IgCC/

• ASHRAE, AIA, IES, ICC and USGBC are working together to harmonize
189.1 and IgCC to simplify implementation of green building
regulations

Certified Energy Manager® Codes and Standards 17

Indoor Air Quality

• Human occupants produce bio effluents including CO2, water vapor,
particulates, biological aerosols. VOCs (Volatile Organic Compounds) are
also odors/pollutants.

• Typically- we want the indoor CO2 concentrations ≤ 700 ppm above the
outdoor air concentration.
Of course this is dependent on the outdoor air quality… if your building is near a
refinery or other source of pollution, you may need to treat/filter the outside air when
it enters your building.

Certified Energy Manager® Codes and Standards 18

v2021.01.SI 9
 Indoor Air Quality Issues

• Occupant comfort and productivity

• Occupant complaints
• Sometimes you can’t satisfy everyone

• Health

• Code compliance

• Liability and risk management

Certified Energy Manager® Codes and Standards 19

Standard 62
Indoor Air Quality

Certified Energy Manager® Codes and Standards 20

v2021.01.SI 10
 Scope of ASHRAE 62.1-2019
• Applies to all indoor or enclosed spaces that people may occupy, except
those within single family house, multi-family structures of three stories
or fewer above grade, vehicles and aircraft.
• Other applicable standards and requirements may dictate larger amounts of
ventilation than this standard.

• Considers chemical, physical, and biological contaminants that can affect

air quality.
• Remember: thermal comfort requirements are covered in ASHRAE Standard 55.

Certified Energy Manager® Codes and Standards 21

Scope of ASHRAE 62.1-2019 (Cont'd)

However, acceptable indoor quality minimums might not be achieved in all
buildings due to:
• The diversity of sources and contaminants in indoor air

• Many other factors that may affect perception and acceptance including
temperature, humidity, noise, lighting, and psychological stress

• The range of susceptibility in the population

Certified Energy Manager® Codes and Standards 22

v2021.01.SI 11
 ASHRAE Standard 62.1-2019
Alternative Procedures to Satisfy the Requirements

A. Ventilation Rate Procedure (VRP)

• Prescriptive approach in which outdoor air intake rates are determined based on
space type/application, design occupancy, and floor area.
B. Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) Procedure
• Performance-based approach in which the building and its ventilation system are
designed to maintain the concentrations of specific contaminants (pollutants) at or
below certain limits.
• Demand Controlled Ventilation (DCV) systems adjust outside ventilation air based on the actual
number of occupants and the ventilation demands that those occupants create.
C. Natural Ventilation Procedure
• When possible (in areas with acceptable weather/climate), the design team may be
able to satisfy requirements using natural ventilation.
• ”Back up” mechanical ventilation is required.

Certified Energy Manager® Codes and Standards 23

A. Ventilation Rate Procedure

Details and Equations

Breathing Zone Rates

• Prescriptive procedure in which outdoor air intake rates are determined based on space
type/application, occupancy, and floor area (see Table on the following slide)

Vbz = Rp X Pz + Ra X Az

where:
Vbz= breathing zone outdoor airflow (cfm)
Rp = people outdoor air rate (cfm/person)
Pz = zone population (persons)
Ra = area outdoor air rate (cfm/ft2)
Az = zone floor area (ft2)

Certified Energy Manager® Codes and Standards 24

v2021.01.SI 12
 VRP: “Minimum Ventilation Rates in Breathing Zone”
Default Combined
People Outdoor Area Outdoor Default Occupant Outdoor
Air Rate Air Rate Density Air Rate
cfm/ lps/ cfm/ lps/ qty/ qty/ cfm/ lps/
Occupancy Category person person ft2 m2 1000 ft2 100 m2 person person
Educational Facilities
Classrooms (age 5-8) 10 5 0.12 0.6 25 25 15 7.4
Classrooms (age 9 plus) 10 5 0.12 0.6 35 35 13 6.7
Science laboratories 10 5 0.18 0.9 25 25 17 8.6
Lecture classroom 7.5 3.8 0.06 0.3 65 65 8 4.3
Computer lab 10 5 0.12 0.6 25 25 15 7.4
Hotels, Motels, Resorts, Dormitories
Bedrooms, living rooms 5 2.5 0.06 0.3 10 10 11 5.5
Lobbies, prefunction 7.5 3.8 0.06 0.3 30 30 10 4.8
Multi-purpose assembly 5 2.5 0.06 0.3 120 120 6 2.8
Office Buildings
Office space 5 2.5 0.06 0.3 5 5 17 8.5
Reception areas 5 2.5 0.06 0.3 30 30 7 3.5
Telephone, data entry 5 2.5 0.06 0.3 60 60 6 3
Main entry lobbies Source: ASHRAE 62.1-2016, Table 6.2.2.1 ( see actual Standard for complete details and necessary supporting notes for application.)
5 2.5 0.06 0.3 10 10 11 5.5
Certified Energy Manager® Codes and Standards 25

B. Additional Details on the IAQ Procedure

Commonly implemented via Demand Controlled Ventilation (DCV)

• Sensors measure concentrations of pollutants (CO2, Ammonia, etc.) as well

as outdoor air conditions.
• Ventilation of outside air is controlled to the rate necessary to maintain
acceptable IAQ.
• For example: CO2 concentrations are set to be maintained ≤ 700 ppm above the
outdoor air concentration.
• Notes:
• DCV is required by ASHRAE 90.1 under certain situations for high-occupancy areas.
• DCV puts a “burden of proof” requirement onto the design team.

Certified Energy Manager® Codes and Standards 26

v2021.01.SI 13
 Additional Details on the IAQ Procedure
See Appendix D of ASHRAE 62.1-2019 for more additional information

• The IAQ Procedure is considered a “Dynamic Reset” of the Ventilation Rate

Procedure
• The required Vbz can be reduced based on the actual occupancy during occupancy
being less than the design Pz.
• The number of occupants can be estimated by:
• Pollutant concentrations (the most common method to estimate “demand” without actually
“counting” occupants).
• Occupant counters such as turnstiles.
• Occupancy sensors such as those used for lighting controls (which are good for “occupied” or
“unoccupied” status) typically do not “count” the number of occupants, and thus should not be used as
part of an IAQ Procedure.

Certified Energy Manager® Codes and Standards 27

Reality Check…
Outdoor air flows through air dampers on air
handling systems…
There are two types of dampers:
• Broken
• About to break

Many existing outdoor air dampers leak more air when fully closed than would
be required by code!
• Give serious consideration to replacing old dampers!

Certified Energy Manager® Codes and Standards 28

v2021.01.SI 14
 How Energy Standards Affect Codes
Energy Standards – describe how buildings should be constructed to save
energy cost-effectively

• Published by national technical organizations such as ASHRAE, IES, etc.

• Not mandatory, but serve as national recommendations, with some

variation for regional climate differences

Certified Energy Manager® Codes and Standards 29

How Energy Standards Affect Codes

Energy Codes – specify how buildings must be constructed or perform,
and are written in mandatory, enforceable language
• States or local governments adopt and enforce energy codes for their
jurisdictions

• The International Code Council (ICC) developed “model codes” to

facilitate easy adoption of codes by government jurisdictions
• The Technical basis of model energy codes may be existing energy standards

Certified Energy Manager® Codes and Standards 30

v2021.01.SI 15
 Energy Codes & Standards Organizations
• International Code Council (ICC)
• www.iccsafe.org
• Building Energy Codes Program
• U.S. Department of Energy
• www.energycodes.gov

Codes
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Standards

• American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE)

• www.ashrae.org
• Illuminating Engineering Society (IES)
• www.ies.org
• American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
• www.ansi.org

Certified Energy Manager® Codes and Standards 31

Energy Codes
• ICC International Energy Conservation Code (IECC)
• 1998, 2000, 2003, 2006, 2009, 2012, 2015, 2018
• Previously known as the Council of American Building Officials (CABO) Model
Energy Code 1992, 1993, 1985.
• Note that the code will always be about 2 years after the new standard as it
takes time to “codify” the existing version.

• 10 Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) 433-435

Certified Energy Manager® Codes and Standards 32

v2021.01.SI 16
 US Federal Buildings must have an Energy Information System
… but not necessarily a Building Automation System (which gives commands)

• Most Federal buildings over 465 m2 must install “advanced metering”

for electricity, gas, steam, hot water, and chilled water.
• Must have the ability to collect data, but not analyze for information
• The requirements come from EPACT 2005, EISA 2007, EO 13834 May 2018

• Metering systems must:

1. measure and record interval data
2. must be able to send data to a managing agency
3. must have time stamped data with data storage for two years
4. have automated backup

Certified Energy Manager® Codes and Standards 33

US Tax Benefits for Renewable Technologies

• Renewable Energy Tax Credits:
“Investment Tax Credits”

You might also investigate “Bonus Depreciation” and/or

“Accelerated Depreciation for Energy Projects” which may further help your economics!

Certified Energy Manager® Codes and Standards 34

v2021.01.SI 17
 Review
Awareness of:
Relevant ASHRAE Standards:
• 55.1 Thermal Comfort Envelope
• 90.1 Energy Efficient Design for Buildings (including the Energy Cost Budget Method)
• 135 BACnet – Interoperability of Control Systems
• 189 High Performance Buildings
• 62.1 Ventilation for Indoor Air Quality
How the above Standards impact Codes

Ability to:
• Estimate Minimum Air Flow Requirements
• Utilize Tax Benefits and Federal Regulations

Certified Energy Manager® Codes and Standards 35

Quiz
1. Which is the ASHRAE Standard for Indoor Air Quality?:
A. 55
B. 62.1
C. 90.1
D. 90.2

2. Which ASHRAE Standard specifies minimum requirements for

energy efficiency in commercial buildings?
A. 55
B. 62.1
C. 90.1
D. 14.5

Certified Energy Manager® Codes and Standards 36

v2021.01.SI 18
 Quiz
3. What is the default prescriptive combined outdoor air ventilation rate per
person in office space in an office building according to ASHRAE 62.1-2019?
A. 3.5 LPS/person
B. 5.5 LPS/person
C. 8.5 LPS/person
D. Varies

4. How many people are prescribed in a 400 m2 Computer Lab if the outdoor air
quantity required is 380 LPS?
A. 23 people
B. 28 people
C. 60 people
D. 72 people

Certified Energy Manager® Codes and Standards 37

v2021.01.SI 19
 Section 1.7
High Performance
Green Buildings

Certified Energy Manager®

Why?
• Popular Topic
• Does “Create” Energy Projects
• CEMs can provide value to Architects, Sustainability Professionals, etc.

• Additional Benefits:
• Environmental, Health & Safety
• Reduced Operating Costs (Increased Building Value)
• Reduced Vacancy or Increased Rent Rates

Certified Energy Manager® High Performance Green Buildings 2

v2021.01.SI 1
 Learning Objectives & Contents
Awareness of:
• Leadership for Energy and Environmental Design (“LEED”)
• Administered by the US Green Building Council

• Energy Star Program and some useful tools

• Administered by the US Environmental Protection Agency

Certified Energy Manager® High Performance Green Buildings 3

LEED Program & Benefits

Certifications for Buildings
• LEED 4.1 is a “Point-Based” Design Rating Systems for:
• Building Design and Construction,
• Operations and Maintenance,
• Residential, etc.
• Certification Levels: “Certified”, “Silver”, “Gold” and “Platinum”.
• The more points… the higher the Certification Level

Credentials for Professionals

“LEED AP” (with Specialty Areas: Building Design & Construction, O&M, Homes, etc.)
“Green Associate”

Resources/Tools
Website, Case Studies, etc.

Certified Energy Manager® High Performance Green Buildings 4

v2021.01.SI 2
 LEED 4.1 Scorecard
Categories & Points:

Possible Points vary by Building Type (New Construction, Schools, Retail, Warehouses, Healthcare, etc.)

Certified Energy Manager® High Performance Green Buildings 5

Summary of LEED v4.1 Point Categories & Points

for New Construction
CEMs can help… Categories Possible Points
Largest Category Energy & Atmosphere 33
Note: up to 5 points for using Renewable Energy
Indoor Environmental Quality 16

Location & Transportation 16

Material & Resources 13

Water Efficiency 11

Sustainable Sites 10

Innovation 6

Regional Priority 4

Integrative Process 1

Certified Energy Manager® High Performance Green Buildings 6

v2021.01.SI 3
 LEED Certification Levels

Certification Level Required Points

“Certified” 40
“Silver” 50
“Gold” 60
“Platinum” 80

Note: there are also “LEED Zero” certifications for buildings that have achieved “Net Zero” in:
Carbon Emissions, Energy, Water or Waste.

Certified Energy Manager® High Performance Green Buildings 7

Energy Star Program & Benefits

US Department of Energy program
• No fees
• General idea is to indicate if a building (or appliance) is relatively efficient

Most people can evaluate fuel efficiency for a car… Most people don’t know how to interpret a building’s
Energy Use Index (MJ/m2) … Is it “good” or “poor”?
… So Energy Star can help.

Certified Energy Manager® High Performance Green Buildings 8

v2021.01.SI 4
 Energy Star Portfolio Manager (Tool)
Benchmarking tool amongst “peer” groups (K-12, Office, etc.)
• Typically… comparisons of energy/m2 , but other metrics are available too
• 50% of your m2 must be in the appropriate peer group
• Applications/data must be verified by PE or Architect

• If you are top 25 percentile (Energy Star score of 75+), you can earn the Energy
Star Label for your building for that year

Certified Energy Manager® High Performance Green Buildings 9

What to do with your Score?

100
High scoring buildings
Energy Performance Rating

Reward & Learn provide lessons learned and

label candidates.
75
O&M improvements will
Tune yield savings and label
candidates.
50
Best investment
opportunities are in lower
25 Invest quartiles, where there is the
greatest potential for
improvement.
1

Certified Energy Manager® High Performance Green Buildings 10

v2021.01.SI 5
 Additional Energy Star Tools
Cash Flow Opportunity Calculator
• Estimates the “cost of delay” for savings projects

Building Upgrade Value Calculator

• Estimates the increased value of a building due to operational savings (your
projects)

Certified Energy Manager® High Performance Green Buildings 11

Review
• LEED
• Building Ratings are typically a “one-time” evaluation
• “Certification” Levels (Gold, Silver, Platinum, etc. are based on “points” earned)
• Accreditation is for professionals

• Energy Star
• Results Oriented (Energy/m2) ”competition” (percentile-based) for every year

Certified Energy Manager® High Performance Green Buildings 12

v2021.01.SI 6
 Quiz:
1. Can a LEED certified building still have energy savings opportunities?

2. What score must your building achieve to earn the Energy Star label for a
particular year?

Certified Energy Manager® High Performance Green Buildings 13

v2021.01.SI 7
 Section 2.1
Energy Accounting and Economics

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Accounting and Economics

Learning Objectives & Contents

Awareness of:
• Economic Evaluation Terminology
• Time Value of Money, Net Preset Value, Life Cycle Cost, IRR, Simple Payback, etc.

Ability to:
• Calculate the Net Present Value, Life Cycle Cost, IRR, SIR and Simple Payback for
typical projects
• Choose the best metric to gain approval for your projects

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Accounting and Economics 2

v2021.01.SI 1
 Economic Analysis
Time Value of Money, Net Present Value, Life Cycle Costing, etc.

A logical and comprehensive way to make decisions about:

• Whether or not a project is cost-effective, or

• Which one of several projects is most cost-effective.

Understanding the “Time Value of Money” can also assist you in your personal life
with making economic decisions like assessing car loans and home mortgages.

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Accounting and Economics 3

The Time Value of Money

Going Forward: Money “grows”… (at a slope related to the interest rate)
Going Back in Time: Money is “discounted” in the same way

What is the Present Value of $10,000 to be received 5 years in the future?

$12,000
$10,000
$10,000

$9,091
$8,000
$8,264
$7,513
$6,000 $6,830
$6,209
$4,000

$2,000

$0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
PV at End of Year – Assuming 10% Discount Rate

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Accounting and Economics 4

v2021.01.SI 2
 Financial Terms
PV = Present Value
Given a discount rate, the PV is the present value of a future payment OR
the PV of a stream of cash flows in the future.

FV = Future Value
FV is a one-time positive OR a negative cash flow in the future.
• Salvage value is an example of a future “one-time” cash flow. It could be positive or
negative (if a “disposal cost”).

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Accounting and Economics 5

Financial Terms
A = Annual Cash Flow also known as an “Annuity”
A series of equal cash flows that occur evenly spaced over time.
• For CEM purposes, we use “end of year accounting”, meaning that cash flows are
treated as occurring only at the end of a year.
• This is a “conservative approach” to estimating savings.

AV = Annual Value also known as Annual Worth “AW”

The difference between the annual savings of a project and its annuitized
initial investment (cost).
• Used to evaluate mutually-exclusive projects with different equipment lives.

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Accounting and Economics 6

v2021.01.SI 3
 Financial Terms
N = Number of Compounding Interest Periods
The number of compounding interest periods, payments (or savings cash
flows).

• For CEM purposes: The cash flow frequency and the compounding periods will match
and will be done on an annual basis (at the end of each year).

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Accounting and Economics 7

Financial Terms
Interest Rate
Interest rate is the amount charged by a lender, expressed as a % of principal.

Discount Rate
The discount rate refers to the interest rate used in discounted cash flow analysis to
determine the present value of future cash flows.

Hurdle Rate = MARR

A company’s Hurdle Rate is also called the Minimum Acceptable Rate of Return (MARR).
The hurdle rate may incorporate “risk”, where “high-risk” projects must meet a higher hurdle rate.

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Accounting and Economics 8

v2021.01.SI 4
 Example of a Company’s Hurdle Rates

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Accounting and Economics 9

Financial Performance Metrics

Internal Rate of Return (IRR)
If a project’s IRR > the MARR, then the project is usually approved. The
formal definition of IRR is:
IRR is the Discount Rate such that the PVFuture Cash Flows = PVCosts

In other words: at the IRR… NPV = 0

You can easily calculate a project’s IRR with a calculator or spreadsheet.

Alternatively, you can set the initial cost of a project = the PV of the future cash flows, and
then solve for the discount rate that would make this possible.

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Accounting and Economics 10

v2021.01.SI 5
 Financial Performance Metrics

Savings-to-Investment Ratio (SIR)

The SIR is a “benefit to cost ratio”, accounting for the time value of money.

PV of the Savings
SIR =
PV of the Costs

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Accounting and Economics 11

Financial Performance Metrics

NPV = Net Present Value

NPV = (PVBenefits) – (PVCosts)

NPV is commonly used in capital budgeting and investment planning to

analyze the feasibility of a projected investment or project.

An investment with a positive NPV will be profitable.

An investment with a negative NPV will result in a net loss.

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Accounting and Economics 12

v2021.01.SI 6
 How to do Time Value of Money Calculations
First, we must understand the Nomenclature for “P/A”, “A/P”, “A/F”, etc.

Note: “/” is not a division operator

“What I want to know” / “What I do know”

Example: “P/A, I, N” = “Find P… given that A, I, and N are known”

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Accounting and Economics 13

Cash Flow Factors Used in Examples

14

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Accounting and Economics

v2021.01.SI 7
 Drawing and Labeling a Cash Flow Diagram (CFD)
A CFD is a drawing depicting the cash flows of a project over the life of the project
and can be helpful to draw when solving for engineering economy problems.

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Accounting and Economics 15

TIP: Steps to Move Money through Time

1. Draw a Cash Flow Diagram and label (“A”, “I”, “N”, etc.)

2. Identify the “Goal” (Find “P/A”, “A/P” OR “P/F”, etc.)

3. To estimate the “Goal” (the unknown value):

Multiply:
(Table Factor) ∙ (the money moving through time)

FYI: Table Factors (“Compound Interest Factors”) can be found in Appendix A

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Accounting and Economics 16

v2021.01.SI 8
 Example: Steps to Move Money through Time
1. Draw Cash Flow Diagram and label (“A”, “I”, “N”, etc.) Example: what is PV of $40/year
for 3 years… at 10% MARR?

2. Identify the “Goal” (Find “P/A”)

$40 = “A”

0 1 2 3
Years

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Accounting and Economics 17

Example: Steps to Move Money through Time

1. Draw Cash Flow Diagram and label (“A”, “I”, “N”, etc.)
Goal: Estimate the PV of the
Positive CF
2. Identify the “Goal” (Find “P/A”)

3. To estimate the “Goal” (unknown value):

Multiply: PV = A · ( P/A, 10%, 3)
(the money moving through time) ∙ (Table Factor) PV = $40 · (2.487)
= $99.48

Additional video to help… Search on YouTube: “Net Present Value - moving money through time”
Certified Energy Manager® Energy Accounting and Economics 18

v2021.01.SI 9
 How to Calculate Key Financial Metrics
VFD Example
You are looking into having variable speed drives installed on several air-
cooled roof top units at your facility. The roof top unit’s supply fans total
38.8 kW. The installed cost of the project is $22,400. The one-time rebate
from the local electric utility is $4,500. The VFD is expected to have a life of
ten (10) years. It has been calculated that the kWh reduction will generate
an electrical savings of $5,788 per year.

The CFO at your company’s headquarters has set a hurdle rate of 12% for
energy efficiency projects, but the local facility manager has been told not to
pursue anything with a payback longer than 2 years.
Calculate 5 financial metrics: Simple Payback, PV, NPV, SIR and IRR.

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Accounting and Economics 19

How to Calculate Key Financial Metrics

VFD Example

Method 1: What is the Simple Payback, and does it meet the facility manager’s Simple
Payback requirement?

The Simple Payback will be:

Cost = $22,400; Rebate = $4,500… thus installed cost is $17,900

Savings per year = $5,788/year

$ Cost $ 17,900
SPB = =
$ Savings/year $5,788/year

= 3.09 years Does not meet facility manager’s requirement.

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Accounting and Economics 20

v2021.01.SI 10
 How to Calculate Key Financial Metrics Previous Values:
VFD Example
Cost = $17,900
Method 2: What is the Present Value of the savings? Savings/yr. = $5,788
SP = 3.09 years

The Present Value (PV) of savings stream is:

PV = A · ( P/A, 12%, 10)

= $5,788 · (5.650)
= $32,702

Factor from Compound Interest Table @12%, 10 Years, and Column P/A
$8,000

$5,788

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
$17,900

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Accounting and Economics 21

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Accounting and Economics 22

v2021.01.SI 11
 How to Calculate Key Financial Metrics
VFD Example Previous Values:
Cost = $17,900
Method 3: What is the Net Present Value, and does it meet the Savings/yr. = $5,788
CFO’s Hurdle Rate? SP = 3.09 years
PV = $32,702

The NPV will be: Present Day Savings – Present Day Costs

NPV = $32,702 – $17,900

= $14,802

Since the NPV is positive, it meets the CFO’s Hurdle Rate of 12%
and generates an additional $14,802 in present day benefits $8,000

$5,788

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
$17,900

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Accounting and Economics 23

How to Calculate Key Financial Metrics

VFD Example Previous Values:
Cost = $17,900
Method 4: The vendor installing the VFDs desired to know what Savings/yr. = $5,788
SP = 3.09 years
the Savings–to-Investment Ratio (SIR) was, in order to assist her PV = $32,702
with the sales process to the customer. NPV = $14,802

PV of the Savings $32,702

The SIR will be: SIR = =
PV of the Costs $17,900

= 1.83
For many organizations, an SIR ≥ 1 makes economic sense.
$8,000

$5,788
$8,000

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
$17,900

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Accounting and Economics 24

v2021.01.SI 12
 How to Calculate Key Financial Metrics
VFD Example Previous Values:
Cost = $17,900
Method 5: To calculate the IRR, we can set the Installed Cost Savings/yr. = $5,788
SP = 3.09 years
equal to the Present Value Equation of the future cash flows. PV = $32,702
NPV = $14,802
SIR = 1.83
$17,900 = $5,788 · (P/A, i, 10)

Thus (P/A,i,10) must = 3.0926

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Accounting and Economics 25

How to Calculate Key Financial Metrics

VFD Example

Method 5 (continued):
Then, we can look at the compound
interest tables and find the discount
rate that provides us with a P/A Factor
value that is closest to 3.0926

This (P/A,i,10) value occurs at 30%.

Thus, the IRR of this investment is 30%

You can also use a financial calculator

or spreadsheet to do this quickly!

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Accounting and Economics 26

v2021.01.SI 13
 Presentation in an Executive Summary

Utility Final kWh Yearly Financial Information CO2

Installed Incentive Installed Saved per Cost per Savings SP PV @ NPV @ Savings
Project Cost ($) ($) Cost ($) Year kWh ($) (Years) 12% 12% SIR IRR (kg/year)
VFDs $22 400 $4 500 $17 900 80 000 $0.07235 $5 788 3.09 $32 702 $14 802 1.8 30% 31 120
Emission
Factor =
0.389
kg/kWh

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Accounting and Economics 27

Use Annual Worth Method

Projects with Different Equipment Lives
Freezer Door Example

You currently are looking to reduce the amount of electricity currently

being consumed by the glass door heaters (to minimize condensation)
in each of your freezer doors throughout your supermarket. Currently,
the 26.5 kW worth of glass heaters run 24 hours per day.
You have two options:
A: Install an anti-fog film on the doors (with a 20-year life) OR
B: Install glass door heater controls (with a 9-year life)

Since we have two different project lives, what would be the Annual
Worth (AW) be for each of the measures? Details on next page…

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Accounting and Economics 28

v2021.01.SI 14
 Projects with Different Equipment Lives
Freezer Door Example

A - Anti-Fog Freezer Door Film B – Glass Heater Controls for Door

Savings (A) = $23,000/yr. Savings (A) = $18,000/yr.
Cost (P) = $85,000 Cost (P) = $75,000
Discount rate (I) = 10% Discount rate (I) = 10%
Life (n) = 20 years Life (n) = 9 years

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Accounting and Economics 29

Projects with Different Equipment Lives

Freezer Door Example
A - Anti-Fog Freezer Door Film

Savings (A) = $23,000/yr. Solution: AW = A – P (A/P, 10%, 20)

Cost (P) = $85,000 AW = $23,000 - $85,000 · (0.1175)
Discount rate (I) = 10% =$23,000 - $9,987
Life (n) = 20 years = $13,013

$23,000

$23,000

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
$85,000

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Accounting and Economics 30

v2021.01.SI 15
 Certified Energy Manager® Energy Accounting and Economics 31

Projects with Different Equipment Lives

Freezer Door Example
Project B - Glass Heater Controls for Door

Savings (A) = $18,000/yr. Solution: AW = A – P (A/P, 10%, 9)

Cost (P) = $75,000 AW = $18,000 - $75,000 · (0.1736)
Discount rate (I) = 10% = $18,000 - $13,020
Life (n) = 9 years
= $4,980
$18,000

$18,000

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
$75,000

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Accounting and Economics 32

v2021.01.SI 16
 Certified Energy Manager® Energy Accounting and Economics 33

LED Retrofit Example

You are a vendor and are going to present your potential customer with a
project to reduce their lighting costs by installing new LED Fixtures with
built-in occupancy sensors.

• Installed Cost = $26,000 (but there is a one-time utility rebate of $4,300)

• Annual Savings = $ 3,500
• Equipment Life = 20 years (due to low operating hours/year), and the existing
fixtures had to be group re-lamped every five years, but now… that $22,000 cost (per
group re-lamping) can be avoided in years 5, 10, & 15.

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Accounting and Economics 34

v2021.01.SI 17
 LED Retrofit Example
Getting Approval
The CFO at the customer’s headquarters has set a hurdle rate of 18% for energy
efficiency projects, but the local facility manager has been told not to pursue anything
with a simple payback longer than 3 years.

We are going to look at 2 potential Solution Paths (A and B), under two different
Scenarios, to see why some “pass” and some “fail”.

Solution Path Evaluation Method Scenario #1 Scenario #2

Consider Only Consider Energy &
Energy Savings Relamping Savings
A Simple Payback FAIL FAIL
B NPV FAIL PASS

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Accounting and Economics 35

LED Retrofit Example

Just Looking at Energy Savings

Path A: What is the Simple Payback and does it meet the facility manager’s
requirement?
Cost = $ 26,000; Rebate = $4,300… thus installed cost is $21,700
Savings /yr. = $3,500
$21,700
SPB =
$3,500/yr
= 6.2 yr.

Since the Simple Payback > 3 years, it does not meet the facility manager’s
requirement.

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Accounting and Economics 36

v2021.01.SI 18
 LED Retrofit Example
Just Looking at Energy Savings
Path B: First… we must find the PV of the cash flows…
Previous Values
Cost = $21,700
The Present Value (PV) of savings stream is: Savings/yr. = $3,500
SPB = 6.2 yrs.

PV = A · ( P/A, 18%, 20)

= $3,500 · (5.353)
= $18,733.50
(5.353) Factor is from Compound Interest Table @18%, 20 Years, and Column P/A
$3,500
$3,500

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
$21,700

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Accounting and Economics 37

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Accounting and Economics 38

v2021.01.SI 19
 LED Retrofit Example
Just Looking at Energy Savings
Path B: What is the Net Present Value? Does it meet the CFO’s criteria?
Previous Values
Cost = $21,700
The NPV will be: PVSavings– PVCosts Savings/yr. = $3,500
SPB = 6.2 yrs.
PV= $18,733.50
NPV= $18,733.50 – $21,700
= -$2,966.50

Since the NPV is negative, it does not meet the CFO’s criteria.
$3,500

$3,500

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
$21,700

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Accounting and Economics 39

LED Retrofit Example

Include Re-lamping Cost Avoidance

Path A with Scenario 2: If we consider the future avoidance of the 3 group re-lamping
costs, what is the Simple Payback & does it meet the facility manager’s requirement?
Issue: Because the avoided relamping costs occur beyond the facility manager’s 3-year planning horizon, and
are not considered, the Simple Payback for this project is the same as in Scenario 1.

$21,700
SPB =
$3,500/yr

= 6.2 yr.
Since the Simple Payback > 3 years, it does not meet the facility manager’s requirement.

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Accounting and Economics 40

v2021.01.SI 20
 LED Retrofit Example
Include Re-lamping Cost Avoidance
Path B with Scenario 2: What is the Present Value of the savings considering
avoided cost of group re-lamping? Previous Values
Cost = $21,700
Savings/yr. = $3,500
Present Value (PV) of energy savings + avoided group re-lamping costs: Re-lamp = $22,000
PV = A · (P/A,18%,20) + F · (P/F,18%,5) + F · (P/F,18%,10) + F · (P/F,18%,15) SPB = 6.2 yrs.

PV = ($3,500 · 5.353)+($22,000 · 0.4371)+($22,000 · 0.1911)+($22,000 · 0.0835)

PV = ($18,733.50) + ($9,616.20) + ($4204.42) + ($1,837)
= $34,391.12
$22,000 $22,000 $22,000

Factors from Compound Interest Tables $3,500

$3,500

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
$21,700

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Accounting and Economics 41

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Accounting and Economics 42

v2021.01.SI 21
 LED Retrofit Example
Include Re-lamping Cost Avoidance
Path B with Scenario 2: What is the Net Present Value? Does it meet the CFO’s
criteria? Previous Values
Cost = $21,700
The NPV will be: PVSavings– PVCosts Savings/yr. = $3,500
Re-lamp = $22,000
NPV = $34,391.12 – $21,700 SPB = 6.2 yrs.
= $12,691.12 PV = 34,391.12

Since the NPV is Positive, it does meet the CFO’s Hurdle Rate of 18%, and provides
an additional benefit of $12,691.12 in today’s dollars.
$22,000 $22,000 $22,000

$3,500

$3,500

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
$21,700

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Accounting and Economics 43

Life Cycle Cost

Example

You can buy a gasoline-fueled car for $30,000, which costs $3,000 in
fuel each year. Alternatively- you can buy an electric vehicle for
$40,000, which only costs you $500 per year. Assuming a 10% discount
rate and a life of 7 years, which car has the lowest LCC?

Hint: this is also asking “which car has the least negative NPV”
(or which car has the lowest “total cost of ownership”)

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Accounting and Economics 44

v2021.01.SI 22
 Life Cycle Cost
Solution…Similar to other NPV Problems…except all cash flows are negative.

Gasoline-Fueled Car: Electric Car:

$500
$3,000

$30,000

$40,000

LCC = Initial Cost + PV Cash Flows LCC = Initial Cost + PV Cash Flows
= -$30,000 + [A · ( P/A, 10%, 7)] = -$40,000 + [A · ( P/A, 10%, 7)]
= -$30,000 + [-$3,000 · (4.868)] = -$40,000 + [-$500 · (4.868)]
= -$44,604 = -$42,434

Thus, the Electric Car has a lower projected LCC or “total cost of ownership”

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Accounting and Economics 45

Depreciation
• Reduces taxable income (can be helpful for energy projects)
• There are “special” energy tax benefits

• Typically done via ”Modified Accelerated Cost Recovery System” (MACRS)

• Consult an accountant… but the next page shows an illustration

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Accounting and Economics 46

v2021.01.SI 23
 Before & After-Tax Cash Flows
Assume we have a project that costs $110,000 and will save us $20,000/yr. for 10 years. If we
had a tax rate of 30%, find the ATCF using “straight line” depreciation.

BTCF $20,000 Explanations

Depreciation - $11,000 (= $110,000/10 years) Straight Line Depr.
Taxable Income = $ 9,000
Tax Paid = $ 2,700 (= $9,000 x 0.30)

ATCF = $20,000 - $2,700 (= BTCF – Tax Paid)

ATCF = $17,300

Thus, use $17,300 instead of $20,000 as your yearly benefit from your energy efficiency
measure and continue to use the equations and factors as you did previously.

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Accounting and Economics 47

Corporate & Investment Tax Credits

Investment tax credits are a federal tax incentive for business investment. They let
individuals or businesses deduct a certain percentage of investment costs from their
taxes. These credits are in addition to normal allowances for depreciation.
Investment tax credits differ from accelerated depreciation in that they offer a
percentage deduction at the time an asset is purchased.

There are many types of investment tax credits include the Reforestation Credit, Solar
Energy Investment Tax Credit, and Federal Business Energy Investment Credit.

That last one is also known as a Corporate Tax Credit. Eligible technologies include
solar thermal process heat, solar thermal electric, solar water heat, solar space heat,
fuel cells, geothermal direct use, biomass, wind, geothermal heat pumps, and others.

For more information see: www.energy.gov/savings/search

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Accounting and Economics 48

v2021.01.SI 24
 Review
Awareness of:
• Economic Evaluation Terminology
• Time Value of Money, Net Preset Value, IRR, Simple Payback, etc.

Ability to:
• Calculate the Net Present Value, Life Cycle Cost, IRR, SIR and Simple
Payback for typical projects
• Choose the best metric to gain approval for your projects

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Accounting and Economics 49

Quiz #1
Your company is considering purchasing insulation jackets to be placed
on all the steam traps throughout a university campus. They are looking
at two different types of insulation. Both insulation measures last 20
years long. The university’s hurdle rate is 15%. Which insulation
measure would you recommend?

Insulation Measure #1 costs $570,000 and saves $140,000 per year

Insulation Measure #2 costs $680,000 and saves $170,000 per year

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Accounting and Economics 50

v2021.01.SI 25
 Quiz #1 – Write Your Solution

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Accounting and Economics 51

Quiz #2
• Your frozen food distribution company is considering the installation of
phase change material in the main freezer. The MARR of the company
is 15%. The initial cost of the project is $135,000, and the kW
reduction dollar savings per year is equal to $38,000. The electric
utility has committed to a one-time incentive of $70,000. The life of the
PCM is 20 Years.

• Your CFO wants to know what the simple pay back will be, along with
the Savings-to-Investment Ratio (SIR) of this project.

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Accounting and Economics 52

v2021.01.SI 26
 Quiz #2 Write Your Solution

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Accounting and Economics 53

Quiz #3
• A waste heat exchanger will cost $50,000 and last 5 years. How much
will the economizer have to save each year to return 15%?

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Accounting and Economics 54

v2021.01.SI 27
 Quiz #3 Write Your Solution

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Accounting and Economics 55

v2021.01.SI 28
 Section 2.2
Electrical Power Systems

Certified Energy Manager® Electrical Power Systems

Why?
• Electricity accounts for the largest proportion of energy use in
commercial buildings
• (62% of energy use in commercial buildings is electricity. Source: 2012 CBECS)
• Electricity powers a large proportion of industrial plants

• Energy managers must have a fundamental understanding of

electricity and how it can be managed to reduce energy use and costs

Certified Energy Manager® Electrical Power Systems 2

v2021.01.SI 1
 Learning Objectives & Contents
Awareness of:
• Electrical Basics:
• Direct Current, Alternating Current, Single and 3 Phase Power
• Resistive and Inductive Loads, Power Factor & Correction
• Additional Power Quality Considerations
• Voltage Imbalance, Grounding, Harmonics
• Important 3φ Motor Equations

Ability to:
• Estimate Savings from Power Factor Improvement
• Use Motor Equations to Estimate Power Consumption

Certified Energy Manager® Electrical Power Systems 3

Terminology
Term Description Unit and Symbol
Voltage The driving force to move electrons through a circuit (like Volt [V]
pressure in a hydraulic circuit)
Current The measure of flow of electrons (like water flow in a hydraulic Ampere [I]
circuit)
Resistance The effect of restriction of flow of current through a circuit Ohm [Ω] and sometimes [R]
(similar to a valve in a hydraulic circuit – the more closed, the
higher the resistance, the less the flow)
Ohm’s Law The relationship between voltage, current and resistance in a V=IxR
simple circuit

Power (single phase) Product of voltage, current and power factor P = V x I x PF [Watt]
Energy Work done or energy consumed to do a task Energy = Power x Time [Wh]

Certified Energy Manager® Electrical Power Systems 4

v2021.01.SI 2
 Types of Voltages and Currents
Direct Current (DC), is an electric current in which the flow of electric charge is only
in one direction. A battery produces direct current.
I
Battery Load e.g., DC motor, space heater

Alternating Current (AC), is an electric current in which the flow of electric charge
periodically reverses direction.
I
AC Source ~ Load e.g., AC motor, process

Certified Energy Manager® Electrical Power Systems 5

Basic Electrical Formulas

Resistive Loads

P = Single Phase Power

P=V⋅I

V = I⋅ R

Therefore: P = I ⋅ R ⋅ I

P = I2 R
Certified Energy Manager® Electrical Power Systems 6

v2021.01.SI 3
 Basic Electrical Formulas
In pure resistive loads, P = V x I
You get more power by increasing the voltage and/or the current.

But, power losses are related to the square of current P = I2 x R

Thus, it is advantageous to have high voltage (instead of high current) in transmission

and distribution lines (electrical wires are “fixed resistance”).

Certified Energy Manager® Electrical Power Systems 7

Single Phase AC Electrical Systems

This is a power system with one sine wave, and a frequency of 50 Hz
(60 Hz in the US and few other countries).
V

Time

Fig. : Single phase voltage

• In small buildings where only single phase AC systems supply the electric
power, the voltage is 220-240 volts.
• It is brought to the building with 2 wires; live and neutral
• An earth point is generated in the building referencing ground, usually via an earth rod.
(Actual voltage rating and earthing arrangements are country dependent)

Certified Energy Manager® Electrical Power Systems 8

v2021.01.SI 4
 Three-Phase AC Electrical Systems
250

Why do we have 3φ Power? 200

150

Always has a ”wave” ready 100

to be applied (useful for 50

large motors) 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
-50

-100
Constant power delivery -150

-200

-250
I1 I2 I3 I Sum

Certified Energy Manager® Electrical Power Systems 9

A
400V
Typical Facility Diagram Va=230V
Vab
B
480 volt Three-phase Distribution System
Neutral
N
Ground
G

VL-L = 400 V line-to-line (Vab , Vac , Vbc are line-to-line voltages)

Note: line-to-line voltages are also called “phase-to-phase” voltages

400
VL-N = = 230 V line-to-neutral (for single phase loads)
3

Certified Energy Manager® Electrical Power Systems 10

v2021.01.SI 5
 Inductive Loads
• Most electrical loads are not pure resistive, and involve inductors
(conversion to magnetic energy) which impacts the AC power system.
• Magnetic type loads cause currents to be drawn that are not in phase with that of
the applied voltage.
• The higher currents increase the energy lost in the distribution system, and require
larger wires and other equipment.

• Reduces “Power Factor” (defined on next slide)

Power Factor can range from 0 to 1

Certified Energy Manager® Electrical Power Systems 11

Power Factor (kW2 + kVAR2 = kVA2)

Explained via the Power Triangle
Real Power, kW
kW
Power Factor =
kVA  or 

Real Power Reactive

PF = Power,
Apparent Power kVAR

In power factor management, we seek to reduce the kVAR reactive power,

which will reduce the total (apparent) power and increase the power factor.
We seek a power factor near one.
The real (working) power: (kW) remains unchanged.

Certified Energy Manager® Electrical Power Systems 12

v2021.01.SI 6
 Real Power, kW

Power Factor Reactive

Power,
kVAR

Continued

• The “real” or “working power” (work done) is measured in kilowatts (kW)

• The “reactive power” is measured in kilovolt-amperes reactive (kVAR)
• The total or “apparent power” is measured in kilovolt amperes (kVA).

• Power factors below 1.0 require a utility to generate more than the
minimum volt-amperes necessary to get the work done.
• This increases generation and transmission costs.

Certified Energy Manager® Electrical Power Systems 13

Power Factor
Analogy
In the first picture below, about half of the horse’s effort is going into pulling the railroad car.
If the horse is more aligned with the direction we want to go, we see less unproductive (straight down) effort.

This is the idea behind adjusting power factor in a facility. We seek to minimize unproductive,
nonworking power.

Source: Electrical Synergy – Knowledge of Power is Power

Certified Energy Manager® Electrical Power Systems 14

v2021.01.SI 7
 kW

Power Factor Correction kVAR

Additional Explanation

With motors, the “grid” (or

distribution system) is absorbing
and overcoming all that reactive
power….

Certified Energy Manager® Electrical Power Systems 15

Power Factor Correction

Additional Explanation

Insert a capacitor to correct the

power factor, less kVA is needed

Bornika.ir

Certified Energy Manager® Electrical Power Systems 16

v2021.01.SI 8
 Sizing
How Many Capacitors do you need?

1. Get data for a given load:

• Real power (kW)
• Power factor (existing PF and desired PF)

2. Use a table such as the one on the next slide

• Go down the left side to the original power factor
• Read the table factor under the desired power factor

kVAR needed = Real Power × Table Factor

Certified Energy Manager® Electrical Power Systems 17

Power Factor Table

kVAR needed =
(Real Power) ∙ ( Table Factor)

Certified Energy Manager® Electrical Power Systems 18

v2021.01.SI 9
 Sample CEM Test Questions
1st Question: A facility is operating at a power factor of 65% with a real
(working) power load of 2,000 kW. How much corrective capacitance in
kVAR is needed to improve the facility power factor to 90%?

2nd Question: If the utility charges $10/kW per month, and a PF penalty if
PF < 90%, what are the dollar savings per month for installing the
capacitors?
.9
Hint: remember this equation: Billed kW = Metered kW ∙ 𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑃𝐹 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑡ℎ

Certified Energy Manager® Electrical Power Systems 19

Certified Energy Manager® Electrical Power Systems 20

v2021.01.SI 10
 Sample CEM Test Question
Solution Part 1

A facility is operating at a power factor of 65% with a real (working)

power load of 2,000 kW. How much corrective capacitance in kVAR is
needed to improve the facility power factor to 90%?
• To find kVAR (capacitance) needed:
• Enter table @ 65% original PF and 90% desired PF kVAR
Capacitance
• Find factor from the Power Factor Table (= 0.685)

• kVAR (capacitance) needed = (2,000 kW) · (0.685)

= 1,370 kVAR

Certified Energy Manager® Electrical Power Systems 21

Sample CEM Test Question

Solution Part 2

2nd Question: If the utility charges a PF penalty if PF < 90%, what are the
dollar savings per month if you install the capacitors.
.9 .9
Old Billed kW = Metered kW ∙ Measured PF during month = 2000∙
.65
= 2,769 kW

.9 .9
New Billed kW = Metered kW ∙ Measured PF during month = 2000∙
.9
= 2,000 kW

kW Savings = (Old Billed kW) – (New Billed kW) = 2,769 – 2,000 = 769 kW
$ Savings =(769 kW) ∙ ($10/kW per month) = $7,690 per month!

Certified Energy Manager® Electrical Power Systems 22

v2021.01.SI 11
 “UpStream”

Where to Put PF Correction Capacitors

Transformer “DownStream”
Reactive current (and total current) is reduced M
Utility
Meter
upstream of the capacitors.
Options:
A. Install capacitors near the motor
• This approach also results in less current load in the
upstream supply cable, thereby possibly allowing
additional capacity for future equipment.

B. Install one bank of capacitors for entire facility.

Consult a PF expert and utility company for advice when
contemplating PF corrective actions.

Certified Energy Manager® Electrical Power Systems 23

Additional Power Quality

Considerations

Certified Energy Manager® Electrical Power Systems 24

v2021.01.SI 12
 Power Quality
• Power quality is related to how well a bus voltage—usually our facility
load bus voltage—maintains a pure sinusoidal waveform at rated
voltage and frequency.
• PQ issues involve all momentary phenomena including spikes,
notches and outages; as well as harmonics and power factor.
• Modern electronic equipment both cause and are affected by the problem.
• Power quality is becoming one of the most important issues in energy
management today.

Certified Energy Manager® Electrical Power Systems 25

Electrical Grid Basics

Source: PH Group, Inc.

• Utilities that supply power in the USA, and other 60 Hz countries, are required to
provide power to the incoming point of a facility in multiples of 120 volts.

• Transformers deliver common voltages such as 120, 240, 480, 600, 1200, 2400, 4800
volts, and 13.2 kV and 69 kV.

• In addition, utilities are obligated to regulate the voltage within a fairly narrow
range, such as plus or minus 5% variation.

Certified Energy Manager® Electrical Power Systems 26

v2021.01.SI 13
 Voltage Imbalance
Problems can occur due to voltage imbalance between three phases:
• Reduced motor efficiency, potential damage to motors, increased I2R losses,
increased neutral current, etc.
• Percent voltage imbalance is found as the ratio of the largest phase-to- phase
voltage difference from average, divided by the average voltage.
• E.g., if we have 400, 385, and 409 volts, the voltage imbalance is:
Maximum Deviation from Average
=
Average Voltage
(398 − 385) 13
= 398 = 0.0327 or 3.27%
=
398

Certified Energy Manager® Electrical Power Systems 27

Importance of Grounding
• Primary purpose of grounding is safety -- people first, then equipment.
Good grounding also helps eliminate induced electrical noise
• The first step taken to deal with PQ problems should be to inspect the
wiring and grounding, and clean and tighten all connections. Loose
connections come from vibration, oxidation, corrosion, and age.

For safety, only a qualified person should attempt

these measures.
Source: Inspectapedia.com

Certified Energy Manager® Electrical Power Systems 28

v2021.01.SI 14
 Harmonics
• Harmonics are multiples of the
fundamental frequency.
• If the fundamental frequency is 50 hertz, the
2nd harmonic is 100 Hz, the 3rd is 150 Hz, etc.

•Generated by solid-state-based:
•Power supplies in PCs,
•DC drives, VFDs, etc.

Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) is a measure of power quality

Murata

Certified Energy Manager® Electrical Power Systems 29

IEEE 519 PQ Standards

• IEEE Standard 519 provides recommended practices and
requirements for harmonic control in electrical power systems.
• For many systems (less than 69 kV), the THD limits are:
• General systems 5%
• Special applications (hospitals, MRI machines, etc.) 3%

Certified Energy Manager® Electrical Power Systems 30

v2021.01.SI 15
 Impacts from Harmonics
Harmonics are generally caused by electronic switching devices causing with worst
typically being N +/- 1
• A 12 pulse inverter (VSD) would likely cause harmonics worst at the 11th and 13th harmonics.
• 5th and 11th harmonics are known as “negative sequence” and cause torque pulsation - with the potential
to destroy shaft couplers, loads and / or shafts themselves. (lower is worst)

• Higher order harmonics tend to cause “nuisance” trips of circuit breakers as the magnetic
action of the breaker is enhanced at higher frequencies.

• Motor bearings can be damaged by shaft circulating currents

• Other “weirdness” of electronic equipment (lights flicker, clocks running fast, etc.)

Certified Energy Manager® Electrical Power Systems 31

Assessing Harmonics
• Power quality meters provide the ability to see what harmonics (if any)
exist, and what magnitude they are.

• Different harmonics tend to cause different types of issues.

• Lower order harmonics tend to cause more “power” type issues
• Higher order harmonics tend to cause more “interference” types issues.

Certified Energy Manager® Electrical Power Systems 32

v2021.01.SI 16
 Mitigating Harmonics
• Single harmonic impacts are generally treated using an inductor
• Multiple harmonics are generally treated by electronic filters.

• Approaches:
• Install an isolating transformer
• connected close to the load and back to a “strong” point in the supply.
• Oversizing neutrals
Get a harmonics expert involved

Certified Energy Manager® Electrical Power Systems 33

Useful Power Computation Formulas

• Single-phase AC system
P = V · I · PF [watts]
Where PF = power factor (0-100%)
V = avg phase-to-phase voltage,
I = avg phase current
• Three-phase AC system 3 = 1.732
P = 3 · V · I · PF [watts]

When we measure 3 phase power, identify which phase we are measuring, and also ensure that we
have our current sensors all reading positive in the same direction and correctly connected. For
safety, only a qualified person should make these measurements!

Certified Energy Manager® Electrical Power Systems 34

v2021.01.SI 17
 Examples
a) For a 5 ampere, 230 Volt AC (single phase), electric resistance space
heater:
Power = 230V · 5A · 1.0 W/VA
= 1,150 watts

b) For a three phase 400 Volt AC , 10 ampere motor with power factor of
90% at full load:
Power = 3 · 400V · 10A · 0.9 W/VA note: 3 = 1.732
= 6,235 W
= 6.24 kW

Certified Energy Manager® Electrical Power Systems 35

Important 3 Phase Motor Equations

kWgiven electrical info = √3 · kV · I · PF

kWnameplate · Load Factor

kWgiven mechanical info =
Efficiency

kW
Power Factor = Losses
kVA 3
kWe kWm
Power Motor Load
kVA


Certified Energy Manager® Electrical Power Systems 36

v2021.01.SI 18
 Review
Awareness of:
• Electrical Basics:
• Direct Current, Alternating Current, Single and 3 Phase Power
• Resistive and Inductive Loads, Power Factor & Correction
• Additional Power Quality Considerations
• Voltage Imbalance, Grounding, Harmonics
• Important 3φ Motor Equations

Ability to:
• Estimate Savings from Power Factor Improvement
• Use Motor Equations to Estimate Power Consumption

Certified Energy Manager® Electrical Power Systems 37

Quiz Question 1
“UpStream”
If a power factor correction capacitor is installed on a
motor, which of the following statements are true: Transformer

Meter “DownStream”
A. The power factor downstream of the capacitor is increased.
B. The power factor upstream of the capacitor is increased.
C. The current (amperage) upstream of the capacitor is
decreased.
D. The current (amperage) upstream of the capacitor is
increased
E. B and C

Certified Energy Manager® Electrical Power Systems 38

v2021.01.SI 19
 Quiz Question 2
A facility uses five 25 kW electric resistance space heaters to serve a
large bay area. Supply voltage is 400 Volts.

What is the power factor of the heaters?

A. 0%
B. 50%
C. 90%
D. 100%

Certified Energy Manager® Electrical Power Systems 39

Quiz Question 3
A facility has properly installed a power factor correction capacitor on a
motor. The power factor upstream of the capacitor has been
improved. What is the impact on the real (working) power used by the
motor?
A. It is unchanged
B. It is decreased
C. It is increased
D. Cannot be determined from the information provided

Certified Energy Manager® Electrical Power Systems 40

v2021.01.SI 20
 Quiz Question 4
A facility is operating with a demand of 1,000 kW. The 1,500 kVA
transformer is fully loaded. How many capacitive kVARs are required to
bring the power factor back to unity (100%)?

Certified Energy Manager® Electrical Power Systems 41

Losses kWm
3 kWe
Power Motor Load
Additional Review & Homework 

if needed

1. A three phase 55 kW motor with a load factor of 0.8 has an

efficiency of 90%, what is the kW electrical power input?

55kW · 0.8
kW =
0.9
48.89 kW

= 48.89 kW

Certified Energy Manager® Electrical Power Systems 42

v2021.01.SI 21
 2. For the motor in 1. If the PF = 0.7 and voltage is 400 V, what is the kVA and
what is the amp draw?
PF = cos  = 0.7 = kW/kVA
48.89 kW
0.7 = kVA 
kVAR

48.89
kVA = 0.7

kVA = 69.84 kVA

48.89 kW
Because kVA = √3 x (kV) x I 
69.84 kVA = (√3)(0.400kV) I 49.88 kVAR
Thus, I = 100.81 amps

From Pythagorean Theorem: kVA2 = kW2 + kVAR2

Thus, kVAR1 = 49.88

Certified Energy Manager® Electrical Power Systems 43

3. Next, we want to correct the PF to 0.90. What size capacitor is needed

and what is the impact on the amperage? 48.89 kW

∆kVAR = (Real Power in kW)·(Table Factor) 

∆kVAR = (48.89 kW)·(Table Factor) Table Factor is 0.536 49.88 kVAR

= 26.20 kVAR 26.20

Capacitive
kVAR
IF….New kVA = kW/PF
= 48.89/0.9 = 54.32 kVA

THEN… we can solve for Inew because kVAnew = 54.32 = kV · Inew · √3

Inew = (54.32 kVA)/(0.400 kV · √3)
= 78.41 amps

Thus, PF correction dropped amperage (upstream of the capacitor) from 100.81 to

78.41 amps or 22%
Certified Energy Manager® Electrical Power Systems 44

v2021.01.SI 22
 Alternatively, if we know kW and new PF2, we can then find new kVA2…
and then (via Pythagorean) find kVAR2

BEFORE AFTER

48.89 kW 48.89 kW

49.88 kVAR 26.20 kVAR

∆ kVAR=23.67

Certified Energy Manager® Electrical Power Systems 45

v2021.01.SI 23
 Section 2.3
Motors & Drives

Motors and Drives

Why?
• A heavily used motor’s annual electricity cost can be 10 times or more
than the purchase cost.
• Think about “life cycle cost” vs. “first cost”

• Drives can save a lot of $$$

Certified Energy Manager® Motors and Drives 2

v2021.01.SI 1
 Learning Objectives & Contents
Awareness of:
• Motor Terminology & Performance Factors
• Load Factors & Slip Calculations
• Fan or “Affinity” Laws
• Variable Flow Options, Variable Frequency Drives

Ability to:
• Estimate Motor Loads
• Estimate Savings from:
• Installing Energy Efficient Motors
• Installing VSDs

Certified Energy Manager® Motors and Drives 3

Electric Motor Management

• The load on most driven systems is not obvious.
• However, we can estimate motor loading through measurements

• The difference in efficiencies between a standard motor and a

premium efficient motor may be only a few percent, but the dollar
savings can be large for small improvements in motor efficiency

Certified Energy Manager® Motors and Drives 4

v2021.01.SI 2
 Key Facts
A motor is a “load-driven” device
• Motor rating refers to the maximum
mechanical rating (output) - not the
electrical input
• Load factor refers to the actual load
on a motor compared to its
maximum capacity load
• A 50kW motor driving a fan with a
mechanical load of 20kW has a load
factor of 0.4

Certified Energy Manager® Motors and Drives 5

DC Motors
• Different forms of winding (series, shunt, compound)

• Great for independent speed and torque control

• Historical in some respects but making a comeback now for
transport applications (battery)
• In industrial applications… almost obsolete being replaced
with AC motors with VSD drive.

Certified Energy Manager® Motors and Drives 6

v2021.01.SI 3
 Synchronous Motors
• 3 phase power is connected to the 3 windings…
creating a rotating magnetic field.
• The rotor (shaft) is also “wired” with slip rings

• The shaft always rotates at same speed as the

rotating magnetic field
• Applications: refineries, processing lines,
applications requiring constant speed
• Typically larger kW, slow speed devices

• Can operate at leading or lagging power factor

Certified Energy Manager® Motors and Drives 7

Electronically
Commutated Motors
A recent development: sort of a hybrid between a
DC motor and 3 phase AC synchronous motor.

• Principles of Operation:
• Uses electronics to determine the sequence for energizing the windings to
generate a rotating magnetic field. The rotor is typically a permanent magnet for
smaller sizes.
• Used in many HVAC applications.
• Also known as: “a Permanent Magnet, Brushless DC Motor”

Now available ~7.5kW… and energy savings from reduced losses can be significant!

Certified Energy Manager® Motors and Drives 8

v2021.01.SI 4
 Induction Motors
Over 85% of motors sold

• Rotor is not “wired”, but is “induced” to

rotate via rotating magnetic field.

• Always turns slower than rotating magnetic

field (asynchronous).
• Difference between rotor speed and magnetic
field is known as “SLIP” and is expressed as a %
of rotating magnetic field.
• Slip is maximum at full load.

• Creates “Lagging Power Factor”

Certified Energy Manager® Motors and Drives 9

Induction Motors
Connection Box
Physics of operation: 3 Power Input
1. Apply 3  power to stator windings
2. Sets up a rotating magnetic field in the stator
3. The stator rotating magnetic field cuts across rotor bars
4. This causes a current to flow in the rotor bars
5. The rotor bar current has its own magnetic field
6. The rotor magnetic field is attracted to the stator field
7. It tries to catch up to the stator magnetic field
8. This causes the rotor to turn which turns the
connected fan or pump
Frame
9. Note: the rotor magnetic field
never catches up to the stator field

Conducting
rotor end caps
Source: GEGridsolutions.com

Certified Energy Manager® Motors and Drives 10

v2021.01.SI 5
 Photos & Design Types
Totally Enclosed Fan Cooled
A rotor inside the frame Open Drip Proof (ODP) (TEFC)

Air passages Cooling fins Photos: Barry Benator

Certified Energy Manager® Motors and Drives 11

Electric Motor Basics

Name Plate Information

• kW: “Shaft Power”, “Capacity”

• Volts design input voltage (Line-Line)
• Rated speed: min-1 or RPM at full load
NLRPM: RPM at no load (usually not on the Name Plate)

• FLA: full load amps per phase

• LRA: locked rotor amps (Numbers on
Typically 5 to 6 times larger than FLA… but only for ~1 second nameplates
are at full
• Maximum capacitor size load)
• Efficiency
• Service factor (overload factor)

Certified Energy Manager® Motors and Drives 12

v2021.01.SI 6
 Name Plate Example
(Numbers on nameplates are at full load)

Source: Longo-elongo.com
Certified Energy Manager® Motors and Drives 13

AC Electric Motor Speeds (RPM)

NLRPMS are Predictable

• Alternating current, speed is dependent on the # of pole pairs (inside motor, pole
pairs between stator and rotor)

50 Cycles ∙ 60 Seconds
Speed = Second Minute
Number of Pole Pairs

Thus…RPM intervals are at: 3000, 1500, 1000, 750, 600, 500, etc. (@ 50 Hz)

Examples:
• one pole pair (2 poles): one RPM per cycle (50 cycles per sec)… or 3000 RPM
• two pole pairs: ½ rpm per cycle… or 1500 RPM.

Certified Energy Manager® Motors and Drives

v2021.01.SI 7
 Factors that Affect Performance

Motors and Drives

Motor Efficiency Terms

“Standard Efficiency” or “IE1 Motors”: Pre-EPACT 1992

“Energy Efficient” or “IE2 Motors”:

• Meets EPACT 1992 requirements
• About 4 or 5% more efficient than Standard Efficiency

“Premium Efficient” or “IE3 Motors”:

• Meets EISA 2007 requirements
• About 2 or 3% more efficient than Energy Efficient

“Super Premium Efficient” or “IE4 Motors”:

• 1 to 3% more efficient than Premium Efficient

Certified Energy Manager® Motors and Drives 16

v2021.01.SI 8
 Motor Efficiencies

Note: as HP Eff.

Source: DOE Premium Efficiency Motor Selection And Application Guide • February 2014

Certified Energy Manager® Motors and Drives 17

IE efficiency classes as defined by IEC

IE-1 - Standard efficiency IE2 - High efficiency IE3 - Premium efficiency
50Hz
2 pole 4 pole 6 pole 2 pole 4 pole 6 pole 2 pole 4 pole 6 pole
kW ~3000RPM ~1500RPM ~1000RPM ~3000RPM ~1500RPM ~1000RPM ~3000RPM ~1500RPM ~1000RPM
0.75 72.1 72.1 70 77.4 79.6 75.9 80.7 82.5 78.9
1.5 77.2 77.2 75.2 81.3 82.8 79.8 84.2 85.3 82.5
2.2 79.7 79.7 77.7 83.2 84.3 81.8 85.9 86.7 84.3
3 81.5 81.5 79.7 84.6 85.5 83.3 87.1 87.7 85.6
4 83.1 83.1 81.4 85.8 86.6 84.6 88.1 88.6 86.8
5.5 84.7 84.7 83.1 87 87.7 86 89.2 89.6.0 88
7.5 86 86 84.7 88.1 88.7 87.2 90.1 90.4 89.1
11 87.6 87.6 86.4 89.4 89.8 88.7 91.2 91.4 90.3
15 88.7 88.7 87.7 90.3 90.6 89.7 91.9 92.1 91.2
18.5 89.3 89.3 88.6 90.9 91.2 90.4 92.4 92.6 91.7
22 89.9 89.9 89.2 91.3 91.6 90.9 92.7 93 92.2
30 90.7 90.7 90.2 92 92.3 91.7 93.3 93.6 92.9
37 91.2 91.2 90.8 92.5 92.7 92.2 93.7 93.9 93.3
45 91.7 91.7 91.4 92.9 93.1 92.7 94 94.2 93.7
55 92.1 92.1 91.9 93.2 93.5 93.1 94.3 94.6 94.1
75 92.7 92.7 92.6 93.8 94 93.7 94.7 95 94.6
90 93 93 92.9 94.1 94.2 94 95 95.2 94.9
110 93.3 93.3 93.3 94.3 94.5 94.3 95.2 95.4 95.1
132 93.5 93.5 93.5 94.6 94.7 94.6 95.4 96.6 95.4
160 93.8 93.8 93.8 94.8 94.9 94.8 95.6 95.8 95.6
200 94 94 94 95 95.1 95 95.8 96 95.8
220 94 94 94 95 95.1 95 95.8 96 95.8
250 94 94 94 95 95.1 95 95.8 96 95.8
300 94 94 94 95 95.1 95 95.8 96 95.8
330 94 94 94 95 95.1 95 95.8 96 95.8
375 94 94 94 95 95.1 95 95.8 96 95.8
Certified Energy Manager® Motors and Drives Note: Efficiency increases with motor size

v2021.01.SI 9
 Energy Efficient Motor Characteristics

• More copper – less resistance losses (I2R) and heat because of larger wire
• Better fans and bearings, more carefully lubricated, runs cooler
• Lower loss core material
• Longer and heavier

Copper Development Assocation

Certified Energy Manager® Motors and Drives 19

Motor Rewinds
• Typical rewinds cost 60+% of a new motor
• Can be cost-effective when compared to buying a new motor.
• Use DoE rewind specifications, inspect the rewinding facility.
• Rewinds may be the only available option for large motors.
• Motor efficiency typically drops about 1%.
• Process involves ”baking off” the old insulation and
rewinding the coils.
• If oven temperature is too high, stator can get damaged.
• Reassembly can also cause more problems (bearing damage, etc.) Source: TigerTek Industrial Service

Certified Energy Manager® Motors and Drives 20

v2021.01.SI 10
 Voltage Imbalance Reduces Motor Efficiency

Source: US Department of Energy Tip Sheets

Certified Energy Manager® Motors and Drives 21

“Single Phasing”
The loss of one phase in a 3φ system

Causes:
• An accident in building
• Electric distribution pole collapse
• Tree limbs, animals, lightning

If only one phase pairing remains,

current increases… causing heat
within the motor, which leads to
failure.

http://motorcyclepict.co
Certified Energy Manager® Motors and Drives 22

v2021.01.SI 11
 Load Factors and Motors

Motors and Drives

Note: In the absence of more detailed info… for

motor loading > 50% of nameplate capacity, a
reasonable estimate of motor loading is the ratio of
Input Current vs. Output Power measured RMS current to full-load RMS current..

Certified Energy Manager® Motors and Drives 24

v2021.01.SI 12
 Efficiency and PF vs. Motor Loading

Source: Electrical Academia

Certified Energy Manager® Motors

Certified
and Drives
Energy Manager® 25

1. Larger motors are more efficient

2. For > 1.5 hp, efficiency is relatively constant 50% - 100% load

Source: US Dept. of Energy

Certified Energy Manager® Motors

Certified
and Drives
Energy Manager® 26

v2021.01.SI 13
 Electric Motor Basics – Slip
• Slip refers to the fact that an observer riding on the rotating stator field would
see the rotor slipping backward
NLRPM
• Design Slip = (NLRPM – FLRPM)

Measured Slip
• Measured “True” Slip = (NLRPM – Measured RPM)

Design Slip
Measured Slip NLRPM − Measured RPM
• % Load = = Measured RPM
Design Slip NLRPM− FLRPM
FLRPM
Should be a “Perfect” indicator but:
• very difficult to measure accurately because tachometer error is 1-2% of full-scale RPM.
• nameplate RPM has error range of 1-3 RPM, because of the way the data is recorded in
5 RPM increments.

Certified Energy Manager® Motors and Drives 27

Slip Example
• Design kW = 160 (off name plate)
• FLRPM = 1,487 rpm (off name plate)
• NLRPM = ? Use 1,500 RPM
• Design Slip = 1,500 – 1,487 = 13 RPM

• Measured RPM = 1,491 rpm (via tachometer)

• Measured Slip = 1,500 – 1,491 = 9 RPM
9 RPM
• % load = Load Factor = 13 RPM = 0.69 or 69%
• Actual load = 160kW(0.69) = 110.4 kW
Note: Motors run very well at 69% load

Certified Energy Manager® Motors and Drives 28

v2021.01.SI 14
 Common Reasons why Motors Fail
• Heat buildup from:
• Overloaded motor, ambient temperature or mechanical stress
Once the insulation around the wiring “burns out”, the motor will fail.

• Bearing failure from

• Over or under lubrication
• Alignment
• Dirt getting into passages
• Harmonics

• Water getting inside the motor

Certified Energy Manager® Motors and Drives 29

Motor Purchase Guidelines

• When in the market for a new motor, always consider an energy efficient
(or premium) motor. Use a professional for advice.
• Use life cycle cost analysis in your evaluation
• Beware of faster speeds (some EE motors run faster than standard motors)
• More volume (work)
• More power requirement (cube)
• Watch LRA and circuit breakers (some EE motors have a higher starting current
than the motor it is replacing)
• Re-sheave to lower speed?
• Same (or less) volume, with reduced power requirement

Certified Energy Manager® Motors and Drives 30

v2021.01.SI 15
 Tools to Help
There are free tools from the US Dept. of Energy, such as:

“MEASUR” Tool (motors, fans, pumps, steam analysis and other tools)
More information is presented within Section 4.3 “Industrial Systems”

Certified Energy Manager® Motors and Drives 31

Motor Sample Problem

You have an old 37.5 kW motor that has a 88.2 % efficiency. You want to
replace it with a new 37.5 kW motor that has an efficiency of 94%. Given the
data below, calculate the $ savings of switching to the new motor.
• Motor runs 7,500 hours/year
• Demand cost is $12 per kW month
• Energy cost is $0.06/kWh
• Motor runs at 80% load all the time

kW x LF
Hint: kW = 

Certified Energy Manager® Motors and Drives 32

v2021.01.SI 16
 Motor Sample Problem
Old Motor Annual Cost:

kW Charges kWh Charges

= 34 kW * 7,500 hours/year
37.5 kW (.8)
= 0.882
= 34 kW = 255,000 kWh per year
@ $12/kW per month @ $0.06/kWh
= (34)($12)(12 months/year) = (255,000 kWh/year)($0.06/kWh)
=$ 4,896 per year =$ 15,300 per year

Thus, the Total Operating Cost = $ 20,196

Certified Energy Manager® Motors and Drives 33

Motor Sample Problem

New Motor Annual Cost:

kW Charges kWh Charges

37.5 kW (.8)
= = 31.9 kW * 7,500 hours/year
0.94
= 31.9 kW = 239,250 kWh per year
@ $12/kW per month @ $0.06/kWh
= (31.9)($12)(12 months/year) = (239,250 kWh/year)($0.06/kWh)
=$ 4,594 per year =$ 14,355 per year

NEW Motor Total Operating Cost = $ 18,949

Savings = OLD Cost – NEW Cost
= $ 20,196 - $ 18,949
= $1,247 per year
Certified Energy Manager® Motors and Drives 34

v2021.01.SI 17
 Motors & Drives
3  Variable Voltage, Variable Freq.
Utility 3
3 Power
Power kWm
Isolation VFD Motor Centrifugal.
Xfmr Fan, Pump

Certified Energy Manager® Motors and Drives

Drives
• Motors are fixed speed devices likely running between NLRPM and FLRPM

• Other speeds on the driven end (e.g., an air handling unit fan or a chilled
water pump) have to be engineered (which will affect the load on the
motor)

• Because of the “fan or pump” (affinity) laws (pumping or blowing)

centrifugal devices are desired applications for varying m3/s or LPS

Certified Energy Manager® Motors and Drives 36

v2021.01.SI 18
 “Fan” or “Affinity Laws”
Centrifugal Devices Only
Re-Written

LPSnew RPMnew 𝑅𝑃𝑀𝑛𝑒𝑤

1. = 𝐿𝑃𝑆𝑛𝑒𝑤 = 𝐿𝑃𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑑
LPSold RPMold 𝑅𝑃𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑑

SPnew RPMnew 2 𝑅𝑃𝑀𝑛𝑒𝑤 2

2. = 𝑆𝑃𝑛𝑒𝑤 = 𝑆𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑑
SPold RPMold 𝑅𝑃𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑑

𝑅𝑃𝑀𝑛𝑒𝑤 3
kWnew RPMnew 3 𝑘𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑤 = 𝑘𝑊𝑜𝑙𝑑
3. = 𝑅𝑃𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑑
kWold RPMold

Certified Energy Manager® Motors and Drives 37

Fan Laws Example

A 30 kW air handling unit is being considered for conversion to a
variable speed drive. If the fan could run at 60% of full speed, what is
the impact on the LPS and what is the new kW requirement?

Certified Energy Manager® Motors and Drives 38

v2021.01.SI 19
 Fan Laws Example
• New LPS is __________old
60% LPS Thus RPMnew = 0.6 RPMold
• New kW requirement is:
RPMnew 3
kWnew = kWold
RPMold
3
= 30kW 0.6 RPMold
RPMold

3
= 30kW (0.6) = 30kW (0.216) = 6.48 kW
• These type savings are why VSD’s are so popular today
Certified Energy Manager® Motors and Drives 39

Variable Volume Options

1. Outlet damper control (see sketch, location 1) Does not control fan shaft speed
2. Inlet vane control (see sketch, location 2) Does not control fan shaft speed
3. Magnetic clutching (see sketch, location 3) Constant speed motor shaft, variable speed load shaft
• Eddy current clutch
• Permanent magnetic clutch
4. Variable Frequency Drives (see sketch, location 4)
5. Hydraulic drives, variable sheaves, etc.

Certified Energy Manager® Motors and Drives 40

v2021.01.SI 20
 3 Magnetic Clutch

Variable Volume Options

1

2 VFD

Sources: Marshall Wolfe Automation, Mecholic

Certified Energy Manager® Motors and Drives 41

Variable Volume Options

Source Energy Management Handbook Doty & Turner Source Moses Et Al 1989

Certified Energy Manager® Motors and Drives 42

v2021.01.SI 21
 Variable Volume Options
Selection of Best Option

Outlet damper control

• Simple and effective
• Not efficient
• Great candidate for conversion to others

Inlet vane control

• Simple and effective
• More efficient than outlet damper
• Great candidate for conversion to others

Certified Energy Manager® Motors and Drives 43

Variable Volume Options

Selection of Best Option

Magnetic clutches
• (permanent magnet or eddy current)
• Bulky and heavy on motor shaft
• Motor shaft turns at full speed, load shaft speed varies with magnetic field
• No harmonics
• Better than variable inlet vanes, but less savings than VFD

Certified Energy Manager® Motors and Drives 44

v2021.01.SI 22
 Variable Volume Options
Selection of Best Option

Variable Frequency Drive (VFD)

• Probably most efficient, cost-effective
• “Soft start” is included
• Potential risks:
• Harmonic concerns (input and output)
• Potential motor winding insulation damage due to reflected waves
• Motors and load must be agreeable to VFDs
3  Variable Voltage, Variable
3 3 Freq.
Power Power
kWm Centrifugal.
Isolation VFD Motor
Xfmr Fan, Pump

Certified Energy Manager® Motors and Drives 45

Variable Frequency Drive

Example

A 100 kW motor and fan with inlet vane control operates 6,500 hours per
year. Energy costs $0.10/kWh. What are the annual savings for replacing the
inlet vane control with a VFD? For simplicity, assume the efficiency of the
fan motor is 100%.
In the real world: You would construct a spreadsheet to do the calculations.

Today: lets just do the savings at the 40% load ratio, using the data in the
following slides (we want to show you the math).

Certified Energy Manager® Motors and Drives 46

v2021.01.SI 23
 Variable Frequency Drive First: We need the Load Profile Data

Example

25%

20%
% of Time at each Profile

15%

10%

5%

0%
20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
% Flow or % RPM of Motor

Certified Energy Manager® Motors and Drives 47

Variable Frequency Drive Next: Find the % power reduction by using the VFD
71% – 14%
Example = 57% reduction in power

OLD (non VFD) NEW VFD Power % of Time at kWh

Load Power Input % Input % each Load Savings
20% 0.57 0.09 0% -
30% 0.67 0.11 5% 13,577
40% 0.71 0.14 16% 44,223
50% 0.72 0.2 18% 45,387
60% 0.75 0.29 23% 51,302
70% 0.8 0.43 21% 37,677
80% 0.88 0.62 12% 15,129
90% 0.99 0.85 4% 2,715
100% 1 1.05 1% (242)

Certified Energy Manager® Motors and Drives 48

v2021.01.SI 24
 Variable Frequency Drive Then: Consider the % of time that you actually
achieve the 57% savings
Example

OLD (non VFD) NEW VFD Power % of Time at kWh

Load Power Input % Input % each Load Savings
20% 0.57 0.09 0% -
30% 0.67 0.11 5% 13,577
40% 0.71 0.14 16% 44,223
50% 0.72 0.2 18% 45,387
60% 0.75 0.29 23% 51,302
70% 0.8 0.43 21% 37,677
80% 0.88 0.62 12% 15,129
90% 0.99 0.85 4% 2,715
100% 1 1.05 1% (242)

Certified Energy Manager® Motors and Drives 49

Variable Frequency Drive

Example

The savings at the 40% load profile:

=(100kW) ∙ (0.71-0.14) ∙ (0.16) ∙ (6,500hr/yr)
= 59,280 kWh per year
@ $0.10/kWh
= $5,928/year

The spreadsheet on the following page shows the kWh savings across all
load profiles…

Certified Energy Manager® Motors and Drives 50

v2021.01.SI 25
 Variable Frequency Drive With a spreadsheet, you could easily sum the kWh
savings from all the load profiles…
Example

OLD (non VFD) NEW VFD Power % of Time at kWh

Load Power Input % Input % each Load Savings
20% 0.57 0.09 0% -
30% 0.67 0.11 5% 18 200
40% 0.71 0.14 16% 59 280
50% 0.72 0.2 18% 60 840
60% 0.75 0.29 23% 68 770
70% 0.8 0.43 21% 50 505
80% 0.88 0.62 12% 20 280
90% 0.99 0.85 4% 3 640
100% 1 1.05 1% (325)
Total Annual Savings = 281,190 kWh
Certified Energy Manager® Motors and Drives 51

Rules of Thumb to Maximize VFD Savings

Centrifugal applications (when the load varies over time) :
• Chilled water pumps, cooling water pumps, etc.
• Blowers on cooling towers or
• VAV (variable-air-volume) HVAC units
Note: affinity laws are ”ideal” – field data suggests kW exponent may be 2.5 to 2.8

• Train people on new technologies

• Keep it simple… otherwise- maintenance staff may/will “over-ride” the change.
• Try to avoid mixing technologies within a facility (Ex- VFDs and eddy current clutches)

• Discussion?

Certified Energy Manager® Motors and Drives 52

v2021.01.SI 26
 Rules of Thumb
Continued

Steps to maximize motor savings

1. Is it loaded properly?
2. Is it efficient?
3. Does the load change over time (can I put a drive on it)?

• Discussion?

Certified Energy Manager® Motors and Drives 53

Review
Awareness of:
• Motor Terminology & Performance Factors
• Load Factors & Slip Calculations
• Fan or “Affinity” Laws
• Variable Flow Options, Variable Frequency Drives

Ability to:
• Estimate Motor Loads
• Estimate Savings from:
• Installing Energy Efficient Motors
• Installing VSDs

Certified Energy Manager® Motors and Drives 54

v2021.01.SI 27
 Motors and Drives Quiz #1
1. During an energy audit, measurements were taken on a three-phase
motor. The voltage was 398 volts, power was 178 kW, and power
factor was 82%. What was the current flow to the motor?
A. 158.7 amps
B. 175.3 amps
C. 182.6 amps
D. 205.2 amps
E. 314.9 amps

Certified Energy Manager® Motors and Drives 55

Motors and Drives Quiz #2

2. A 50 kW motor has a VFD installed that slows it down by 25%, what
is the effect on LPS and the kW savings?
A. 25% LPS reduction; 21.09 kW savings
B. 25% LPS reduction; 28.91 kW savings
C. 75% LPS reduction; 21.09 kW savings
D. 75% LPS reduction; 28.91 kW savings
E. 75% LPS reduction; 51.2 kW savings

Certified Energy Manager® Motors and Drives 56

v2021.01.SI 28
 Motors and Drives Quiz #3
3. A 100 kW motor is on a production line. The motor is at full load all
the time. Would there be significant demand savings if you installed
a VFD?
A. Yes
B. No

Certified Energy Manager® Motors and Drives 57

v2021.01.SI 29
 Section 2.4
Lighting Systems

Lighting Systems

Why?
• Most facilities have lights
• Lighting affects occupant productivity and comfort
• High energy saving potential usually exists
• Lighting also affects the HVAC loads

Certified Energy Manager® Lighting Systems 2

v2021.01.SI 1
 Learning Objectives & Contents
Awareness of:
• Lighting Terminology
• Quality and Quantity
• CRI, CCT, Coefficient Of Utilization
• System and Lamp Types, Controls

Ability to:
• Identify Lighting Retrofit Opportunities and Savings
• Avoid Common Mistakes of Lighting Retrofits
• Simple Estimates on Lighting Design

Certified Energy Manager® Lighting Systems 3

Lighting Basics
Quality is critical and can impact occupant productivity

Quality Quantity
• Light color “Throughput” depends on:
• Ability to distinguish colors • Technology (lumen output)
• Minimizing glare
• Design (delivery of light)

• Maintenance

Phys.org

windowprosonline.com

Certified Energy Manager® Lighting Systems 4

v2021.01.SI 2
 Quality
Color Temperature (CCT = Correlated Color Temperature)
• Color of a light source.

Certified Energy Manager® Lighting Systems 5

Quality
Color Rendering Index (CRI) [a scale from 0 to 100]
• Ability to distinguish colors under a light source.
• 90-100 CRI = Excellent
• 75-85 CRI = Good
• 0-55 CRI = Poor

www.BHPhotoVideo.com

Certified Energy Manager® Lighting Systems 6

v2021.01.SI 3
 Quality
Glare Ene4g.org

Goal: 80% of occupants to be comfortable (but it is subjective)

Very important to “test” new fixtures (especially LEDs)

Source: Zumtobel, The Lighting Handbook

Certified Energy Manager® Lighting Systems 7

Quantity
Having the right amount of light is less “subjective” than achieving “high
quality” lighting.

Quantity relates to:

1. Making the light in the lamp (hopefully with minimal waste)
2. Delivering the light through the fixture to the target
3. Maintaining light (and cleaning, etc.)

Certified Energy Manager® Lighting Systems 8

v2021.01.SI 4
 Quantity
First- We must know what we want:
IES recommended light levels
• Parking lot 20 lux
• Hallways 100 lux
• Factory floor 300 lux
• Offices 500 lux
• Inspection 1,000 lux
• Operating room 10,000 lux

Certified Energy Manager® Lighting Systems 9

Quantity
How to get the Required Light Levels

𝐋𝐮𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐬
𝐋𝐮𝐱 =
(𝐃𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞 𝐢𝐧 𝐦𝐞𝐭𝐫𝐞𝐬ሻ𝟐 10 Lux = 0.929 foot-candle

• Because of the Inverse Square

Law:
• Distance from source to target is
a big factor…
• Consider “Task Lighting”

Certified Energy Manager® Lighting Systems 10

v2021.01.SI 5
 Efficacy of Different Lighting Technologies
Lumens per Watt

Certified Energy Manager® Lighting Systems 11

Efficacy of Different Lighting Technologies

Lumens per Watt

LEDs

Certified Energy Manager® Lighting Systems 12

v2021.01.SI 6
 Overview of Light Sources
Types of Lamps/Lighting Fixtures

• Incandescent lamps
• Tungsten halogen lamps

• Fluorescent lamps / Compact FL, CFL

• High pressure sodium lamps

• Low pressure sodium lamps
• Metal halide lamps

• LEDs

Certified Energy Manager® Lighting Systems 13

Overview of Light Sources

Typical Values of Popular Lamps
Technology CRI CCT (K) Life (hours)
Incandescent 100 2700 1,000
Fluorescent 70-85 3000-6000 20,000
Need a Ballast

Induction 80 4000 85,000-100,000

HPS 22-50 2000 24,000
HIDs require minutes to
LPS 0-10 1700 18,000 attain full brightness

Metal Halide 80 4000 15,000-20,000

LEDs 70-100 3000-6000 *40,000-60,000
Notes: Induction technology is similar to fluorescent but is applied like a HID.
HPS, LPS and MH take a few minutes to start.
*LED lamp performance can vary and depends on many factors.
Certified Energy Manager® Lighting Systems 14

v2021.01.SI 7
 Ballasts
Ballasts:
• Devices/transformers to start and operate fluorescent, CFL and HID lamps.
• Can be electromagnetic or electronic
• Affect the output lumens [Ballast Factor (BF) determines this effect]
• “Ballast Factor” (how hard the ballast is driving the lamps) indicates % of catalog lamp lumens
(catalog) that is actually produced
• Some LED lights have separate (independent) “Drivers” to provide low DC voltage to supply power to the
lamp

Ballasts and lamp holders (“tombstones”)

are additional ”points of failure”.

Certified Energy Manager® Lighting Systems 15

More Detail on Light Sources

Certified Energy Manager® Lighting Systems 16

v2021.01.SI 8
 Light Sources
Incandescent Lamps

• One of the oldest electric lighting technologies

• Least efficient – (4 to 24 lumens/watt)

• Excellent beam control
• Easily dimmed – no ballast needed
• Immediate off and on (no flickering)

Certified Energy Manager® Lighting Systems 17

Light Sources
Halogen Lamps (a slightly improved incandescent)

•Tungsten filament and a halogen gas filled bulb

•Efficacy: 18-25 lumens/watt
•Lamp life < 4,000 hours
•Easily dimmable

Certified Energy Manager® Lighting Systems 18

v2021.01.SI 9
 Light Sources
Fluorescent Lamps

•Many combinations of lamps/ballasts

•Efficacy: 60 - 80 lumens/watt
•Contains mercury
•Dimmable is possible (but not common)
•Can be a HID substitute (but LED is option too)

Certified Energy Manager® Lighting Systems 19

Light Sources
Compact Fluorescent Lamps (CFL)

• Replacement for Incandescent

• Less popular now due to LED options

• Can be dimmable with special dimmers

• Two Main Types:

• Ballast-integrated and
• Ballast non-integrated (allows only lamp to be replaced)

High Power CFL

Certified Energy Manager® Lighting Systems 20

v2021.01.SI 10
 Light Sources
Induction

•Long lamp life (maintenance savings)

•Similar technology to fluorescent, but no metal “pins” penetrating the tube
(which are failure points). Gas is excited magnetically.

•Older HID type (not as popular today due to LED options)

Certified Energy Manager® Lighting Systems 21

Light Sources
Mercury Vapor Lamps

•Older HID type (not as popular today)

•Greener tint than other HIDs

•Used in outdoor applications and high bay fixtures

•Poor efficacy: 30 – 65 lumens/watt

•Needs ~ 5 minutes to attain full brightness

Certified Energy Manager® Lighting Systems 22

v2021.01.SI 11
 Light Sources
Low Pressure Sodium Lamps

•Energy efficient 100-180 lumens per watt

•Monochromatic light source (yellow) so poor CRI
•Needs ~8 minutes to full brightness
•Rarely used today, but you can find in:
•Roadway lighting, bridge and tunnel lighting, security
lighting, area floodlighting, railway crossing lighting
and airport lighting
•Near large telescopes (light can be “filtered” out from
telescope images)

Certified Energy Manager® Lighting Systems 23

Light Sources
High Pressure Sodium Lamps (HPS)

•Indoor and outdoor applications

•High efficacy: 80 - 120 lumens/watt

•Most lamps need ~ 8 minutes to full brightness

Certified Energy Manager® Lighting Systems 24

v2021.01.SI 12
 Light Sources
Metal Halide Lamps

•Used in sports, outdoor applications and high

bay fixtures due to its high power and lumens
•High CRI
•4000K
•Good efficacy: 75 – 80 lumens/watt
•Color consistency problem (color shift)
•Need 10-15 minutes to reach full brightness

Certified Energy Manager® Lighting Systems 25

Light Sources
LED Lighting Technology

•Can be used for almost all applications

•Retrofits or new fixtures
•Indoor
• LED “A” type lamps, floods, etc.
• LED “tubes” to replace fluorescents
• Retrofit options for high or low ceiling spaces
•Outdoor LED
• HID replacement lamps
• New types of LED fixtures
•Energy Efficient 80 - 170 lumens per watt
Source: GE

Certified Energy Manager® Lighting Systems 26

v2021.01.SI 13
 Light Sources
LED Lighting Technology

•Energy savings in the range of 30 – 90% are possible

•Longer life
•Dimmable if needed
•Needs a driver (integrated or separate)
•No mercury or phosphor is used

Images: CREE, Acuitybrands

Certified Energy Manager® Lighting Systems 27

Light Sources
LED Characteristics

•LEDs are better at “targeting”

Certified Energy Manager® Lighting Systems 28

v2021.01.SI 14
 Light Sources
Common Issues with LEDs

•Be careful about glare!

•LED are generally “good”… but test lighting samples so you can see what
it looks like as an occupant.
Looks good (CRI, distribution, etc.) from above But- to the occupant…high glare

Images: CREE
Certified Energy Manager® Lighting Systems 29

Light Sources
Ex. of a Good Application

Characteristics:
• Low glare
• Good CRI
• CCT

Images: CREE
Certified Energy Manager® Lighting Systems 30

v2021.01.SI 15
 Criteria for Purchasing LEDs
•Safety, Compliance & Performance Certifications
•Pre-requisites for utility rebates or insurance
•When doing outdoor lighting, be aware if your geographic area requires
“Dark-Sky Compliant” fixtures

•Life
•Warranty (Example > 5 years)
•Test Performance
• LM-79, LM-80
• tests related to lumen maintenance over lamp life

Certified Energy Manager® Lighting Systems 31

Lighting Controls

Certified Energy Manager® Lighting Systems 32

v2021.01.SI 16
 Lighting Controls
Turning lights off saves 100% of the energy input…

• Occupancy/Vacancy/Motion Sensors
• Infrared and/or ultrasonic
• % savings depends on site (15% to 60% is typical)
• Programmable timers (mechanical or digital)
• Other triggering switches
• Example- control lighting with machine (when machine is “on”, light turns “on”)

Certified Energy Manager® Lighting Systems 33

Lighting Controls
• Daylight sensors (photocells)
• Electronic dimming
• Compare costs/benefits of technologies

Certified Energy Manager® Lighting Systems 34

v2021.01.SI 17
 Lighting Controls
Example of Occupancy Sensor Application

Certified Energy Manager® Lighting Systems 35

Lighting Controls
Example of Daylight Harvesting via Photo Sensor

Certified Energy Manager® Lighting Systems 36

v2021.01.SI 18
 Lighting Controls
Power over Ethernet

• Growing in popularity for

LEDs

• Also- WiFi lighting

systems (each fixture has
a MAC address)

Philips

Certified Energy Manager® Lighting Systems 37

Lighting Design Basics

Note: Get experts to help you with lighting design…
this section will not qualify you as an “expert”

Certified Energy Manager® Lighting Systems 38

v2021.01.SI 19
 Lighting Standards & Codes
Whole Building Lighting Power Densities
W/m2

Offices 8.83

Retail 13.56

Warehouse 7.10

Education 9.36

ASHRAE 90.1 - 2013

Allowable Lighting Power Densities (LPD) for a space

LPD = Total Lighting Power / Space Area (W/m2)

Certified Energy Manager® Lighting Systems 39

Lumen Depreciation over Time

Typical Curves

Future-Energy-Solutions.com

Certified Energy Manager® Lighting Systems 40

v2021.01.SI 20
 Lighting Design Basics
Point by Point Method Dialux
• Professionals use computer simulation tools
• Gives a “map” of light levels, etc.

Lumen Method (Sometimes called “Zonal Cavity Method”)

Assumes an equal lux level throughout the area.

We will show this method in next few slides…

Certified Energy Manager® Lighting Systems 41

Lumen Method

Lux × Area
N=
Lu × LLF × Cu
Where:
N = the number of lamps required
Lux = the required lux level at the task
Area = area of the room in square meters
Lu = the lumen output per lamp
LLF = the combined light loss factor (aka: “% lumens maintained” over time)
Cu = the coefficient of utilization (aka: “delivery efficiency” of lumens to target)

Certified Energy Manager® Lighting Systems 42

v2021.01.SI 21
 Lumen Method
Example 1

Find the number of lamps required to provide 400 lux (uniformly) on

the working surface (desk) in a 15 x 20 meter room. Assume one
5,000 lumen lamp each per fixture, and assume that LLF is 0.65 and
CU is 70%.

Certified Energy Manager® Lighting Systems 43

Lumen Method
Example 1

Find the number of lamps required to provide 400 lux (uniformly) on

the working surface (desk) in a 15 x 20 meter room. Assume one
5,000 lumen lamp each per fixture, and assume that LLF is 0.65 and
CU is 70%.

(400)∙(300)
N = (5,000)∙(0.65)∙(0.7)

N = 53 fixtures @1 lamp per fixture

Certified Energy Manager® Lighting Systems 44

v2021.01.SI 22
 The Coefficient of Utilization
“Delivery Efficiency” of a lighting system

How to find the CU if not provided...

Follow these steps:
1. Find the Room Cavity Ratio “RCR” Coefficients of Utilization
2. Plug in the RCR into a photometric chart
3. Obtain the Coefficient of Utilization

We will show this larger in next few slides…

Certified Energy Manager® Lighting Systems 45

Room Cavity Ratio

Geometric Aspects

To Obtain the CU… you may need the Room Cavity Ratio “RCR”
(2.5)(hRC)(Room Perimeter)
RCR = hRC is the vertical distance from the fixture to work surface
Room Area

Certified Energy Manager® Lighting Systems 46

v2021.01.SI 23
 Lumen Method
Example 2… How to Find and Apply the Coefficient of Utilization

Find the CU for a 2 lamp “Strip” Fixture in a 10 meter by 20 meter

room with an 80% Ceiling Reflectance and a 50% Wall Reflectance.
The lamps are 2.67 meters above the occupant’s desk (which is
where the visual tasks are performed).

Certified Energy Manager® Lighting Systems 47

Lumen Method
Example 2… How to Find and Apply the Coefficient of Utilization

Step 1: Find the RCR:

(2.5)(2.67 meters)(10+10+20+20)
RCR =
(10)(20)

RCR = 2

Step 2: Apply the RCR, ceiling & wall reflectances (next slides)

Certified Energy Manager® Lighting Systems 48

v2021.01.SI 24
 Certified Energy Manager® Lighting Systems 49

Certified Energy Manager® Lighting Systems 50

v2021.01.SI 25
 Step 3:

CU is .71

Certified Energy Manager® Lighting Systems 51

Practical Approaches to
Audits and Upgrades

Certified Energy Manager® Lighting Systems 52

v2021.01.SI 26
 Steps to Optimize Lighting
1. Identify and meet target light levels [LUX]
Get required light levels from e.g. the Illuminating Engineering Society

2. Efficiently produce light

(Efficacy = lumens/watt)

3. Efficiently deliver and maintain light

Balance efficiency with aesthetics, lighting quality and visual comfort
Also- remember that turning lights “off” saves 100%
Source: Woodroof, E (1995), A Lighting Energy Conservation Opportunity Screening
Procedure, Oklahoma State University Press & Energy Engineering Journal

Certified Energy Manager® Lighting Systems 53

Lighting Survey Data

Basic Audit:
•# and type of lighting fixtures (lamps) per area
•Measure actual (existing) light levels
•Operating hours/day, week, year

Detailed Audit:
•Room dimensions
•Circuit voltage

Certified Energy Manager® Lighting Systems 54

v2021.01.SI 27
 Outcome of Lighting Survey / Analysis
Existing Lighting
Working Hrs
Lighting Level

Energy Consumption
Fixture Wattage [W]
Lighting Description

Energy Cost [XX]

Total Load [kW]
[LUX]

Quantity
Area

[kWh]
Months
Hours

Days
Measured

Standard
GF main Building-Packing, Dough, Export and Thyme sections
Cooking Section Flood Light 400 2 70 - 100 10 24 12 0.8 2,304.0 228.7
Dough section FL Double Tubes 2X36 90 5 70 - 100 10 24 12 0.5 1,296.0 128.7
Export section Flood Light 400 4 70 - 100 5 26 4 1.6 832.0 82.6
FL Double Tubes 2X36 90 10 10 24 12 0.9 2,592.0 257.3
Thyme section 120
CFL Bulb 24W 24 1 10 24 12 0.0 69.1 6.9
FL Single Tube 1X18 22 3 10 24 12 0.1 190.1 18.9
Powder section 50 - 80
FL Double Tubes 2X36 90 10 10 24 12 0.9 2,592.0 257.3
Outside Area-Maintenance section
Room 54 FL Double Tubes 2X36 90 3 50 5 26 4 0.3 140.4 13.9
FL Double Tubes 2X36
Certified Energy Manager® 90 1
Lighting Systems 5 26 4 0.1 46.8 55 4.6
Room 55 65
FL Single Tube 1X36 45 1 5 26 4 0.0 23.4 2.3
Room 52 FL Double Tubes 2X36 90 6 78 5 26 4 0.5 280.8 27.9
Warehouse FL Double Tubes 2X36 90 2 5 26 4 0.2 93.6 9.3
Compressor Room FL Double Tubes 2X36 90 1 5 26 4 0.1 46.8 4.6
FL Double Tubes 2X36 90 2 24 30 12 0.2 1,555.2 154.4
Boiler Room 55
FL Single Tube 1X36 45 1 24 30 12 0.0 388.8 38.6
Room beside Boiler FL Single Tube 1X36 45 3 10 24 12 0.1 388.8 38.6
Flood Light 400 1 10 24 12 0.4 1,152.0 114.4

Outcome of Lighting Survey / Analysis

Bathroom FL Single Tube 1X36 45 3
Screening section
10 24 12 0.1 388.8 38.6

Certified Energy Manager® Lighting Systems 56

v2021.01.SI 28
 Common Upgrades

8 Watt - 11 Watt 6 Watt - 7 Watt

12 Watt - 13 Watt 8 Watt - 9 Watt
18 Watt – 20 Watt 10 Watt - 12 Watt
23 Watt – 27 Watt 15 Watt - 16 Watt

40% - 45% Energy Saving

40 Watt 6 Watt - 7 Watt
60 Watt 8 Watt - 9 Watt
75 Watt 10 Watt - 12 Watt
100 Watt 15 Watt - 16 Watt

85% - 87% Energy Saving

36 Watt, 120 cm
18 Watt, 120 cm
(about 45 watt with ballast)

60% Energy Saving

Certified Energy Manager® Lighting Systems 57

Fluorescent to LED Retrofit:

72 to 36 watts… with minimal change in lighting environment

Before After

Certified Energy Manager® Lighting Systems 58

v2021.01.SI 29
 T12 to LED Tube Retrofit:
LED

T8

T12

36W 550 lux

60W
144W 500 lux

Certified Energy Manager® Lighting Systems 59

LED “Direct Wire” Options

No Ballast… Connect to 240V

Magnets “snap” on to the rear

metal wall of a fixture.
• Less points of failure
• Ballasts, “Tombstones”, etc.

Certified Energy Manager® Lighting Systems 60

v2021.01.SI 30
 HPS to LED LED
Watts (Including Ballast)
141 Watts
Lumens
8,040 Lumens
White light appears “brighter”
HPS 300 Watts 19,000 Lumens

RealTermEnergy

CREE
Certified Energy Manager® Lighting Systems 61

HPS to LED
Also- see how they avoided glare, by ”tucking” the fixtures into the ceiling

Certified Energy Manager® Lighting Systems 62

v2021.01.SI 31
 High Bay Interior to LED

400W + Ballast 150W Total

Cision

Certified Energy Manager® Lighting Systems 63

Inside a Hangar at 2am…

• 1,000 Watt Metal Halide
fixtures on… no occupants for
weeks

• Opportunity for
• Training (behavior change)
• Occupancy sensors
• LEDs

Certified Energy Manager® Lighting Systems 64

v2021.01.SI 32
 Inside an Office at 2am…
• Opportunity for
• Training (behavior change)
• Occupancy sensors

• But also… it is 1750 lux about 3

times brighter than IES
Standards.

Certified Energy Manager® Lighting Systems 65

Review
Awareness of:
• Lighting Terminology
• Quality and Quantity
• CRI, CCT, Coefficient Of Utilization
• System and Lamp Types, Controls

Ability to:
• Identify Lighting Retrofit Opportunities and Savings
• Avoid Common Mistakes of Lighting Retrofits
• Simple Estimates on Lighting Design

Certified Energy Manager® Lighting Systems 66

v2021.01.SI 33
 Quiz #1
The efficacy of a light source is measured in:
A. Kelvins
B. Percent
C. Lumens/watt
D.Lumens/square meter

Certified Energy Manager® Lighting Systems 67

Quiz #2
1,000 T8 fixtures (60 watts/fixture) were replaced with 36W LED fixtures.
Lights were on 8,760 hours a year, and electricity costs $0.17/kWh (no
demand charge). What was the simple payback if the LEDs were
$100/fixture to install?

Certified Energy Manager® Lighting Systems 68

v2021.01.SI 34
 Quiz #3
In a high bay facility, the lights are mounted within the ceiling (flush
mounted) which is 10 meters above the floor. The lighting level on the floor
is 500 lux.

If the lights were lowered to 7 meters above the floor, what would be the
new light level (on the floor, in lux)?

Certified Energy Manager® Lighting Systems 69

v2021.01.SI 35
 Section 2.5
Maintenance & Commissioning

Maintenance and Commissioning

Why?
• Energy savings from maintenance usually has quickest paybacks, because
“investment” is minimal.
• Source: Industrial Assessment Center Database 1980 through 2018, US Dept. of Energy.

• However… when ”times are tough”, maintenance budgets are often

reduced before other expenses.

• So… we must communicate the value of maintenance/commissioning!

Certified Energy Manager® Maintenance and Commissioning 2

v2021.01.SI 1
 Learning Objectives & Contents
Awareness of:
• Maintenance Terminology, Strategies and Technologies
• Reactive, Preventive, Predictive
• Infrared, Vibration & Lubricant Analysis
• Commissioning Terminology and Overview
• Commissioning, Retro-Commissioning, etc.

Ability to:
• Estimate Savings from Maintenance Activities
• Compressed Air and Steam Leaks
• Uninsulated Steam Lines
• Group Relamping

Certified Energy Manager® Maintenance and Commissioning 3

Maintenance Terminology

Certified Energy Manager® Maintenance and Commissioning

v2021.01.SI 2
 Common Maintenance Strategies
• Reactive or Unscheduled:
• Repair equipment upon failure (aka: “Break-Down Maint.”, “Run until Failure”, “Break-Fix”)
• Preventive:
• Routine maintenance, based on calendar or operating hours
• Predictive:
• Using technology to predict failures before they happen…Use if downtime costs are high
Other Terms:
”Real-Time Maintenance”, “Continuous”, etc.
“Reliability Centered Maintenance”
Approach (for each piece of equipment) which incorporates elements of the other strategies, to obtain
the “best” value or results (or minimize downtime costs).

Certified Energy Manager® Maintenance and Commissioning 5

Computerized Maint. Mgmt. Systems “CMMS”

• Specialized software to track assets & maintenance

• Generates work orders (with tools needed, parts needed, instructions, etc.)
• Can be integrated with a Building Automation System (“BAS”)
• Time-based and/or performance based (e.g., ΔP across filters)

• Remember- a CMMS is only as good as the data… so be prepared to invest

and re-train staff if you want it to remain effective.

Certified Energy Manager® Maintenance and Commissioning 6

v2021.01.SI 3
 Preventive & Predictive Maintenance Technologies
• Infrared Analysis

• Vibration Analysis

• Lubricant Analysis

Certified Energy Manager® Maintenance and Commissioning 7

Infrared Analysis (aka Thermography)

Heat anomalies can indicate:
• Bad connections and/or phase problems in electrical infrastructure
• Sign of impending malfunctions
• Malfunctioning steam traps and worn-out/missing insulation
• Damaged insulation within a building’s envelope

Certified Energy Manager® Maintenance and Commissioning 8

v2021.01.SI 4
 Infrared on Electrical Infrastructure
Anomalies can be from:
• Loose connections
• Dirt
• Damaged parts
• Phase or other imbalances
• Overloaded neutrals

Certified Energy Manager® Maintenance and Commissioning 9

Infrared on Electrical Infrastructure

• Damaged insulators in a
bus bar riser for a high-rise
building

Certified Energy Manager® Maintenance and Commissioning 10

v2021.01.SI 5
 Infrared: Uninsulated Steam Lines

Certified Energy Manager® Maintenance and Commissioning 11

Infrared: Steam Traps

Failed Open Properly Holding Back Steam

http://www.iranalyzers.com http://infrared-thermography-inspection.com
Certified Energy Manager® Maintenance and Commissioning 12

v2021.01.SI 6
 Infrared for Building Envelope
• Damaged or missing insulation

Certified Energy Manager® Maintenance and Commissioning 13

Infrared for Solar Panels

• Finding damaged panels

http://infrared-thermography-inspection.com
Certified Energy Manager® Maintenance and Commissioning 14

v2021.01.SI 7
 Vibration Analysis
Measures vibration signatures of machinery (usually rotating) to find:
• Bad bearings and/or gears
• Poor alignment / balance
• Loose machine mountings

Two main diagnostic methods:

1. Vibration signatures (snap-shot)
2. Trending (observations over time)

Certified Energy Manager® Maintenance and Commissioning 15

Vibration Analysis- Examples & Photos

Source: Google Images

Certified Energy Manager® Maintenance and Commissioning 16

v2021.01.SI 8
 Sample Vibration Analysis Chart

Certified Energy Manager® Maintenance and Commissioning 17

Lubricant (Oil) Analysis

Oil can be analyzed for wear and tear on process bearings, gears, etc.
Steps:
1. Send an oil/lubricant sample to a testing firm
2. Receive a report regarding machine wear, particle analysis, potential failure
information, etc..
3. Decide on the best path (do nothing, maintain or replace equipment, etc.)

Certified Energy Manager® Maintenance and Commissioning 18

v2021.01.SI 9
 Baseline & Trend Analyses
can identify problems before they cause downtime

Source: Maintenance.org
Certified Energy Manager® Maintenance and Commissioning 19

Energy Savings Opportunities

via Maintenance Activities

Certified Energy Manager® Maintenance and Commissioning

v2021.01.SI 10
 What a Compressed Air Leak Sounds Like

Certified Energy Manager® Maintenance and Commissioning 21

Estimating Compressed Air Leak Losses

Losses From Compressed Air Leaks (kWh/year) via SI and Imperial Units
@ 8760 hours/year
Approximate
Hole Air Pressure in bar (psig)
Diameter
mm (in) 4 (58) 5 (72) 6 (87) 7 (102) 8 (116) 9 (131)
1 (5/128) 900 1,300 1,600 2,000 2,400 2,900
2 (5/64) 3,700 5,100 6,500 8,100 9,700 11,500
3 (1/8) 8,400 11,400 14,600 18,200 21,900 25,900
6 (1/4) 33,700 45,500 58,600 72,700 87,700 103,500
9 (3/8) 75,800 102,400 131,800 163,600 197,400 232,800
Table derived from 2016 Compressed Air and Gas Handbook, Chapter 8, Table 8.21 and Table 8.25, Compressed Air and Gas Institute, for a 2-stage
compressor, 21.1°C air, and using orifice coefficient of 0.60. [Energy loss is rounded off to the nearest 100 kWh.]

Certified Energy Manager® Maintenance and Commissioning 22

v2021.01.SI 11
 Compressed Air Leaks
Example:
One 6 mm hole (¼ inch) is found in a compressed air line, operating
8760 hours per year at 7 barg. How many energy $ are wasted
because of this leak? Assume the energy rate is $0.10/kWh.

Certified Energy Manager® Maintenance and Commissioning 23

Compressed Air Leaks

Example:
One 6 mm hole (¼ inch) is found in a compressed air line, operating
8760 hours per year at 7 barg. How many energy $ are wasted
because of this leak? Assume the energy rate is $0.10/kWh.

Answer:
72,700 kWh
=( )($0.10/kWh)
year
= $ 7,270/year

Certified Energy Manager® Maintenance and Commissioning 24

v2021.01.SI 12
 Valve Examples of Insulation
None Better

Certified Energy Manager® Maintenance and Commissioning 25

Thermal Losses from Uninsulated Pipes

Certified Energy Manager® Maintenance and Commissioning 26

v2021.01.SI 13
 Thermal Losses from Uninsulated Steam Lines
Heat Loss per 30.5 Meters of Uninsulated Steam Line
(GigaJoules/yr) at 8760 operating hours per year
Pipe Diameter Steam Pressure (bar)
(mm) 1.0 10.3 20.7 41.4
25.4 147.7 300.7 395.6 522.3
50.8 247.9 506.4 664.7 886.2
101.6 437.8 896.8 1181.7 1582.6
203.2 780.7 1624.8 2141.8 2875.0
304.8 1113.1 2321.1 3070.2 4135.8
Sources- Woodroof, E., Mazzi, E. (2019), "Maintenance OutPerforms Wall Street by 10x", Buildings Magazine, Feb 2019;
US Department of Energy, Advanced Manufacturing Office, Steam Tip Sheet #2, January 2012. Assumes 23.8oC, no wind.

Certified Energy Manager® Maintenance and Commissioning 27

Additional Online Tools

Note that you can find additional
values (for different pipe
diameters, temperatures, etc.) via
dynamic online tools such as:
• https://www.wbdg.org/guides-
specifications/mechanical-
insulation-design-guide/design-
objectives/energy-calculator-
horizontal-piping

Certified Energy Manager® Maintenance and Commissioning 28

v2021.01.SI 14
 Thermal Losses from Uninsulated Pipes
Example:
A 61 meter section of 10.3 bar steam line is uninsulated. The pipe is
101.6mm (4 inches) in diameter and is downstream of a boiler that has
an 80% efficiency, burning methane at $5/GJ. What are the energy losses
(in $) per year?

Certified Energy Manager® Maintenance and Commissioning 29

Thermal Losses from Uninsulated Pipes

Example:
A 61 meter section of 10.3 bar steam line is uninsulated. The pipe is
101.6mm (4 inches) in diameter and is downstream of a boiler that has
an 80% efficiency, burning methane at $5/GJ. What are the energy losses
(in $) per year?

Answer:
896.8 GJ 1 $5
=(2)·( )·( )·( )
year 0.8 GJ
= $11,210/year
Certified Energy Manager® Maintenance and Commissioning 30

v2021.01.SI 15
 What a Steam Leak looks like

Certified Energy Manager® Maintenance and Commissioning 31

Energy Loss through a Steam Leak

Energy Lost at Leak (GJ/yr)
at 8760 operating hours per year

Steam Pressure (bar)

Hole Size (mm)
3.4 6.9 10.3 13.8
3.2 200 342 478 609
6.4 798 1 367 1 911 2 434
9.5 1 796 3 076 4 299 5 478
12.7 3 192 5 468 7 643 9 738
19.1 7 182 12 303 17 196 21 910
25.4 12 768 21 871 30 571 38 952
Based on Grashof’s equation using a nozzle coefficient 0.70, steam operation 8760 h/yr, steam loss at saturation pressure, make-up water 65 kJ/kg. Ignores blowdown
losses. [Energy loss rounded off to the nearest GJ/yr.]
Reference: Sadegh, A.M. and W.M. Worek. 2018. Marks’ Standard Handbook for Mechanical Engineers, 12th edition, McGraw-Hill Education, chapter 4, page 118-119.

Certified Energy Manager® Maintenance and Commissioning 32

v2021.01.SI 16
 Steam Leaks
Example:
A 6.4mm (1/4 inch) steam trap has failed open, discharging the 6.9 bar
steam line. If the steam line is pressurized all year, and the trap is
downstream of a boiler that has an 80% efficiency, burning methane at
$10/GJ. What are the energy losses (in $) per year?

Certified Energy Manager® Maintenance and Commissioning 33

Steam Leaks
Example:
A 6.4mm (1/4 inch) steam trap has failed open, discharging the 6.9 bar
steam line. If the steam line is pressurized all year, and the trap is
downstream of a boiler that has an 80% efficiency, burning methane at
$10/GJ. What are the energy losses (in $) per year?

Answer:
1,367 GJ 1 $10
=( )·( )·( )
year 0.8 GJ
= $ 17,088/year

Certified Energy Manager® Maintenance and Commissioning 34

v2021.01.SI 17
 Boiler Water Treatment (and Scale Deposits)

Scale Fuel Loss % of Total Use

Thickness
(mm) Normal Scale High Iron Iron plus Silica
0.4 1 1.6 3.5
0.8 2 3.1 7
1.2 3 4.7
1.6 3.9 6.2

U.S. DOE Advanced Manufacturing Office Steam Tip Sheet #7 energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2014/05/f16/steam7_surfaces.pdf

Certified Energy Manager® Maintenance and Commissioning 35

Reducing Boiler Water Scale

Example:
A boiler’s tubes have a scale thickness of 1.2mm (3/64 inches). If the boiler
consumes 10 GJ/hour and operates 3,000 hours per year, what are the annual
savings if you can clean the tubes and get the scale reduced to 0.4mm (1/64 inches)
(on average). Assume “normal” scale. Methane costs $5/GJ.

Certified Energy Manager® Maintenance and Commissioning 36

v2021.01.SI 18
 Reducing Boiler Water Scale
Example:
A boiler’s tubes have a scale thickness of 1.2mm (3/64 inches). If the boiler
consumes 10 GJ/hour and operates 3,000 hours per year, what are the annual
savings if you can clean the tubes and get the scale reduced to 0.4mm (1/64 inches)
(on average). Assume “normal” scale. Methane costs $5/GJ.

Answer: The savings are approximately 3% minus 1%... So about 2%

30,000 GJ $5
=( )·(0.02)·( )
year GJ
= $ 3,000/year

Certified Energy Manager® Maintenance and Commissioning 37

Motor Maintenance
• Improper lubrication can introduce contaminants into bearings.
• 0.5 to 1% energy savings are possible by using the correct type of belt
for different applications/RPMs.
• Make sure motors are clean and have adequate ventilation.

Clean Dirty

Certified Energy Manager® Maintenance and Commissioning 38

v2021.01.SI 19
 HVAC System Maintenance
Maintenance activities and methods (residential and commercial)
• Clean heat exchanger coils & filters
• Balance air ducts
• Repair humidification systems
• Fault detection and repair

Benefits
• Improve indoor air quality, and occupant comfort
• Reduced health impacts (respiratory, skin and eye irritations)
• Some energy savings

Certified Energy Manager® Maintenance and Commissioning 39

Lighting Maintenance
Over time, lighting
losses occur in:
• Quantity (lumen
depreciation) and

• Quality (color shift,

visual stability).

“Recommended Practice for Lighting Maintenance” RP-36-15 (2015) Illuminating Engineering Society ies.org

Certified Energy Manager® Maintenance and Commissioning 40

v2021.01.SI 20
 Lighting Maintenance
• Over time lighting losses occur in:
• Quantity (lumen depreciation) and
• Quality (color shift, visual stability) of illumination

Light loss factor Maintenance activity

Lamp lumen depreciation (LLD) Relamping
Lamp burnout Relamping
Lumen dirt depreciation (LDD) Luminaire cleaning
Room surface dirt depreciation (RSDD) Room cleaning
“Recommended Practice for Lighting Maintenance” RP-36-15 (2015) Illuminating Engineering Society ies.org

Certified Energy Manager® Maintenance and Commissioning 41

Group Relamping
• Lower labor cost
• Bulk price for purchasing and disposal costs
• Fewer un-replaced burnouts
• Less lamp stocking
• Fewer work interruptions
• Assets are more consistent when purchased at same time
• Using the same model numbers, etc.

Certified Energy Manager® Maintenance and Commissioning 42

v2021.01.SI 21
 Calculating Group Relamping Interval
Example: If you have 1,000 fixtures operating 3,000 hours per year. The lamps within the
fixtures are supposed to last 20,000 hours, but you want to do group relamping at 70% of
rated life.

The group relamping interval would be:

(20,000) · (0.7)
=
3,000
(14,000)
= 3,000

= 4.67 years

Certified Energy Manager® Maintenance and Commissioning 43

Examples of Poor
Maintenance

Certified Energy Manager® Maintenance and Commissioning

v2021.01.SI 22
 Poor Cooling Tower Maintenance

Certified Energy Manager® Maintenance and Commissioning 45

Exposed Steam Line in a Road (safety risk)

Certified Energy Manager® Maintenance and Commissioning 46

v2021.01.SI 23
 Boiler that ran out of water and “dry fired”

Source: Asit Patel, anpenergy.com

Certified Energy Manager® Maintenance and Commissioning 47

Underground Compressed Air Leak

Certified Energy Manager® Maintenance and Commissioning 48

v2021.01.SI 24
 Commissioning

Maintenance and Commissioning

Commissioning Definition
Commissioning Process (Cx Process): focuses upon verifying and
documenting that all of the commissioned systems and assemblies are
planned, designed, installed, tested, operated, and maintained to meet the
owner’s project requirements.
Source: ASHRAE Standard 202-2013

• The foundation for the Cx Process in new construction is the Owner’s Project Requirements (OPR).

• The foundation for the Cx Process in existing buildings is the Current Facility Requirements (CFR).

Certified Energy Manager® Maintenance and Commissioning 50

v2021.01.SI 25
 Benefits of Commissioning
• Buildings and systems that function as intended
• In the rush to complete construction, owners often overlook incomplete or deficient work.
• Closeout inspections tend to focus only on regulatory requirements.
• Identify defects before they go out of warranty
• Greater occupant comfort and productivity
• Reduced energy consumption, costs & environmental impact
• Owner has thorough documentation for ongoing operations and for any
future facility changes
• Others . . .

Certified Energy Manager® Maintenance and Commissioning 51

Additional Commissioning Terms

• Re-Commissioning (Re-Cx)
• Repeating commissioning activities when an existing building is modified, or every 3-5 years.
• “Seasonal Commissioning” can mean Re-Cx of heating systems during the Summer season

• Retro-Commissioning (RCx)
• Commissioning an existing building (that was not commissioned previously).

• Ongoing Commissioning (Real-Time Cx, Continuous Commissioning®)

• Interval monitoring of building systems and parameters – usually with a computer-based
trending– in order to detect issues in real time.

• Commissioning Provider (CxP) – or Commissioning Authority (CxA)

• The individual who is in charge of the Cx Process and makes final recommendations to the
owner regarding functional performance of the commissioned building systems.

Certified Energy Manager® Maintenance and Commissioning 52

v2021.01.SI 26
 References for Cx
Many Choices
• There are many nationally-recognized organizations with their own
guidelines, standards, checklists, templates, and documentation protocols
• NIBS (UFC = Whole Building Design Guide), ACG, NEBB, PECI, BCxA, ASHRAE (Guidelines and a
Standard), GSA, DOE (EERE, FEMP, Energy Star), California Energy Commission, etc.
• and, they may not all agree on the details, level of effort and timing of when Cx should begin.

Certified Energy Manager® Maintenance and Commissioning 53

Commissioning Team Hierarchy

OWNER

OWNER’S
MAINTENANCE
STAFF

A/E CxP CM/GC

MECHANICAL ELECTRICAL CONTROLS & TEST ADJUST

FIRE
SYSTEMS SYSTEMS SOFTWARE BALANCE
SPECIALISTS
SPECIALISTS SPECIALISTS SPECIALISTS CONTRACTOR

Maintenance and Commissioning

v2021.01.SI 27
 Process for New Construction
What Is Done? Who Does It?
Define the Cx Scope & Plan the Execution Owner, AoR, CxP
Design Review by CxP
Agree on What to Inspect and How to Test It CxP, Design Team, Owner
Submittal Review by CxP

Determine Inspect Installation/Startup CxP, Contractors, Design Team

Remediation
Fail Pass Use Pre-Functional Checklists (PFC)

Determine Systematically Test Systems CxP, Contractors

Remediation
Fail Pass Use Functional Test Procedures (FTP)

Training and Turnover Owner, CxP, Contractors, Design Team

Certified Energy Manager® Maintenance and Commissioning 55

Process for Existing Construction

What Is Done? Who Does It?
Define the Cx Scope & Plan the Execution Owner & CxP

Review available documents and reports. Create

component inventory, evaluate trends, evaluate CxP
energy usage, befriend the maintenance staff
CxP may need to hire specialists
Investigate condition and functionality of systems (e.g. Envelope Consultant;
Controls Contractor; Test, Adjust &
in the scope. Simple repairs may be included in
Balance Contractor; etc.)
this phase. But, be sure that “simple” is well-
defined in the scope and planning documents. Use written assessment forms and
Functional Test Procedures (FTP)
Report findings and recommend steps
CxP
for implementation (e.g. ECMs & FIMs)

Certified Energy Manager® Maintenance and Commissioning 56

v2021.01.SI 28
 Basic Scope of CxP Tasks
• Review Owner Project Requirements and Basis of Design
• Verify that Cx requirements are included in construction documents. (optional)
• Develop and implement a commissioning plan that identifies the systems;
describes the scope, roles, and relationships for Cx team; and estimates the time
needed for Cx activities.
• Review technical submittal and provide comments to design team. (optional)

• Develop construction checklists and verify proper completion

• Develop functional test procedures & work with contractors to execute the tests.

• Maintain an Issues Log

• Verify appropriate systems manuals and operator training are provided
• Prepare a Final Commissioning Report
Certified Energy Manager® Maintenance and Commissioning 57

Commissioning During Project Phases

1. Pre-Design (Project Initiation):
Owner Project Requirements (OPR)
Basis of Design (BoD) – Schematic Design and System Narratives

2. Design Phase:
Construction specifications for Cx, Design review, Draft Commissioning Plan

3. Construction Phase:
Cx Kickoff/Scoping Meeting, OPR & BOD Updates, Submittals review, Develop Pre-
Functional Checklists , Develop Functional Test Procedures, Test equipment and
system sequences, Testing and Balancing, Issues Log, Training Verification.

Certified Energy Manager® Maintenance and Commissioning 58

v2021.01.SI 29
 Commissioning During Project Phases - continued
4. Occupancy/Operations Phase:
Draft Final Commissioning Report, submit systems manual, setup maintenance
program, draft Re-Commissioning Plan.

5. Post Occupancy/Warranty:
Interview occupants & staff within 10 months, seasonal testing, short-term
monitoring, final issues log resolutions, complete Final Commissioning Report

Certified Energy Manager® Maintenance and Commissioning 59

Commissioning Authority, CxA

• Experience on 2 similar size / scope projects
• Owner, independent consultant, employee of the design
Fundamental or construction firm not part of the project, or
Commissioning disinterested subcontractor
• <1,850 m2 can be member of design team or Contractor

• Owner, independent consultant, or a disinterested

subcontractor
Enhanced
Commissioning
• Reports findings directly to owner

Certified Energy Manager® Maintenance and Commissioning 60

v2021.01.SI 30
 Prerequisites for Successful Commissioning
• Design and contract documents must fully address contractors’ (GC and
Subs) responsibilities and how they relate to the Cx Process.
• Required submittal, component/system startup, closeout documents, and owner
training are standard spec items. They must be coordinated with the Cx Process and
must include completion of Cx checklists, participation in Cx field tests, and any
deferred tests.

• Construction manager and/or general contractor must have complete buy-

in to the Cx Process and keep the CxP informed of all changes and RFIs
associated with the systems being commissioned.
• Commissioning Issues Log, maintained by the CxP, is discussed with line item statuses
at each OAC Meeting.

COMMUNICATE, COMMUNICATE, COMMUNICATE!

The Cx Process must be a collaborative effort by all.

Certified Energy Manager® Maintenance and Commissioning 61

Review
Awareness of:
• Maintenance Terminology, Strategies and Technologies
• Reactive, Preventive, Predictive
• Infrared, Vibration & Lubricant Analysis
• Commissioning Terminology and Overview
• Commissioning, Retro-Commissioning, etc.

Ability to:
• Estimate Savings from Maintenance Activities
• Compressed Air and Steam Leaks
• Uninsulated Steam Lines
• Group Relamping

Certified Energy Manager® Maintenance and Commissioning 62

v2021.01.SI 31
 Quiz:
1. In a large 911 call center, which maintenance strategy(s) would be most likely for the
back-up electrical generator?
A. Reactive
B. Preventive and Predictive
C. Break-Down Maintenance only

2. Which technology can help you identify if a motor is not securely fastened to the floor?

3. Is “Retro-Commissioning” when you repeat commissioning on a building after 5 years?

4. You find one 9mm (3/8 inch) compressed air leak on a 6 bar line. If energy is $0.15/kWh,
approximately what would you save each year if you repaired the leak?

Certified Energy Manager® Maintenance and Commissioning 63

v2021.01.SI 32
 Section 3.1
HVAC Systems

HVAC Systems

Why HVAC ?
• The HVAC system is responsible for a significant share of the energy use
• 20% to 35% (or more) of the total energy consumed in many building types
• Many facilities have HVAC systems that were designed and installed at times when
energy efficiency was not a priority

• Most HVAC systems are designed to meet extreme load conditions rather
than average conditions. Thus, most are oversized and not operating
efficiently.
• “You will never get sued for oversizing a system”

Certified Energy Manager® HVAC Systems 2

v2021.01.SI 1
 Learning Objectives & Contents
Awareness of:
• Types and functions of HVAC systems
• Vapor Compression Cycle, COP, EER
• Innovative Developments
• Heat Recovery, VRF, Chilled Beams, Absorption Chillers, Magnetic Bearing Chillers

Ability to:
• Discuss various HVAC Energy Efficiency measures
• Calculate Heat Transfer (Sensible and Latent Heat)
• Utilize the Psychrometric Chart

Certified Energy Manager® HVAC Systems 3

Introduction
• The Heating, Ventilating, and Air Conditioning (HVAC) system for a
facility is the system of motors, ducts, fans, controls, and heat exchange
units which delivers heated or cooled air to various parts of the facility.

• The purpose of the HVAC system is to add or remove heat and moisture
in order to maintain the desired environmental conditions.

• The HVAC system also provides ventilation and air movement even
when no heating or cooling load is present.

Certified Energy Manager® HVAC Systems 4

v2021.01.SI 2
 HVAC Functions
Summer: Winter:
• Cooling system is used to remove • Heating system is used to add
heat from air heat to the air

• This is usually accompanied by • This is usually accompanied by

removing moisture adding moisture
(dehumidification) (humidification)

• Sources of cooling: chiller, • Sources of heat: gas-fired

packaged unit or heat pump heater, boiler or heat pump

Certified Energy Manager® HVAC Systems 5

Vapor Compression Cycle

• Most cooling equipment uses a vapor compression cycle and phase
changes to transfer heat.
• Chillers, package units, split-units, refrigerators, freezers, etc., are all examples of
systems operating on this cycle.
• The cycle is comprised of four main components:
• Compressor
• Condenser
• Expansion valve
• Evaporator

Certified Energy Manager® HVAC Systems 6

v2021.01.SI 3
 Vapor Compression Cycle
High pressure gas
High pressure liquid

The compressor
Reduces pressure
raises the pressure
thru an orifice
and consequently
the temperature

Refrigerant is Lower pressure

cooler because of and temperature
drop in pressure refrigerant
absorbs heat

Certified Energy Manager® HVAC Systems 7

Vapor Compression Cycle

• Consumes electricity (run by motor)
Compressor • Used to increase the pressure and temperature of the refrigerant

• Releases heat from the refrigerant to the outdoor environment.

Condenser • Heat exchanger

• Used to the reduce the pressure of the refrigerant

Expansion • No energy exchange takes place
Valve

• Absorbs heat from air (or water) to the refrigerant

Evaporator • Heat exchanger responsible for the cooling effect

Certified Energy Manager® HVAC Systems 8

v2021.01.SI 4
 Refrigerants
• Most refrigerants used today are synthetic substances.
• CFC’s: not produced in the USA since Jan 1, 1996; world-wide production now
banned (R-11 & R-12)
• HCFC production is to end by 2030
• USA production of equipment using R-22 ended Jan 1, 2010
• Ozone Depletion Potential (ODP):
• Ratio of the impact on ozone of a chemical compared to the impact of a similar
mass of R-11
• R-11 (CFCl3) ODP defined to be 1.0.
• ODP of the HFC’s is zero (no chlorine).

Certified Energy Manager® HVAC Systems 9

International Implications about HFC’s

• HFCs have Global Warming Potential (GWP) factors that are ~1,500
times more powerful than CO2

• Major industrial countries are freezing production of HFC’s after 75

countries ratified the Kigali Amendment to the Montreal Protocol
• The USA did not ratify the Kigali Amendment, but some states are putting
regulations in place to eliminate HFC’s

Certified Energy Manager® HVAC Systems 10

v2021.01.SI 5
 Refrigerants

CFCs HCFCs HFCs Ammonia

R-11, R-12 R-22 R-134a, R-410a Toxic

Ozone Depletion
ODP = 0.05 ODP = 0 ODP = 0
Potential (ODP) = 1

Mostly used in
Production to be Results in lower
Globally banned and commercial cooling
terminated globally by efficiency compared to
phased out facility and low temp
2030 older refrigerants
refrigeration

Certified Energy Manager® HVAC Systems 11

Power and Energy in Air Conditioning

3.517 kW is the power needed
One ton of Air Conditioning = 3.517 kJ/s (supplied for 24 hours) to melt
A ton is a measure of power one ton of ice

One ton-hour of Air Conditioning = 12,660 kJ

A ton-hour is a measure of energy

Certified Energy Manager® HVAC Systems 12

v2021.01.SI 6
 Coefficient of Performance (COP)
Applies to both Heating and Cooling

EnergyMoved
COP =
EnergyInput
or
PowerFlow of Movement Window
COP= AC Unit
PowerInput ENERGY Moved

Energy Input
COP is unit-less… so make sure: (from socket)
units of EnergyMoved match units of EnergyInput

Certified Energy Manager® HVAC Systems 13

Coefficient of Performance (COP)

A unitless measure of Equipment Performance

• A COP of 2.0 for example, means that for each 1.0 kW of electric power
consumed, 2.0 kW of cooling effect can be delivered.
• Therefore, the higher the COP of an AC, the less energy it consumes for a given
cooling load.

• COP is the most important parameter to be measured and calculated for

a piece of heating or cooling equipment.
• The COP is not constant but rather depends on the outdoor conditions (as the
temperature changes, the COP changes).

Certified Energy Manager® HVAC Systems 14

v2021.01.SI 7
 EER Measure of Performance
Cooling equipment performance may also be expressed in terms of Energy
Efficiency Ratios (EERs).
Ratio of cooling output in kJ to the energy in watt-hour to operate system.

kJ cooling input kJ/h cooling input

EER = or
Wh electric input W electric input
Other Terms:
SEER = Seasonal Energy Efficiency Ratio
HSPF = Heating Seasonal Performance Factor
Same units as EER… but indicate how equipment performs over a Winter or Summer season
A typical electric heat pump may have an HSPF of 8.65, and a SEER of 11.6.

Certified Energy Manager® HVAC Systems 15

EER and COP Formulas

3.6 kJ
EER = COP ∙
Wh kWe 3.6 1
= =
kWthermal EER COP

EER
COP =
3.6

kWin 12.660 3.517 A nice “short cut” equation, because:

= = 3.517 =
12.660
ton EER COP 3.6

Certified Energy Manager® HVAC Systems 16

v2021.01.SI 8
 Performance Values
• Chiller COP may be as low as 2.5 for small chillers, and up to 7.0 for
large, water-cooled, centrifugal or screw compressor chillers.
• Typical values for mini-split COPs range between 2.0 and 3.5, while it rarely
exceeds 1.5 – 2.0 for window type air conditioners.

• Integrated Part Load Value, (IPLV), predicts chiller efficiency at the Air
Conditioning Refrigeration Institute’s (ARI) Standard Rating Point.
• ARI’s part-load efficiency rating system establishes a single, “blended”
estimate of standalone chiller performance.

Certified Energy Manager® HVAC Systems 17

Integrated Part Load Value(IPLV)

Like SEER for Chillers

Certified Energy Manager® HVAC Systems 18

v2021.01.SI 9
 Example
• A chiller is providing 960,000 kJ/hr of cooling while drawing 53 kW
of electricity, calculate its COP, EER, kW/Ton.

Certified Energy Manager® HVAC Systems 19

Solution
A chiller is providing 960,000 kJ/hr of cooling while drawing 53 kW of electricity, calculate
its COP, EER, kW/Ton.

Answers:
3,600 kJ
For COP: Convert to the same units (53 kW)(
1 kWh ) = 190,800 kJ/hour
EnergyMoved 960,000
• COP = = = 5.0314
EnergyInput 190,800

• EER = (3.6) · (5.0314) = 18.1

kW 3.517
• ton =
5.0314 = 0.7 kW/ton
Certified Energy Manager® HVAC Systems 20

v2021.01.SI 10
 Equipment Types

HVAC Systems

Direct Expansion Units

Packaged Units Mini Split Units Window Unit

Certified Energy Manager® HVAC Systems 22

v2021.01.SI 11
 Common Retrofits for Rooftop Units (RTUs)
• Significant savings can be obtained by adding on retrofit control
packages to existing rooftop units.
• Retrofits for RTU systems add VFDs to the motors as well as sophisticated DDC
control systems for Economizers.

• Savings can be as much as 50% according to the manufacturers.

• Sixty percent of all commercial buildings use RTUs, so this is a

significant saving opportunity.

Certified Energy Manager® HVAC Systems 23

Certified Energy Manager® HVAC Systems 24

v2021.01.SI 12
 Ground Source Heat Pumps
Earth as a Near Constant Heat Sink/Source

Can be used for:

• Homes
• Individual
buildings
• Campus
• District energy
systems

EPA.gov

Certified Energy Manager® HVAC Systems 25

GeoThermal Case Study

Drilling Rig for six 60 meter wells (~ 1 ton per well)

Crushed Limestone as a result of drilling

HVAC Systems 26

v2021.01.SI 13
 GeoThermal Case Study
Notice the difference in “Supply Air” Temperatures and “Loop” Temperatures (water temperature to the Ground Loop)
Summer Winter

=37.3oC
=9.2oC

=12.7oC
=27.4oC

Certified Energy Manager® HVAC Systems 27

~ $1/day
to cool 420 m2

HVAC Systems 28

v2021.01.SI 14
 Large Scale GSHP
Case Study

• 450 mm GeoThermal Loop at a Colorado University

• “Although the university has expanded its footprint by
50% (from 7.4 hectare to 11), managers have been able
to keep their power load flat at less than 4 MW demand
from the local electric utility”
• “Since going with geothermal six years ago, they have
not had to fire a boiler to heat the buildings. This is
quite remarkable because this particular location has
very cold winter seasons.”

HVAC Systems 29

Chillers

Water-cooled Air-cooled

Certified Energy Manager® HVAC Systems 30

v2021.01.SI 15
 Typical Chiller System

Certified Energy Manager® HVAC Systems 31

Typical Chiller System

• Chilled water is produced and then circulated to Air Handling Units (AHUs)
or Fan Coil Units (FCUs).

• Easier to transfer energy by moving chilled water (instead of air)

• The condenser is either: air-cooled or water-cooled.

• Water-cooled chillers:
• Higher COP
• Added complexity

Certified Energy Manager® HVAC Systems 32

v2021.01.SI 16
 Cooling Towers
Works by evaporating water into
atmosphere
• Each kilogram of liquid water
evaporated will send approximately
2,257 kJ of heat to the atmosphere.

Certified Energy Manager® HVAC Systems 33

Absorption Chiller
Uses heat instead of electric power to drive a refrigeration cycle

Advantages:
• Can use waste heat, solar energy, etc.
• Fuel may be free

Disadvantages:
• Low COP (typically less than 1)
• Added complexity
• Relatively high maintenance requirements

York
Certified Energy Manager® HVAC Systems 34

v2021.01.SI 17
 Magnetic Bearing Centrifugal Chillers
• Magnetic-bearing chiller compressors are oil-free, variable speed compressors that
can be installed as a retrofit to an existing chiller or within a new chiller.
• Digital, internally controlled, magnetic bearings reduce friction and eliminate the
need for oil lubrication.

Certified Energy Manager® HVAC Systems 35

Magnetic Bearing Centrifugal Chiller

Case Study
• Power savings averaged 49% across three case study sites. Magnetic bearing
compressors were installed in each of the sites shown in the table below…
• San Diego and JAX studies were both compressor retrofits
• Newport, Rhode Island, was an installation of a new chiller
Energy.gov/eere “Navy's Techval program between 2005 and 2007”

Certified Energy Manager® HVAC Systems 36

v2021.01.SI 18
 Distribution Systems

HVAC Systems

Ducted Distribution Systems

Certified Energy Manager® HVAC Systems 38

v2021.01.SI 19
 Ducted Distribution Systems
• Chilled/Hot water is circulated in the coil of the AHU, where a fan
blows air to the duct system.
• Ducted systems allow the control of the mix of fresh air and return air.
• Ducted systems can be primarily classified as:
• Single duct, single zone
• Single duct, terminal reheat
• Single duct, variable air volume (VAV)
• Multizone
• Dual duct

Certified Energy Manager® HVAC Systems 39

Single Zone Systems

• Single duct, single zone:
• Supplies air at the same volume and temperature to the entire zone
• Applications: auditoriums, arenas, big box stores
• Simplest system, easy to control
• Mostly RTU’s in retail applications

Certified Energy Manager® HVAC Systems 40

v2021.01.SI 20
 Multizone Systems
• Supports multiple zones, which
can be at different temperatures
or flow rates.
IntechOpen.com
• Typically, for each zone: air is mixed and
conditioned within the mechanical room
and then ducted to each zone.

• Inefficient systems

• Rarely used today

Certified Energy Manager® HVAC Systems 41

Dual Duct Systems

• Supplies both hot and cold air in separate ducts which are blended at
the point of use to provide required conditions.

• Inefficient and expensive

• Significant additional ductwork (for
hot and cold ducts to each zone)

• Primarily used in low-rise offices

that were built in the 1970’s

Insulation.org

Certified Energy Manager® HVAC Systems 42

v2021.01.SI 21
 Terminal Reheat Systems
• Air is cooled to the lowest required temperature

• Temperature is controlled by reheat coil

• Low efficiency

Certified Energy Manager® HVAC Systems 43

VAV Systems

• Temperature is controlled by
controlling the volume of air that is
discharged into the space

• Energy efficient and widely used today

• Usually combined with VSD on the fan

Remember the “Fan Law” savings by reducing flow rates!

Certified Energy Manager® HVAC Systems 44

v2021.01.SI 22
 Fan Coil Systems
• A fan coil unit (FCU) is a small localized AHU which serves a
single space with or without a ducted distribution system.

• In a FCU, a fan in the unit draws room air and blows it across
a coil of hot water or chilled water and back into the room.

• FCUs are preferred in buildings which have many zones

located primarily along exterior walls, such as schools,
hotels, apartments and office buildings.

Certified Energy Manager® HVAC Systems 45

Ventilation Requirements
• Fresh air is needed for:
• Reduction of carbon dioxide concentration so that it does not exceed 1,000 ppm
• Removal of odors and contaminants.

• The amount of needed fresh air depends on the application, and can go
up to 100% fresh air requirement as in hospitals
• Consider Demand Controlled Ventilation

• Many ventilation requirements are specified by national and

international standards (ASHRAE 62.1, etc.)

Certified Energy Manager® HVAC Systems 46

v2021.01.SI 23
 Economizer Cycle
• Whenever the outside air is cooler than the cooling set point
temperature only distribution energy is required to provide
cooling with outside air.
• In such cases, the return damper is closed, so that all return is exhausted
and 100% fresh air is introduced without cooling.
• This is usually possible in swing seasons and in thermally heavy buildings
where internal loads are high.

Certified Energy Manager® HVAC Systems 47

Heat Recovery
Energy Recovery Ventilators (ERVs) or Heat Recovery Ventilators (HRVs)

• Using outdoor air to satisfy ventilation

requirements can significantly increase
energy costs during periods of cold or
warm, humid weather.

• You can reduce the costs by using

Energy Recovery Ventilators (ERV’s)
which precondition the outdoor make
up air with the exhaust air.
• However these tend to be relative
inefficient at less that 50% recovery.

HVAC Systems 48

v2021.01.SI 24
 Heat Recovery via Heat Wheel
• Heat recovery from exhaust air
• Commonly built into AHU’s or large rooftop package units

Certified Energy Manager® HVAC Systems 49

Heat Pipe System

• Similar to a heat wheel,

but less moving parts

• Good for
dehumidification

Certified Energy Manager® HVAC Systems 50

v2021.01.SI 25
 HRU – DeSuperheater

• Recover heat from the ~95°C hot refrigerant gas exiting the compressor

• Domestic Cold water (10-20°C) can be heated to 60-70°C

Rule of Thumb: heat available to recover is about 800 kJ/h

(per kWthermal capacity of an air-to-air heat pump, or air-cooled chiller)

Certified Energy Manager® HVAC Systems 51

DOAS Units
“Dedicated Outdoor Air Units”

• Used in VRF and Chilled Beam applications and some advanced VAV types.

• Provide treated outdoor air to meet ventilation requirements.

• Sized to handle the latent loads.

• Generally include heat recovery wheels with latent capacity.

Certified Energy Manager® HVAC Systems 52

v2021.01.SI 26
 3-Pipe VRF system in different scenarios

VRF Systems
Variable Refrigerant Flow Systems

Simultaneous cooling & heating

• Basically- exchange heat from one room to
another

Multiple units may be used to

expand capacity
• Condensing units are usually controlled by a VFD
• Evaporators vary on style and locations

www.cool-info.co.uk

Certified Energy Manager® HVAC Systems 53

Chilled Beams
• Significantly reduces fan energy as well as overall cooling costs.
• Consists of a coil in a box that is installed in the ceiling. Chilled water flows
through the coil, then air around the coil is cooled and falls into the room.
• FYI- This is A SENSIBLE ONLY device and can also be used for heating
• Types:
Passive Chilled Beams Active Chilled Beams

Certified Energy Manager® HVAC Systems 54

v2021.01.SI 27
 Passive Chilled Beams
• Conductive cooling coils mounted in a box.
• No moving parts or fans to direct air flow
• Chilled water supply should be above room dew point

• Requires a separate air supply that takes care of:

• Space ventilation requirements
• Space latent requirements

Certified Energy Manager® HVAC Systems 55

Active Chilled Beams

More Popular than Passive

• Compared to traditional VAV, an Active Chilled Beam uses

a reduced amount of pre-treated supply air, and then
further conditions the air within the occupant space.

Good chilled beam designs are ± 60 - 120 LPM per m2 versus 300 - 360 LPM per m2 for traditional VAV designs
Note: the supply air exiting the chilled beam is typically 2.5°C to 8°C warmer than “all air” systems
Example: “all air” systems typically supply air ~ 13°C, while a chilled beam would discharge between 15.5°C to 21.1°C

Certified Energy Manager® HVAC Systems 56

v2021.01.SI 28
 Chilled Beam Applications
Where to Use Them Where Not to Use Them
• Anywhere you can control the indoor • Spaces where indoor humidity cannot be
humidity controlled
• Laboratories • Kitchen areas
• Office buildings • Bathrooms
• Other areas with low sensible heat ratios
• Call centers
• Educational facilities
• Government facilities Use With Caution
• Healthcare facilities • Rooms with operable windows
• Ideal Applications • Retrofit of leaky buildings
• Spaces with critical ventilation requirements • Entrance lobbies/atriums
• Spaces where sensible cooling dominates

Certified Energy Manager® HVAC Systems 57

Heat Transfer Equations &

Psychrometric Chart

HVAC Systems

v2021.01.SI 29
 Sensible & Latent Heat
Sensible Heat:
• Is the energy required to change the temperature of a substance with no
phase change
• For air, it refers to changing the temperature without changing the moisture content

Latent Heat:
• Is the energy required to change the phase of a substance
• For air, it refers to the energy required to/released from the change of moisture content

Enthalpy:
• The combination of sensible and latent heat

Certified Energy Manager® HVAC Systems 59

Sensible Heat Transfer Equation for Air

ሶ p T
q = 𝑚C

1m3 1.2 kg 1.006 kJ

q = LPS ∙ 1000 L. m3 ∙ kgoC ∙ T

J
= LPS ∙ 1.2 ∙ T [ = W]
s
liters
• LPS is second
• 𝑚ሶ is the overall mass flow rate of air
1.006 kJ
• Cp is the specific heat ( kgoC for air)

Certified Energy Manager® HVAC Systems 60

v2021.01.SI 30
 Example
• 1,000 LPS of outdoor air at 10C and 80% relative humidity is heated
to 21C. What heat rate is needed to accomplish this result?

Certified Energy Manager® HVAC Systems 61

Answer
q = LPS ∙ 1.2 ∙ T

q = 1,000 LPS ∙ 1.2 ∙ 11

q = 13,200 [W]

Certified Energy Manager® HVAC Systems 62

v2021.01.SI 31
 Sensible Heat Transfer Equation for Water
ሶ p T
q = 𝑚C

1 kg 4.2 kJ
q = LPS ∙ ∙ ∙ T
liter kg.oC

= LPS ∙ 4.2 ∙ T [kW]

liters
• LPS is second
• 𝑚ሶ is the overall mass flow rate of water
4.2 kJ
• Cp is the specific heat ( for water)
kg.oC

Certified Energy Manager® HVAC Systems 63

Example
• 1,000 LPS of 30oC water flows into a ground loop and then exits at
18oC degrees. What is the heat rate that is being absorbed by the
ground?

Certified Energy Manager® HVAC Systems 64

v2021.01.SI 32
 Answer
q = LPS ∙ 4.2 ∙ T

q = 1,000 LPS ∙ 4.2 ∙ 12

q = 50,400 [kW]

Certified Energy Manager® HVAC Systems 65

Sensible & Latent Heat Transfer Equation for Air

q = 𝑚ሶ h

1m3 1.2 kg
q = LPS ∙ . ∙ h
1000 L m3

J
= LPS ∙ 1.2 ∙ h [ = W]
s
liters
• LPS is second
• mሶ is the overall mass flow rate of air
kJ
• h is the Enthalpy [kg] (we obtain from the Psychrometric Chart)

Certified Energy Manager® HVAC Systems 66

v2021.01.SI 33
 Psychrometric Chart
• The Psychrometric chart helps work complex problems easily.
• The properties included on the chart are:
• Enthalpy (kJ/kg)
• Dry bulb temperature (C)
• Relative humidity (%)
• Wet bulb temperature (C) also known as the saturation temp
• Dew point (C)
• Humidity ratio (grams or kilograms of moisture per kilogram of dry air)

Certified Energy Manager® HVAC Systems 67

Let’s
discuss
Psych
Charts.

Handout
Psych
Chart.
DP = Dew Point
Discuss
elements
of the chart
DP

HVAC Systems 68

v2021.01.SI 34
 Certified Energy Manager® HVAC Systems 69

HVAC Processes
• Sensible Heating/Cooling
• Change temperature without adding moisture (Humidity ratio remains constant).
• Heating and Humidification
• Increase temperature with addition of moisture to maintain desired relative humidity
(humidity ratio increases).
• Cooling and Dehumidification
• Decrease temperature with reduction of moisture through condensation (Humidity
ratio decreases).
• Evaporative Cooling:
• Reduce temperature by evaporating into it some water, usually effective in hot and
dry conditions (humidity ratio increases).

Certified Energy Manager® HVAC Systems 70

v2021.01.SI 35
 HVAC Processes

Source: Autodesk

Certified Energy Manager® HVAC Systems 71

Example
3,000 LPS of outdoor air at 20C and 50% relative humidity is heated to
32C dry bulb and humidified to 40% RH.

What heat rate (heating) is needed to accomplish this result?

Certified Energy Manager® HVAC Systems 72

v2021.01.SI 36
 63

Point 2
39

Point 1

32

Certified Energy Manager® HVAC Systems 73

Answer
From the Psychrometric Chart:
h1 ~ 39 kJ/kg h2 ~ 63 kJ/kg

Thus…h ~ 24 kJ/kg

Q = LPS ∙ 1.2 ∙ h
Q = (3,000 LPS)(1.2)(63 – 39 kJ/kg)
Q = 86.4 [kW]

Certified Energy Manager® HVAC Systems 74

v2021.01.SI 37
 Summary of Energy Efficiency Measures
• Improve cooling equipment COP or replace.
• Replace reheat system with VAV.
• Install VSDs on circulation pumps, AHU fans, cooling tower fans.
• Implement demand controlled ventilation.
• Utilize heat recovery from exhausted return.
• Utilize free cooling (economizer cycle) when possible.
• In AHUs: Ensure belts are tight and in good shape and bearings are lubricated.
• Ensure all filters are cleaned and replaced regularly.
• Ensure all ducts and pipes are insulated.

Certified Energy Manager® HVAC Systems 75

Summary of Energy Efficiency Measures

• Ensure all heat transfer surfaces (heating/cooling coils, air cooled
condenser coils) are clean.
• Reduce the temperature around condensers through shading.
• Ensure all controls and sensors are functional and calibrated.
• Carefully select set-points to avoid overheating or overcooling.
• Ensure operational schedules follow occupancy schedules.
• Ensure interlocking cooling equipment shutdown with system auxiliaries
shutdown.
• Implement night set-back and warm-up/cool-down control protocols.
• Utilize enthalpy controls.

Certified Energy Manager® HVAC Systems 76

v2021.01.SI 38
 Review
Awareness of:
• Types and functions of HVAC systems
• Vapor Compression Cycle, COP, EER
• Innovative Developments
• Heat Recovery, VRV, Chilled Beams, Absorption Chillers

Ability to:
• Discuss various HVAC Energy Efficiency measures
• Calculate Heat Transfer (Sensible and Latent Heat)
• Utilize the Psychrometric Chart

Certified Energy Manager® HVAC Systems 77

HVAC Quiz
1. Which of the following air distribution systems is the more efficient from
an energy consumption standpoint.
A. Multizone Systems
B. Variable Air Volume Systems
C. Dual Duct Systems

2. Water-cooled chillers are usually more efficient than comparable air-

cooled chillers
A. True
B. False

Certified Energy Manager® HVAC Systems 78

v2021.01.SI 39
 Quiz
3. If 100,000 kW of cooling are required, and we are using an chiller
with a COP equal to 2, then the chiller will use:
A. 200,000 kW
B. 150,000 kW
C. 100,000 kW
D. 50,000 kW

4. 32C air at 70% relative humidity is cooled to 13C. What is the

new relative humidity?
A. 20%
B. 40%
C. 70%
D. 100%

Certified Energy Manager® HVAC Systems 79

HVAC Quiz
5. Assume it is 31oC outside with a relative humidity of 60%, and some
outside air dampers are broken, such that an additional 1,400 LPS is
entering our building.
How many additional tons of cooling do we need to get this warm air
back to 13oC “supply air” at 100% relative humidity?
A. 4.860 tons
B. 18.15 tons
C. 58.320 tons
D. 175,500 tons

Certified Energy Manager® HVAC Systems 80

v2021.01.SI 40
 Section 3.2
Building Envelope

Building Envelope

Learning Objectives & Contents

• Awareness of:
• Building Envelope Terminology and Functions
• Conduction, Convection, Radiation and Infiltration
• Conductivity, Conductance and R Values
• Different Sources of heat gain/loss in buildings
• Solar Heat Gain Coefficient

• Ability to:
• Do Heat Conduction and Convection Calculations
• Calculate R Values
• Perform Seasonal Energy Consumption Calculations
• Use Degree Day Formulas

Certified Energy Manager® Building Envelope 2

v2021.01.SI 1
 Why care about Building Envelope?
• Envelope condition affects
• HVAC equipment operation cost
• Occupants’ sense of well-being

• Difficult problem for retrofits

• The existing system usually “works”
• Changes are expensive

• Highly important for new construction

• Energy manager should be on new building design team!

Certified Energy Manager® Building Envelope 3

Terminology
“Building Envelope” (aka “Shell” or ”Skin”) generally refers to:
• External walls
• Roof and foundation
• Windows, doors, and other openings

Certified Energy Manager® Building Envelope 4

v2021.01.SI 2
 Thermal Mass
A property of the mass of a building which enables it to store heat, providing
"inertia" against temperature fluctuations.

Thermally light buildings: the building’s interior conditions respond quickly to

weather. Examples include: typical homes, shopping centers, and commercial office
buildings.

Thermally heavy buildings: the interior conditions respond slowly to weather.

Examples include: buildings with thick concrete walls, or ability to absorb and store
thermal energy.

Certified Energy Manager® Building Envelope 5

Sources of Heat Gain / Heat Loss

• Heating and cooling loads in a building occur due to:
Heat Gain:
1. Infiltration/Ventilation
2. Conduction
3. Solar Gain
4. Internal Loads

Heat Loss:
1. Infiltration/Ventilation
2. Conduction

Certified Energy Manager® Building Envelope 6

v2021.01.SI 3
 Infiltration
Fix the building’s “leaks” first…

• Infiltration increases HVAC costs & reduces occupant comfort

• A Blower Door Test, can help identify ”leaks” in the envelope

• Solution: Apply sealing / weather-stripping:

• Windows, sashes, and frames
• Ducts and fans
• Plumbing, electrical, and cable penetrations
• Wall or window-mounted air conditioners
• Fireplace dampers

Certified Energy Manager® Building Envelope 7

Heat Transfer Mechanisms

• Heat can be transferred in three basic mechanisms:

• Conduction

• Convection

• Radiation

Heat flows naturally from the high-temperature medium to a lower-temperature one.

Certified Energy Manager® Building Envelope 8

v2021.01.SI 4
 Heat Conduction
• Heat is conducted through the building envelope.
• Heat loss/gain through conduction depends linearly on:
• The exposed surface area
• The temperature difference
• The wall/roof/window construction and material

Certified Energy Manager® Building Envelope 9

Heat Conduction
Popular Equations
Area∙∆T [W ]
q= HEAT Flow
∑R
A

∑R

Most of the work is looking up the R values for different materials

m2∙oC
∑R = R1 + R2 + R3 [ ]
Where: W
A: is the surface area [m2]
L: is the thickness [m]
∆T: is the temperature difference across the material surfaces [C]

Certified Energy Manager® Building Envelope 10

v2021.01.SI 5
 Heat Conduction
Difference between Conductivity “k” and Conductance “C”

If you cannot find the R value for a specific thickness, use k (Conductivity)
which can be used for any thickness (L).
L Units: [thickness in meters … 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑠 “𝑡ℎ” ]
L
R=
k k Units: [
W
m∙oC
]

Many tables will also use the term: Conductance “C”.

1 W
"C" = Conductance = C Units: [
m2∙oC
]
R

Certified Energy Manager® Building Envelope 11

Heat Conduction
Multi-layer Walls

• For a multi-layer composite wall, the heat transfer by conduction is:

L
R=
Area∙∆T k
q= [ W]
∑R
HEAT Flow
Where:
A: is the surface area [m2]
L: is the thickness [m]
∆T: is the temperature difference across the material surfaces [C]
W
k: is the thermal conductivity of the material [ o ]
m∙ C

Certified Energy Manager® Building Envelope 12

v2021.01.SI 6
 Heat Conduction
Insulation Properties of Building Materials
Thermal Characteristics
Material
k R (per metre) Conductance
Asbestos - Cement Board 0.58 1.72
Asbestos - Cement Board…6.5mm 27
Plywood 0.115 8.70
Plywood…9.5mm 12.1
Fiberglass Board or Slabs ("Glass Fiber, organic bonded") 0.036 27.78
Fiberglass Blanket and Batt ("Mineral Fiber, from rock, slag or glass") 0.039 25.64
Fiberglass Blanket and Batt ("Mineral Fiber, from rock, slag or glass")…76mm 0.517

Gypsum or Plaster Board... 13mm 12.8

Polyurethane Foam 0.0245 40.8
Cork Tile…3mm 20.4
Brick 1.37 0.73
Source: ASHRAE Handbook 1993, Typical Thermal Properties of Common Building and Insulating Materials

Certified Energy Manager® Building Envelope 13

Insulation Materials

Certified Energy Manager® Building Envelope 14

v2021.01.SI 7
 Heat Convection
on Exposed Surfaces

• But… we also have to account for the

convection that occurs on the material
surface.
• Depends on many variables such as surface
geometry, the fluid motion, etc..

However, for basic geometries (walls and roofs)

under typical air velocities, recommended values
can be used for simplicity.

Certified Energy Manager® Building Envelope 15

Convection Resistance
Air Film on Surface (Walls, Floors, Ceilings and Roofs)
Direction of flow Rconv [m2C/W]
Still air (inside)
Ceiling Air Film Up 0.10
Floor Air Film Down 0.17
Wall Air Film Horizontal 0.13
Moving air (outside)
7 m/s | 25km/h All 0.03
4 m/s | 14km/h All 0.04
2 m/s | 7 km/h All 0.06
Source: 2001 ASHRAE Fundamentals Handbook

Certified Energy Manager® Building Envelope 16

v2021.01.SI 8
 U-Value +
”Overall heat transfer coefficient”

1 W
U= [ ]
∑RTotal m2∙oC

Such the heat flow equation can also be:

q = U ∙ A ∙ ∆T [W]

The value of the product (UA) is often referred to as the “Building Load
Coefficient” (BLC) and is an indication of the role of heat conduction
through the envelope of a building.

Certified Energy Manager® Building Envelope 17

Heat Flow Problem

(Conduction and Convection)

What is the rate of heat loss through a 9.5mm plywood wall if the
inside temperature is 16°C and the outside temperature is 0°C and
windy (14 km/h)? The area of the wall is 100 square meters. Include
surface convection losses.

Certified Energy Manager® Building Envelope 18

v2021.01.SI 9
 Solution

The C value for 9.5mm plywood is 12.1 Thus… R= 1/C = 0.083

σ 𝑅 = Rfilm-inside + Rplywood + Rfilm-outside = 0.13 + 0.083 + 0.04
m2 ∙ o C
=0.253
W
Area∙∆T
q=
∑R

100 ∙ 16
q = 0.253 = 6,324 W

Certified Energy Manager® Building Envelope 19

Heat Flow Problem #2

(Conduction and Convection)

• What if we add 7.5cm of fiberglass board to the wall in previous

problem… what would the heat flow become?

Certified Energy Manager® Building Envelope 20

v2021.01.SI 10
 Solution

Total RFG = (27.78)∙(0.075m) = 2.08

σ R = Rfilm-inside + RFG + Rplywood + Rfilm-outside = 0.13 + 2.08 + 0.083 + 0.04
m2 ∙ oC
= 2.33 W

Area∙∆T
q=
∑R

100 ∙ 16
q = 2.33 = 686.7 W That is an 89% reduction!

Certified Energy Manager® Building Envelope 21

Degree Days
an “approximation” for geographic weather

• Used to predict the amount of heating & cooling needed.

• Heating degree-days (HDD) and cooling degree-days (CDD) are separate
values and are specific to a particular geographic location.
• The degree-day concept assumes:
• The average building has a desired indoor temperature of 21.1° C.
• 2.8° C of this is supplied by internal heat sources such as fans, appliances,
equipment, and people.
• The most common base for computing degree-days is 18.3°C (but this can vary by
country).
• Check: www.degreedays.net

Certified Energy Manager® Building Envelope 22

v2021.01.SI 11
 Worldwide Heating Degree Days

Source: http://chartsbin.com
Certified Energy Manager® Building Envelope 23

Worldwide Cooling Degree Days

Source: http://chartsbin.com
Certified Energy Manager® Building Envelope 24

v2021.01.SI 12
 Degree Days
Example

Assume a period of three days when the outside temp averaged 10°C
each day.
Degree Days = (∆T) x (number of days)

The number of HDD for this three-day period would be:

HDD = (18.3°C - 10°C) x 3 days
= 24.9°C·days
= 24.9 degree-days
[The units of DD are °C·days/yr]

Certified Energy Manager® Building Envelope 25

Seasonal Energy Losses through the Envelope

• The Degree Day approach provides a means of estimating the
annual/seasonal amount of energy required to heat/cool that
building.
Wh Note: We label “Q” (in caps) because the units are
• Q = 24 U ∙ A ∙ DD [ ] Wh per year. We label “q” for watts (Wh per hour)
year

• where DD is HDD or CDD.

Certified Energy Manager® Building Envelope 26

v2021.01.SI 13
 Example
A wall has an area of 100 m2 and has a thermal conductance of 1.4
W/m2.oC. If there are 3,000 degree-days in the annual heating
season, what is the total amount of heat that is lost through the
envelope?

Certified Energy Manager® Building Envelope 27

Answer
q = 24 ∙ U ∙ A ∙ DD

o
hours W C∙days
q = 24 ∙ 1.4 m2∙oC ∙ 100 m2 ∙ 3000
day yr

kWh
= 10,080 year

Note… the calculation above is the “heat loss through the envelope”

To get “Fuel Consumption”: divide by COP, OR the heating system’s efficiency

Certified Energy Manager® Building Envelope 28

v2021.01.SI 14
 Limitations of the Degree Day Approach
Although the Degree Day approach is simple and very useful in
establishing energy models, baselines, comparison of energy
requirements of different regions, it has many limitations:
• It only takes temperature into consideration, ignoring solar radiation,
humidity, wind speed….etc.
• It is based on approximations (average temperatures)
• It depends on the definition of the base temperature.

Certified Energy Manager® Building Envelope 29

Radiation and Solar Heat Gain

• In buildings with large areas of exposed glazing, solar radiation is
considered a major source of the cooling load.
• Impact depends on a number of factors:
• Solar radiation intensity,
• time of day,
• orientation,
• availability of shading, and
• type of glass.

Certified Energy Manager® Building Envelope 30

v2021.01.SI 15
 Impact on Windows
• Solar Heat Gain Coefficient (SHGC)
• The ratio of transmitted solar radiation
to incident solar radiation
• “less” is better

• For Example: if the SHGC is 0.4 and the

sun is shining on a window with an
intensity of 500 watts/area, then only
200 watts/area will enter the building.

Certified Energy Manager® Building Envelope 31

Comparison of Window Options

www.CommercialWindows.org

Certified Energy Manager® Building Envelope 32

v2021.01.SI 16
 Window Label
National Fenestration Rating Council

Range: 0.20-1.20 Range: 0-1

Look for: low numbers Look for: low numbers

Range: 0-1 Range: 0.1-0.3

Look for: high numbers Look for: low numbers

Certified Energy Manager® Building Envelope 33

Cool Roofs and the SRI

• A “cool roof” should have both:
• high “solar reflectance” (ability to reflect sunlight, on a scale of 0 to 1) and
• high “thermal emissivity” (ability to emit thermal radiation, on a scale of 0 to 1).
• The “solar reflectance index” (SRI) Scores:
• 0 for a black colored roof
• (solar reflectance R = 0.05, thermal emissivity E = 0.90)
• 100 for a typical (basic) white roof
• (R = 0.80, E = 0.90).
• The higher the SRI, the “cooler” the surface.

Building in Amman (SRI = 90)

Certified Energy Manager® Building Envelope 34

v2021.01.SI 17
 Solar Reflectance Index (SRI)

Bright Aluminium Surface

White-painted surface

Certified Energy Manager® Building Envelope 35

Review
• Awareness of:
• Building Envelope Terminology and Functions
• Conduction, Convection, Radiation and Infiltration
• Conductivity, Conductance and R Values
• Different Sources of heat gain/loss in buildings
• Solar Heat Gain Coefficient

• Ability to:
• Do Heat Conduction and Convection Calculations
• Calculate R Values
• Perform Seasonal Energy Consumption Calculations
• Use Degree Day Formulas

Certified Energy Manager® Building Envelope 36

v2021.01.SI 18
 Quiz #1
You have a 250 m2 steel roof in a location where the annual CDD
is 2,200. You install insulation and reduce the roof’s U value from
W W
1.2 2 o to 0.4 2 o
m∙ C m∙C

How much could you reduce the energy transferred (through the
roof) during the cooling season (in kWh per year)?

Certified Energy Manager® Building Envelope 37

Quiz #2
What is the rate of heat loss through a 20mm plywood wall
with a 38mm thick layer of polyurethane foam?
“q” Units should be Watt

The inside temperature is 16°C and the outside temperature is

0°C and windy (7m/s). The area of the wall is 100 m². Include
surface convection losses.

Certified Energy Manager® Building Envelope 38

v2021.01.SI 19
 Quiz #3
An energy manager installs a window film on the West facing
glass in his building. The window film reduces the heat gain
into the building by 4,000 GJ during the summer season.
If the air conditioner’s cooling COP is 3, what was the fuel
savings in kWh during the summer season?

Certified Energy Manager® Building Envelope 39

v2021.01.SI 20
 Section 3.3 Building Automation
and Control Systems

Building Automation and Control Systems

Why Controls are needed?

Controls are necessary for the basic safety, as well as optimization of

the various energy-related systems.

You must understand how the systems work in order to control them

Certified Energy Manager® Building Automation and Control Systems 2

v2021.01.SI 1
 Learning Objectives & Contents
Awareness of:
• Controls Terminology
• Typical System Designs & Signal Communication Options
• Additional Terminology
• PID Control Algorithms
• Technologies and Hardware
• Energy Information Systems and Building Automation Systems
• Energy Savings Strategies
• Reset Strategies
• IoT

Ability to:
• Identify Systems and Opportunities for Savings

Certified Energy Manager® Building Automation and Control Systems 3

Examples of Controls
• Manual Systems
• ON/OFF Switches
• Dimmers
• Valve
• Automatic Systems
• Timers
• Dimmers w/ Photosensor
• Thermostat

• Programmable Controllers
• Building Automation Systems

Certified Energy Manager® Building Automation and Control Systems 4

v2021.01.SI 2
 Basic Design
Open Loop

An open-loop control system utilizes an actuating device to control the

process directly without using feedback.
• Ex: In the Morning, your “wake up” alarm sounds whether you are awake
or asleep.

Certified Energy Manager® Building Automation and Control Systems 5

Basic Design
Closed Loop (most of discussion in this Section)

A closed-loop control system utilizes feedback to compare the measured

variable to the desired result.
Example: REMOTE OUTPUT SIGNAL
CONTROLLER RC
(Programmed to a Set Point)

INPUT SIGNAL ACTUATOR

CONTROLLED DEVICE
T
(VALVE)

SENSOR AIR FLOW IN DUCT

HEATING COIL
Certified Energy Manager® Building Automation and Control Systems 6

v2021.01.SI 3
 Signal Communication Input
Inputs vs. Outputs
Temperature Sensor
Input: Refers to data received by the
controller

Controller

Damper Actuator

Output: Refers to data (or commands) Output

transmitted by the controller

Siemens

Certified Energy Manager® Building Automation and Control Systems 7

Signal Communication
Digital vs. Analog

Analog: An analog signal varies through a range of values (0 to 10

VDC, 4 to 20 milliamps of current, 15oC to 30oC, etc.)

Digital: A digital signal carries information in binary form. The signal

has only two states or positions:
• “on” or ”off”,
• “yes” or “no”,
• “open” or “closed”,
Digital signals (series of “0”s and “1”s) can be combined to communicate lots of
information… similar to Morse Code.
Certified Energy Manager® Building Automation and Control Systems 8

v2021.01.SI 4
 Signal Communication
Summary

Analog Inputs: Digital Inputs:

Temperature sensor Low/high level sensor
Pressure sensor Damper end switch
Humidity sensor Smoke detector
Air Quality sensor On/Off switch
Speed

Analog Outputs: Digital Outputs:

Light dimming On/Off lighting control
Variable speed control (VSD) Start/Stop motor control
Variable flow control valve Open/Close valve control

Certified Energy Manager® Building Automation and Control Systems 9

Popular Controls Terminology

• Set Point: The value of the controlled variable that is to be maintained
(e.g., if room temperature is the controlled variable, the set point is the
desired room temp as set on a thermostat, say 22oC)

• Measured Value: The actual measured value of the controlled variable

(temperature, pressure, flow, etc.). For example, the current room temp is
20oC

• Error: The difference between the set point and the actual value of the
controlled variable.

Certified Energy Manager® Building Automation and Control Systems 10

v2021.01.SI 5
 Typical Control Process:

Initial Error

Certified Energy Manager® Building Automation and Control Systems 11

Additional Controls Terminology

• Response Time: Time required for the control point to reach a new set point following
a step change in mode or set point

• Gain: The ratio of the controller’s output to the input

• Overshoot: The amount the control point that goes beyond the set point following a
change in load or set point

• Dead-Band: For HVAC systems, the temperature range over which there is no heating
or cooling.
• Ex: if there is no heating or cooling between 18oC and 25oC, then the dead-band range is 7oC

Certified Energy Manager® Building Automation and Control Systems 12

v2021.01.SI 6
 Additional Controls Terminology
Differential: For a two-position controller, it is the difference between the setting at
which the controller operates at one position and the setting at which it changes to the
other position.
• (All two-position controllers need a differential to prevent “hunting,” or rapid cycling).
• For a thermostat, the differential is expressed in degrees of temperature.
• Example: If the heat comes on at 20oC and turns off at 22oC, then the control differential is 2oC.

22.5
Temperature[oC]

22

21

20

Certified Energy Manager® Building Automation and Control Systems 13

Additional Controls Terminology

Modulating Controller – A type of controller for which the output can
vary infinitely over the range of the controller
• Direct Acting Controller – A controller for which an increase in the level of the
sensor signal (temperature, pressure, etc.,) results in an increase in the level
of the controller output

• Reverse Acting Controller – A controller for which an increase in the level of

the sensor signal (temperature, pressure, etc.,) results in a decrease in the
level of the controller output

Certified Energy Manager® Building Automation and Control Systems 14

v2021.01.SI 7
 Control Valve Flow Characteristics
Lots of different flow characteristics available, related to size and valve design…

Certified Energy Manager® Building Automation and Control Systems 15

Control Valve Sizing & Pressure Drop

Goal: minimize pressure drop across valve
Excessive pressure drop could be:
• Poor selection (high Cv factor)
• Valve and/or Actuator impaired

Valve Cv factor, flow coefficient

Flow (LPS) = Cv ∙ ∆Pressure (kPa)
Flow coefficient = the number of litres per second at 16oC that will
flow through a valve with a pressure drop of one kPa.

Certified Energy Manager® Building Automation and Control Systems 16

v2021.01.SI 8
 PID Control Algorithms
Proportional, Integral and Derivative

• A closed-loop control system uses a feedback signal to control a

certain action

• Known for accuracy and stability

• Newer control algorithms include:

• Artificial intelligence
• Self-optimizing systems

Certified Energy Manager® Building Automation and Control Systems 17

Proportional Control
Response Proportional to Size of Error

Error = Difference between the

desired value (set point) and the
measured value at a point in time.

Proportional Control is “reactive”

and often “overshoots” the target.
• After arriving at the set point, there
will be no controller action, and you
can get “off target”.

Certified Energy Manager® Building Automation and Control Systems 18

v2021.01.SI 9
 Integral Control
Response Considers Time (“History”) to Minimize Area under Curve

Basically dampens the response

(reduces “overshoot”)
or increases response if results aren’t
achieved as time passes.

Adding Integral Control can reduce

the time to get to “steady state”.

Certified Energy Manager® Building Automation and Control Systems 19

Derivative Control
Response Related to the Slope of a Tangent to the Curve (often to “minimize” the slope)

If sudden changes occur, the

response will be related to the
rate of change.

Certified Energy Manager® Building Automation and Control Systems 20

v2021.01.SI 10
 Proportional + Integral + Derivative
Often Combined and “Tuned” to get the best response for a particular system.

For most building systems:

Proportional + Integral Control
will be satisfactory.
Most temperatures in rooms
don’t change fast enough to
warrant derivative algorithms.

MatLab.org
Certified Energy Manager® Building Automation and Control Systems 21

Basic Technologies & Hardware

Building Automation and Control Systems

v2021.01.SI 11
 Pneumatic Control
Pneumatic control systems are operated by clean, dry and oil free compressed air at low
pressure (usually 1 to 1.5 barg). This air is also known as “instrument air”.

Source: Honeywell
Certified Energy Manager® Building Automation and Control Systems 23

Pneumatic Control Devices

Receiver-Controller

Actuator and Valve

Damper Actuator
Graphics courtesy of Honeywell

Certified Energy Manager® Building Automation and Control Systems 24

v2021.01.SI 12
 Pneumatic Control
Control via Pressure Ranges

Advantages:
• Safe and easy to operate
• Reliable in harsh environments

Disadvantages:
• Not very precise
• Sensitive to vibrations and require frequent calibration
• Hard to change (typically pre-set by manufacturer)

Picture courtesy of Honeywell

Certified Energy Manager® Building Automation and Control Systems 25

Electrical and Electronic Control

Control via Voltage or Current Variance

It is a process that transforms one or more

input signals (digital or analog) into different
output signals (digital or analog) so as to give
the desired system response 220 Volt Damper Actuator

The input and output signals can have the form

of an electric voltage or electric current (AC or
DC) i.e. 12 VAC, 135 ohms, etc.

12 Volt Valve Actuator

Certified Energy Manager® Building Automation and Control Systems 26

v2021.01.SI 13
 Electrical and Electronic Control
Control via Voltage or Current Variance

Advantages:
• Instantaneous response
• Very little affected by normal temperature variations
• Very accurate

Disadvantages:
• Different manufacturers used different signals, so
interoperability was not possible and this has been
replaced by DDC

Certified Energy Manager® Building Automation and Control Systems 27

Direct Digital Control

Controller receives the input from
the sensor and then sends output
signals in “packets” using digital
communication

Different DDCs can be networked

together using a data bus

Certified Energy Manager® Building Automation and Control Systems 28

v2021.01.SI 14
 System Components –Field Devices

• Sensors
• Switches
• Actuators
• Meters
• Measurement devices
• Thermostats
• Equipment interfaces

Source: AIRAH - FMA

1/22/2021
Certified Energy Manager® Building Automation and Control Systems 29

Direct Digital Control

Advantages:
• Relatively easy to re-program after installation
• Instantaneous response
• Precise and do not require recalibration
• Very accurate

Disadvantages:
• Requires training so O&M staff can operate the system effectively
• Different communication protocols, interface standards, mostly addressed
by BACnet (ASHRAE Std 135) and LONworks (chip based)

Certified Energy Manager® Building Automation and Control Systems 30

v2021.01.SI 15
 ASHRAE Protocol Standard 135 “BACnet”
BACnet®, is the ASHRAE Building Automation and Control Networking Protocol

Has been designed specifically to meet the communication needs of building

automation and control systems for applications such as HVAC control; fire and
other life safety and security systems; energy management; lighting control;
physical access control; and elevator monitoring systems.

Certified Energy Manager® Building Automation and Control Systems 31

Energy Information Systems

An energy information system

gathers and displays various
data inputs so that users can
measure, monitor, and
quantify energy usage of their
facilities and help identify
energy conservation
opportunities.

Source - Agilewaves

Certified Energy Manager® Building Automation and Control Systems 32

v2021.01.SI 16
 Building Automation Systems vs Control Systems
• A “Control System” typically runs HVAC systems.
• A “Building Automation System” automates the functions of a Control System,
and also enables savings via lighting, metering, access control & other systems.
• A “Control System” is a subset of the BAS, but it is capable of operating independently.

• The BAS will allow you to visualize and manage your building systems in such a
way that you can create energy savings.
• These features allow building operators to know what is going on with their systems.

Certified Energy Manager® Building Automation and Control Systems 33

Basic BAS Functions

Central
Workstation

Remote Access

Sub Metering HVAC Access CCTV Fire Alarm Lighting Energy Maintenance Mgmt.
Control Management

Source: CABA Intelligent Buildings

Certified Energy Manager® Building Automation and Control Systems 34

v2021.01.SI 17
 Energy Saving Strategies

Building Automation and Control Systems Certified Energy Manager® 35

Optimized Start-Stop
Scheduled Start/Stop
Starting and stopping equipment based upon the time of day, and the day of the week.

Optimized Start/Stop
Start equipment at the latest possible time. Stop equipment at the earliest possible time.

Certified Energy Manager® Building Automation and Control Systems 36

v2021.01.SI 18
 Hot Water Reset
HW System before Using “Reset” Strategy

80180
Hot
HotWater
WaterSupply
Supply ((ºF)
oC)
75170
70160
65150
60140
55130

2580
2070
Valve
Valve Position (%open)
Position (% open)
1560
1050
540
030 Outside Air
Outside Air Temp oC)
Temp ((ºF)
20
-5
10
-10
0
-15
8:00

10:00

11:00

12:00

15:00

16:00

17:00
13:00

18:00

19:00
7:00

9:00

14:00

Certified Energy Manager® Building Automation and Control Systems 37

Analogy: “make only what you need… and use all of it”

Hot Water Reset

HW System after using “Reset” Strategy

Maintain lowest hot water supply temp that will meet needs
• Reduces load on the boiler, as well as thermal losses (from ∆T) throughout the distribution system.
180
80
75
170
Theoretical Potential Savings
70
160

65
150
Hot Water Supply (ºF)
o
60
140 Hot Water Supply ( C)
55
130

2580
2070
Valve Position (% open)
1560 Valve Position (% open)

1050
540
030 Outside Air
Outside Air Temp oC)
Temp ((ºF)
-520
-1010
-150
8:00

10:00

11:00

12:00

15:00

16:00

17:00
13:00

18:00

19:00
7:00

9:00

14:00

Certified Energy Manager® Building Automation and Control Systems 38

v2021.01.SI 19
 The greater T =Treturn – Tsupply … the greater the cooling load
52
11

Chilled Water Reset

Setpoint ((ºF)
oC)
50
10

Water Setpoint
48
9
46
8

Chilled Water
7
44
6
42

Chilled
22 43 64 85 6
10 7
12 8
14 9
16
Chilled
Chilled Water
Water Supply
Supply / Return
/ Return Temp Differential
Temperature Differential(ºF)
(oC)

Most chilled water settings are designed for the heaviest anticipated
cooling load.

• Significant cost savings can result from resetting chilled water

temperatures in anticipation of cooling load (note that many chillers
don’t operate efficiently at low ∆T).

Certified Energy Manager® Building Automation and Control Systems 39

Static Pressure
Before Reset

All of the VAV boxes partially open create static pressure in the main
duct, typically around 50mm. This results in wasted fan kW’s maintaining
this higher than necessary setpoint.

40% 50% 60%

Certified Energy Manager® Building Automation and Control Systems 40

v2021.01.SI 20
 Static Pressure
After Reset

The DDC system monitors the VAV static pressure and lowers the
pressure until only one damper is completely open, which is a better
means of determining the minimum flow requirements.

75% 100% 70%

This strategy is typically implemented by finding the box that is about 95% open and
then trimming to prevent the static from dropping to a setpoint that is too “low”.

Certified Energy Manager® Building Automation and Control Systems 41

Economizer
How It Works
• Reduce cooling energy by optimizing mixed air temp
• As the outside air allows, the outdoor air damper opens more
• “Free Cooling” occurs when occupant comfort is maintained without using
mechanical heating or cooling Economizer
Switch Point

100
He

ve
r
at

al
pe

il V
in

am
g-

Co
C

rD
% Open

oi

g-
Ai
lV

in
or

ol
al

do

Co
ve

ut
O

MAM
Mechanical Heating Free Cooling Mechanical Cooling
0

10
50 18
65 21
70
Outside AirTemperature
Outside Air Temperature(oC)(ºF)
Certified Energy Manager® Building Automation and Control Systems 42

v2021.01.SI 21
 Demand Control Ventilation (DCV) (Standard 6
Reduces outdoor air intake
below design rates when the
actual occupancy is less than
design occupancy.

Certified Energy Manager® Building Automation and Control Systems 43

IoT in Buildings
• Massive amount of data available

• Mining the data falls to the BAS to

decide what has value

• Don’t be data rich and information

poor
Cloud-Based Pressure Independent Control Valve
Picture Courtesy of Belimo

Certified Energy Manager® Building Automation and Control Systems 44

v2021.01.SI 22
 Future of Control Systems - IoT
• The continuing goal of control systems REMEMBER:
is to provide extensive flexibility and a IoT is “Data Driven” and lives in the IT world
high level of autonomy. BAS is “Engineering Driven” in the HVAC world

Blending these together will require teamwork and the

• Control systems are very adaptable, BAS Engineers need to use the data provided to make
but they rely on human supervision. buildings “smarter”

• Research areas concentrating on The beginning of “AI” – is it here yet?

artificial intelligence, sensor 15% of the Google searches are new… and the
Google AI finds a way!
integration, computer vision, and off-
line CAD/CAM programming

Certified Energy Manager® Building Automation and Control Systems 45

Additional Savings Opportunities

• Demand Limiting: Temporarily shed electrical loads to prevent exceeding a peak value.
• Duty Cycling: Shut down equipment for short periods of time during normal operating hours to avoid
demand.
• Chiller Demand Limiting: Reduce the chiller electrical load at certain times to meet a maximum pre-
specified chiller kW load (may cause space temps to increase).

• Reset Strategies:
• Hot Deck/Cold Deck Temperature Reset: Select the zone/area with the greater heating and cooling
requirements, and establish the minimum hot and cold deck temperature differential to meet that need.
• Reheat Coil/Reset: Select the zone/area with the greatest need for reheat, and establish the minimum
temperature of the heating hot water to meet the reheat needs for that period.
• Condenser Water Reset: Reduce condenser water temperature to the condenser as allowed by chiller
manufacturer. Evaluate extra fan power required to achieve lower condenser water temperature.

Certified Energy Manager® Building Automation and Control Systems 46

v2021.01.SI 23
 Additional Savings Opportunities
• Steam Boiler Optimization: Select the most efficient boiler to satisfy the space
temperature requirements during the building occupied period.
• Chiller Optimization: Select the most efficient chiller(s) to meet the existing load with
minimum demand and/or energy.
• Unoccupied Setback: Lower the space heating setpoint or raise the space cooling
setpoint during unoccupied hours.
• Warm Up/Cool Down Ventilation & Recirculation: Control operation of the OA
dampers when the introduction of OA would impose an additional thermal load during
warm-up or cool-down cycles prior to occupancy of a building.

Certified Energy Manager® Building Automation and Control Systems 47

Review
Awareness of:
• Controls Terminology
• Typical System Designs & Signal Communication Options
• Additional Terminology
• PID Control Algorithms
• Technologies and Hardware
• Energy Information Systems and Building Automation Systems
• Energy Savings Strategies
• Reset Strategies
• IoT

Ability to:
• Identify Systems and Opportunities for Savings

Certified Energy Manager® Building Automation and Control Systems 48

v2021.01.SI 24
 Quiz on BAS and Controls
1. A room temperature sensor supplying information/feedback to an HVAC system
is an example of:
A. Digital Input, Open Loop Control
B. Analog Input, Open Loop Control
C. Digital Input, Closed Loop Control
D. Analog Input, Closed Loop Control

2. The amount the control point that goes beyond the Set Point following a
change in load or Set Point is called:
A. Error
B. Offset
C. Overshoot
D. Gain

Certified Energy Manager® Building Automation and Control Systems 49

Quiz on BAS and Controls

3. An actuator mounted on a variable air volume box would:
A. be a device that would receive an analog output signal
B. always be a digital device
C. be an open loop controller
D. control the throttling range

4. An optimum start device is a control function that:

A. shuts off the outside ventilation air during start up of the building.
B. shuts off equipment for duty cycling purpose.
C. senses outdoor and indoor temperatures to determine the minimum time needed to heat
up or cool down a building.
D. compares the enthalpy of outdoor and return air and determines the optimum mix of the
two streams.

Certified Energy Manager® Building Automation and Control Systems 50

v2021.01.SI 25
 Quiz on BAS and Controls
5. The difference between the setting at which a controller operates to one
position, (Ex- “on”) and the setting at which it changes to the other position,
(Ex- “off”) is known as the:
A. Throttling Range
B. Offset
C. Differential
D. Control Point

6. We would typically expect that a new BAS would:

A. be able to be field programmed
B. be BACnet compatible
C. be connected to a communication line of some kind
D. all of the above

Certified Energy Manager® Building Automation and Control Systems 51

Quiz on BAS and Controls

7. What is the flow rate of 15oC water through a control valve with a
flow coefficient (Cv) of 0.2 and a pressure difference of 225 kPa?
A. 3 lps
B. 7.5 lps
C. 30 lps
D. 75 lps

Certified Energy Manager® Building Automation and Control Systems 52

v2021.01.SI 26
 Section 3.4
Thermal Energy Storage Systems

Thermal Energy Storage Systems

Learning Objectives & Contents

Awareness of:
• TES Terminology, Basic Designs and Equipment
• Peak Shaving Strategies
• Storage Media Options, Phase Change Media and Heat Storage

Ability to:
• Calculate Approximate Savings
• Calculate Approximate Storage Size

Certified Energy Manager® Thermal Energy Storage Systems 2

v2021.01.SI 1
 Reasons to Consider Thermal Energy Storage
• Reduce peak kW costs, capacity costs, and time-of-day energy costs

• Delays the installation of a new electrical transformer (if a facility is nearing

peak electrical capacity)

• Possibly reduced equipment size and cost on new projects

• Many utilities offer rebates for TES, because it helps:

• Demand-Side Management
• Transmission and Distribution (less power running across utility poles during peak periods)

Certified Energy Manager® Thermal Energy Storage Systems 3

Conventional Air Conditioning Systems

• Conventional Air Condition Systems (CACs) draw peak kW during the most
expensive part of the day.

• These systems are sized to meet the peak cooling load, usually determined
by the peak design day requirements of the physical location.

• Also, most CAC systems may have their lowest efficiency at the time it is
needed the most, for high outdoor air temperatures require more power for
compressors running the typical vapor compressor cycle.

Certified Energy Manager® Thermal Energy Storage Systems 4

v2021.01.SI 2
 Shifting Air Conditioning to Off-Peak Times
• Off-Peak AC systems operate typically at night (stores energy)
• Chilled water or ice is used for storage medium

• Conventional Air Conditioning with TES will meet cooling loads

• The total daily cooling load (plus system losses) must be met
• The instantaneous cooling loads must also be met when they occur, just not directly
from the chillers

• Daytime peak electrical load is reduced or eliminated

Certified Energy Manager® Thermal Energy Storage Systems 5

Example Facility Cooling Load Profile

Conven onal Air Condi oning

1000 1000 Ton Chiller Required

750
Load (Tons)

500

250

0
1
2
3

5
6
7
8
9
10
N 11
n
1
2
3

5
6
7
8
9
10
11
t

4
gh

oo
ni
id

Time of Day Building Load Chiller Load

M

Certified Energy Manager® Thermal Energy Storage Systems 6

v2021.01.SI 3
 Strategy #1: Load Leveling the Chiller
• Partial shift of the load on the chiller to off-peak hours of the day

• Chiller runs at constant load for 24 hours per day, at a high efficiency

• Good for new construction because reduced chiller size

Certified Energy Manager® Thermal Energy Storage Systems 7

Strategy #1: Load Leveling the Chiller Example

What tonnage would the chiller(s) have to operate in order to satisfy the facility
load with a load leveling strategy?

Total ton⋅hours
= Hours available to operate chillers

For the Load Leveling: the chiller will operate 24 hours per day, at a load of:

15,000 ton⋅hours
= 24 hours
= 625 Tons

Certified Energy Manager® Thermal Energy Storage Systems 8

v2021.01.SI 4
 Strategy #1 Load Leveling Example 8 hours x 500 tons = 4,000 ton-hours

6 hours x 750 tons = 4,500 ton-hours

Example Facility Cooling Load Profile 4 hours x 1000 tons = 4,000 ton-hours
Conven onal Air Condi oning
2 Hours x 750 tons = 1,500 ton-hours

1000 4 hours x 250 tons = 1,000 ton-hours

Total Daily = 15,000 ton-hours

750
Load (Tons)

625 Tons 15,000 ton-hours / 24 hrs per day = 625 tons

500
So for this example, a 625 ton
chiller running continuously all
250 day would make ice or chilled
water at night, as well as, provide
chilling to the facility all day
0
1
2
3

5
6
7
8
9
10
N 11
n
1
2
3

5
6
7
8
9
10
11
t

4
gh

oo
ni
id

Time of Day Building Load Chiller Load

M

Certified Energy Manager® Thermal Energy Storage Systems 9

Strategy #2: Load Shifting the Chiller

• Complete shift of the load on the chiller to off-peak hours

• Chiller system must be sized to meet peak cooling load in ton⋅h

• More space is needed for thermal storage media than a load leveling
strategy previously discussed,
• Increased installation cost, but also increased dollar savings potential

Certified Energy Manager® Thermal Energy Storage Systems 10

v2021.01.SI 5
 Strategy #2: Load Shifting the Chiller - Example
The peak period for this facility is from 2 p.m. to 8 p.m.

This would only leave 18 hours (24 minus 6) to generate cooling capacity.

For the Load Shifting Strategy, the chiller will operate at a load of:

15,000 ton⋅hours
=
18 hours

= 833.33 tons

Certified Energy Manager® Thermal Energy Storage Systems 11

Strategy #2 Load Shifting Example

8 hours x 500 tons = 4,000 ton-hours
Example Facility Cooling Load Profile
6 hours x 750 tons = 4,500 ton-hours
Conven onal Air Condi oning
4 hours x 1000 tons = 4,000 ton-hours

1000 2 Hours x 750 tons = 1,500 ton-hours

833.33 Tons
4 hours x 250 tons = 1,000 ton-hours
750
Load (Tons)

Total Daily = 15,000 ton-hours

15,000 ton-hours / 18 hrs per day = 833.33 tons

500
So for this example, a 833.33 ton
chiller would run until 2:00pm
250 and would remain off until
8:00pm. Then it would startup
again serving the building and
0 making chilled water/ice
1
2
3

5
6
7
8
9
10
N 11
n
1
2
3

5
6
7
8
9
10
11
t

4
gh

oo
ni
id

Time of Day Building Load Chiller Load

M

Certified Energy Manager® Thermal Energy Storage Systems 12

v2021.01.SI 6
 Ice Storage
• More complex tanks and auxiliary equipment needed; more complex to
maintain

• Ice/water requires around 20 to 30% of the space needed for chilled

water tanks
• Very low temperature water can be used ~ around 1oC
• Can use ice harvester, ice on coil, or ice/water (slush)

• Solid ice requires around 10% of the space needed for chilled water tanks

Certified Energy Manager® Thermal Energy Storage Systems 13

Ice on Coil Tank

THERMAL ENERGY STORAGE CHARGE CYCLE
• During the off-peak charging cycle, water, (containing
25% ethylene or propylene glycol), is cooled by a
chiller and then circulated through the heat
exchanger inside the ice tank.
• The water-glycol solution leaves the chiller and
arrives at the tank at -4°C, which freezes the water
surrounding the heat exchanger inside the tank.
• This process extracts the heat from the water surrounding
the ice tank heat exchanger until ±95% of the water inside
the tank has been frozen solid.
Picture and description Courtesy of Calmac

Certified Energy Manager® Thermal Energy Storage Systems 14

v2021.01.SI 7
 Properties of Chilled Water
& Ice Storage Media
• Chilled water systems are typically operated in a manner to use only
sensible heat storage, and thus store 4.2 kJ per kg of water for each
oC of temperature difference between the stored water and the

returned water

• Ice systems are typically operated in a manner to use only latent heat
associated with freezing and melting, and one kg of ice at 0oC
absorbs 335 kJ to become 0oC water

Certified Energy Manager® Thermal Energy Storage Systems 15

Sample Problem
Sizing a Chilled Water Tank

How big of a chilled water tank is needed to do Load Shifting if we use the
data from the slide depicting the Strategy #2? Assume no losses and give
the answer in liters.

Data:
• Utility peak pricing period was from 2:00 p.m. to 8:00 p.m.
• The cooling energy for that period was (4 hours ∙ 1,000 tons) + (2 hours ∙ 750 tons)
= 5,500 ton⋅hours… Thus: you need to “shift” 5,500 ton⋅ hours
• You have a 8oC ∆T chilled water system

Certified Energy Manager® Thermal Energy Storage Systems 16

v2021.01.SI 8
 Solution:
Sizing a Chilled Water Tank

• This is a 8oC ∆T for the system (chilled water is stored at 6oC and is
returned at the standard temperature of 14oC)

• Thus, one kilogram of water stores 33.6 kJ’s

Certified Energy Manager® Thermal Energy Storage Systems 17

Solution (cont’d):
Sizing a Chilled Water Tank
Recall that 12,660 kJ is required per ton⋅hour of AC
To store 1 ton⋅h you need:

12,660 kJ
Kilograms of water = ton⋅hour
33.6 kJ = 376.8 kg per ton⋅hour = 376.8 liters per ton⋅hour
kg
If we had an ice-based TES system (@0OC), how
many kg of ice would it take to store 1 ton ⋅ hour?
12,660 kJ
= 335hour
ton⋅
kJ = 37.8 kg per ton⋅ hour
kg

Certified Energy Manager® Thermal Energy Storage Systems 18

v2021.01.SI 9
 Solution (cont’d):
Sizing a Chilled Water Tank

376.8 liters
5,500 ton⋅hours ∙
ton⋅hour

= 2,072,400 liters

Certified Energy Manager® Thermal Energy Storage Systems 19

Efficiency and Capacity Considerations

• Chilled water and ice energy storage system are less efficient at lower
water temperatures, but with night time operation being more efficient
due to lower air temperatures, these +/- efficiency effects might cancel
each other out
• 10 to 15% capacity reduction may occur due to the system having less capacity at lower
water temperatures
• 5 to 10% of capacity could be incurred because of storage losses

• The losses mentioned above are accounted for when sizing these systems

Certified Energy Manager® Thermal Energy Storage Systems 20

v2021.01.SI 10
 Summary: When to Consider TES
When your facility has:
• High peak demand charges and high electric capacity charges
• Low cost of energy used at night but high cost of energy during the day
• High on-peak cooling loads
• Low cooling loads at night
• Need for increased cooling system capacity
• Need for a larger service capacity / transformer

Certified Energy Manager® Thermal Energy Storage Systems 21

Case Study: Chilled Water Storage Tank

DFW Airport - TX

23 Million Liters 90,000 ton⋅hours Peak Power Reduction = 15,000 kW

Picture Courtesy of DFW Airport

Certified Energy Manager® Thermal Energy Storage Systems 22

v2021.01.SI 11
 Typical Charge/Discharge Schedule at DFW

Picture Courtesy of DFW Airport

Certified Energy Manager® Thermal Energy Storage Systems 23

Peak kW Reduction Performance at DFW

Picture Courtesy of DFW Airport

Certified Energy Manager® Thermal Energy Storage Systems 24

v2021.01.SI 12
 Certified Energy Manager® 25
Thermal Energy Storage Systems

Case Study: Chilled Water Storage Tank

University of Central Florida

11.4 Million Liters 26,200 ton⋅hours Peak Power Reduction = 3,000 kW

Picture Courtesy of DN Tanks

Certified Energy Manager® Thermal Energy Storage Systems 26

v2021.01.SI 13
 Case Study: Ice Storage
to Avoid Installation of Larger Utility Transformer

Jefferson Community College wanted to expand their air conditioning

system, but did not want to add more electric demand. They were able
to replace their split systems and window AC units with a new chiller
system with another 50 tons of capacity by using a TES system with an
ice-enhanced air cooled chiller plant using four ice storage tanks.

Picture Courtesy of Trane/Calmac

Certified Energy Manager® Thermal Energy Storage Systems 27

The Ice Bear Energy Storage Air Conditioner

Commercial and Residential Applications Examples
Ice Bear 40 – Dedicated Energy Storage Unit Integrated with RTU Ice Bear 20 – Combined AC Compressor w/ Integrated Storage:

• Partners with existing 5 to 20 Ton HVAC units • Replaces a 3 to 5 Ton Condenser

• 40 Ton⋅Hours of capacity (0.5 GJ) • 20 Ton⋅Hours of capacity (0.25 GJ)
• Can share power feed to RTU, or have its own • Uses same power feed as old Condenser
• Requires coil to be inserted into partner HVAC unit • Uses existing refrigerant line sets
• R410A refrigerant • R410A refrigerant
• CoolData controller can manage other loads at building • Ducted or Ductless (or combination for two zone cooling)
• Uses existing controls or t-stat • Uses existing thermostat
• No comfort trade off – Cooling source depends on time of day • No comfort trade off – Cooling source depends on time of day

Picture Courtesy of Ice Bear

Certified Energy Manager® Thermal Energy Storage Systems 28

v2021.01.SI 14
 Case Study: Phase Change Material
Thermal Storage for Freezer

• The passive Thermal Energy Storage (TES) technology uses Phase

Change Material (PCM) to store and release energy.

• Compared to typical frozen products, PCM is much more effective at

absorbing heat energy while melting or freezing, and holds a constant
temperature during the process.

• The TES system has PCM matched to the operating temperature of

the facility, and is sized to the total heat load of the facility.

Certified Energy Manager® Thermal Energy Storage Systems 29

Innovative Solution
TES & PCM for Cold Storage PCM
Air flow
PCM
Case Study
Air flow

Air flow

Latent Heat Absorption by PCM

Innovative Solution
PCM Charging Cycle (Heat Removal)

Thermal Energy Storage Control System (EMS) Software

§ Proprietary Phase Change § Optimizes refrigeration §

Enables the control system to
PCM
Material (PCM) for thermal equipment performance optimally manage the thermal
energy storage § Remote real-time monitoring energy storage cells
§ Viking formulations engineered § Temperatures § Optimizes participation in
Air flow

to perform in a variety of § Electrical consumption demand response programs

operating conditions § Mechanical operations § Allows new energy usage
§ From -15F to +11F § Facility conditions schedules and consumption
§ More formulas under § Web based and mobile remote patterns
development command and control under § Shift and balance peak load
§ Manufactured at Viking facility development § Monitors
Latent Heat Absorptionfacility
by PCM & equipment P
in Houston § Total facility energy to predict/prevent failures
management capable Thermal Energy Storage Control System (EMS
Source: Viking Cold Solutions

www.vikingcold.com § CONFIDENTIAL
PROPRIETARY AND Proprietary Phase Change Energy §Services
RetroCool 2
Optimizes refrigeration
Thermal Energy Storage SystemsMaterial (PCM) for thermal equipment performance
energy storage § Remote real-time monitor
§ Viking formulations engineered § Temperatures
to perform in a variety of § Electrical consumption
operating conditions § Mechanical operations
§ From -15F to +11F § Facility conditions
§ More formulas under § Web based and mobile re
development command and control und
v2021.01.SI § Manufactured at Viking facility development 15
 Case Study: Electric Heat Storage
Commercial & Residential

• The heating system stores off-peak electricity in the form of heat. Off-peak
electricity is available during times of the day or night when electricity is
plentiful and the associated costs are low.
• Operation of the heating system is automatic. During off-peak hours, the system
converts electricity to heat which is then stored in its ceramic brick core.
• A heat call from the thermostat or main system control energizes the blowers in
the system. The variable speed core blowers automatically adjust their speed to
circulate air through the brick core and into the building.

Certified Energy Manager® Thermal Energy Storage Systems 31

Residential Size Room Unit Commercial Size Unit

3.6 kW = 10.8 kWh 13.5 kW = 40 kWh 53 kW = 290 kWh 80 kW = 440 kWh
Picture Courtesy of Steefes Heating Systems

Certified Energy Manager® Thermal Energy Storage Systems 32

v2021.01.SI 16
 Review
Awareness of:
• TES Terminology, Basic Designs and Equipment
• Peak Shaving Strategies
• Storage Media Options, Phase Change Media and Heat Storage

Ability to:
• Calculate Approximate Savings
• Calculate Approximate Storage Size

Certified Energy Manager® Thermal Energy Storage Systems 33

Quiz #1
With a Load Shifting TES Strategy, a facility manager would:

A. Not operate the chiller during the utility’s peak hours (most expensive
periods)
B. Essentially base load the chiller (i.e., operate at constant load most of
the time)
C. Operate only during the peak times
D. B and C

Certified Energy Manager® Thermal Energy Storage Systems 34

v2021.01.SI 17
 Quiz #2
A thermal energy storage system for cooling yields the largest cost
savings in which area?

A. Power factor penalties

B. Hot water
C. Electrical energy
D. Electrical demand

Certified Energy Manager® Thermal Energy Storage Systems 35

Quiz #3
Why might someone choose chilled water TES over battery storage (large
scale) for their facility?

A. Chilled water storage always requires less space/volume

B. No grid interconnection requirements
C. They only have natural gas-fueled chillers
D. Less expensive than storing electric energy for use by the chillers
E. Both B & D

Certified Energy Manager® Thermal Energy Storage Systems 36

v2021.01.SI 18
 Quiz #4
Approximately how many kg of ice would be required to store 5,200 kWh?

A. 107 kg
B. 335 kg
C. 55,880 kg
D. 556,400 kg

Certified Energy Manager® Thermal Energy Storage Systems 37

v2021.01.SI 19
 Section 4.1
Boilers and Steam Systems

Boiler and Steam Systems

Learning Objectives & Contents

Awareness of:
• Terminology
• Water Tube, Fire Tube, Condensing Boilers
• Saturated & Superheated Steam, Steam Traps

Ability to:
• Estimate Combustion Efficiency
• Calculate Heat Flows and Enthalpy Values using Steam Tables
• Describe Opportunities to Save Energy
• Blowdown Heat Recovery, Flash Steam Utilization, Economizers, etc.

Certified Energy Manager® Boiler and Steam Systems 2

v2021.01.SI 1
 Benefits of Steam or Hot Water as Energy Carriers

• Water is widely available and low cost

• Water and steam have good heat transfer properties
• Generally safe
• Clean, non-toxic
• Good ability to control pressure and temperature
• Easy to transport

Certified Energy Manager® Boiler and Steam Systems 3

oF o
388 200 C

Certified Energy Manager® Boiler and Steam Systems 4

v2021.01.SI 2
 Fire Tube Boilers the most popular type… the fire is inside the tube

Image – Hurst Boiler

Certified Energy Manager® Boiler and Steam Systems 5

Water Tube Boilers

• Water and steam run through

tubes

• Common for larger boilers, such

as district energy and electric Babcock & Wilcox
power generation

Certified Energy Manager® Boiler and Steam Systems 6

v2021.01.SI 3
 Boiler Size Rating System
Boilers are typically rated in terms of steam generation capacity in tons/hour,
or boiler output power in kW

Example: If a boiler is 82% Efficient and consumes 12 GJ/hr of natural gas, what is
the boiler kW?

Solution: 0.82 x 12GJ/hr = 9.84 GJ/hr

9.84 GJ/hr
= = 2,733 kW
0.0036 GJ per kWh

Certified Energy Manager® Boiler and Steam Systems 7

Ideal Combustion Process

Stoichiometric

• Combustion is a chemical reaction that releases heat.

• Fuels typically contains mostly hydrogen + carbon, mixes with air

containing mostly oxygen + nitrogen.

• Carbon in fuel exits as CO2. Hydrogen in fuel exits as H2O.

• Nitrogen does not react.

• Exactly enough air to react with 100% of the fuel, no more or less.

Certified Energy Manager® Boiler and Steam Systems 8

v2021.01.SI 4
 Realistic Combustion Process
Excess air is always required, results in excess O2 in the exhaust.

Completeness of combustion depends on 3 T’s:

• Turbulence (good mixing of fuel and air)

• Time (enough residence time for reactions)

• Temperature (right temperature for reactions)

Certified Energy Manager® Boiler and Steam Systems 9

Excess Air
• Exact quantity of air
required to convert all
fuel C to CO2, assuming
perfect combustion, is
the stoichiometric point.
• Because of imperfect
combustion, > 100% Air
is always supplied, &
dilutes the CO2, N2, and
H2O in the exhaust.

Excess Air = The amount of Air in excess of Stoichiometric Air (100%).

Certified Energy Manager® Boiler and Steam Systems 10

v2021.01.SI 5
 Automatic O2 Trim Systems
Some boiler rooms have
sophisticated computerized
O2 trim systems to optimize
combustion efficiency.

“Rule of Thumb”: boiler

efficiency can be increased
by 1% for each 3% reduction
in excess O2 or 22°C
reduction in stack gas
temperature.

Certified Energy Manager® Boiler and Steam Systems 11

Fuel Low and High Heating Values

• Low Heating Value (LHV)
• Corresponds to H2O in flue gas in vapor (gaseous) form.
• This is the historical design practice, to avoid condensation and corrosion
in the exhaust equipment.
• High Heating Value (HHV)
• Corresponds to H2O in flue gas in liquid form.
• This is the more modern practice to recover more heat from the flue gas
by condensing out the water vapor.
Efficiency using the charts is HHV basis. To convert to efficiency on LHV basis:

LHV = HHV ⋅ K
K = 0.90 natural gas; K = 0.93 for Fuel Oil No. 2; K = 0.96 for Fuel Oil No. 6

Certified Energy Manager® Boiler and Steam Systems 12

v2021.01.SI 6
 HHV HHV LHV LHV
Fuel STATE FUEL MJ/m 3
MJ/kg MJ/m3 MJ/kg
Gas Natural gas 38.5 54.2 35.1 49.3
Heating Gas Methane 39.8 55.5 35.8 50.0
Gas Hydrogen 12.7 141.7 10.8 120.0
Values Gas Landfill gas 19.3 17.6
Liquid #6 oil (input fuel requires heating) 41,000 41.8 38,200 39.0
Liquid #2 oil (diesel) 38,600 45.6 36,000 42.6
Values shown are typical, but Liquid Propane 25,100 50.4 23,100 46.4
will vary across regions and Liquid Crude oil 45.9 42.8
based on information sources. Liquid Gasoline 34,200 46.4 32,000 43.4
Liquid LPG (Liquefied Petroleum Gas) 26,500 49.3 24,400 45.5
Sources:
eia.gov Solid Coal: lignite 14.0
iea.org Solid Coal: subbituminous 24.4
engineeringtoolbox.com Solid Coal: bituminous 30.2 29.0
info.ornl.gov
Solid Coal: anthracite 32.6
Solid Dry wood, average 18.6
Solid Wet wood (20% H2O wet basis), average 14.9
Solid Municipal solid waste 11.8

Certified Energy Manager® Boiler and Steam Systems 13

Combustion (Thermal) Efficiency

Key factors affecting combustion efficiency:
• fuel type (composition)
• excess O2 in exhaust (sometimes CO2 is used)
• stack temperature rise (STR) = Texhaust stack – Tinlet air

The tables on the next slides can be used to estimate:

• Combustion efficiency (sometimes called thermal efficiency) = 
• % excess air and % O2 in the exhaust

Certified Energy Manager® Boiler and Steam Systems 14

v2021.01.SI 7
 Combustion Efficiency
Tables for Methane
(Natural Gas)
GOAL: To understand the relationships between Efficiency, Excess O2 and STR
Note: In the following examples, to keep it simple…we ignore the differences between HHV and LHV.

Source: Dyer, D., and G. Maples, Boiler Efficiency Improvement Seminar Workbook, Boiler Efficiency Institute, LLC., Auburn, AL. 1991.

Certified Energy Manager® Boiler and Steam Systems 15

% Excess Stack Temperature Rise, °C

Air O2 CO2 76.7 82.2 87.8 93.3 98.9 104.4 110.0 115.6 121.1 126.7 132.2 137.8 143.3 148.9 154.4 160.0 165.6 171.1
0.0 0.0 11.8 86.3 86.1 85.9 85.7 85.5 85.3 85.1 84.9 84.7 84.5 84.2 84.0 83.8 83.6 83.4 83.2 83.0 82.8
2.2 0.5 11.5 86.3 86.1 85.9 85.6 85.4 85.2 85.0 84.8 84.6 84.4 84.1 83.9 83.7 83.5 83.3 83.1 82.8 82.6
4.5 1.0 11.2 86.2 86.0 85.8 85.6 85.3 85.1 84.9 84.7 84.5 84.2 84.0 83.8 83.6 83.4 83.1 82.9 82.7 82.5
6.9 1.5 11.0 86.1 85.9 85.7 85.5 85.2 85.0 84.8 84.6 84.4 84.1 83.9 83.7 83.5 83.2 83.0 82.8 82.6 82.3
9.5 2.0 10.7 86.1 85.8 85.6 85.4 85.2 84.9 84.7 84.5 84.2 84.0 83.8 83.6 83.3 83.1 82.9 82.6 82.4 82.2
12.1 2.5 10.4 86.0 85.7 85.5 85.3 85.1 84.8 84.6 84.4 84.1 83.9 83.7 83.4 83.2 83.0 82.7 82.5 82.3 82.0
15.0 3.0 10.1 85.9 85.7 85.4 85.2 85.0 84.7 84.5 84.2 84.0 83.8 83.5 83.3 83.0 82.8 82.6 82.3 82.1 81.8
18.0 3.5 9.8 85.8 85.6 85.3 85.1 84.8 84.6 84.4 84.1 83.9 83.6 83.4 83.1 82.9 82.6 82.4 82.2 81.9 81.7
21.1 4.0 9.6 85.7 85.5 85.2 85.0 84.7 84.5 84.2 84.0 83.7 83.5 83.2 83.0 82.7 82.5 82.2 82.0 81.7 81.5
24.5 4.5 9.3 85.6 85.4 85.1 84.8 84.6 84.3 84.1 83.8 83.6 83.3 83.1 82.8 82.6 82.3 82.0 81.8 81.5 81.3
28.2 5.0 9.0 85.5 85.2 85.0 84.7 84.5 84.2 83.9 83.7 83.4 83.2 82.9 82.6 82.4 82.1 81.8 81.6 81.3 81.1
31.9 5.5 8.7 85.4 85.1 84.9 84.6 84.3 84.1 83.8 83.5 83.3 83.0 82.7 82.4 82.2 81.9 81.6 81.4 81.1 80.8
35.9 6.0 8.4 85.3 85.0 84.7 84.4 84.2 83.9 83.6 83.3 83.1 82.8 82.5 82.2 82.0 81.7 81.4 81.1 80.9 80.6
40.3 6.5 8.2 85.1 84.9 84.6 84.3 84.0 83.7 83.4 83.2 82.9 82.6 82.3 82.0 81.7 81.5 81.2 80.9 80.6 80.3
44.9 7.0 7.9 85.0 84.7 84.4 84.1 83.8 83.5 83.3 83.0 82.7 82.4 82.1 81.8 81.5 81.2 80.9 80.6 80.3 80.0
49.9 7.5 7.6 84.8 84.5 84.2 84.0 83.7 83.4 83.1 82.8 82.5 82.2 81.9 81.6 81.3 80.9 80.6 80.3 80.0 79.7
55.3 8.0 7.3 84.7 84.4 84.1 83.8 83.5 83.1 82.8 82.5 82.2 81.9 81.6 81.3 81.0 80.7 80.4 80.0 79.7 79.4
61.1 8.5 7.0 84.5 84.2 83.9 83.6 83.2 82.9 82.6 82.3 82.0 81.6 81.3 81.0 80.7 80.4 80.0 79.7 79.4 79.1
67.3 9.0 6.7 84.3 84.0 83.7 83.3 83.0 82.7 82.3 82.0 81.7 81.4 81.0 80.7 80.4 80.0 79.7 79.3 79.0 78.7
74.2 9.5 6.5 84.1 83.8 83.4 83.1 82.8 82.4 82.1 81.7 81.4 81.0 80.7 80.3 80.0 79.7 79.3 79.0 78.6 78.3
81.6 10.0 6.2 83.9 83.5 83.2 82.8 82.5 82.1 81.8 81.4 81.1 80.7 80.3 80.0 79.6 79.3 78.9 78.5 78.2 77.8
89.8 10.5 5.9 83.6 83.3 82.9 82.5 82.2 81.8 81.4 81.1 80.7 80.3 79.9 79.6 79.2 78.8 78.4 78.1 77.7 77.3
98.7 11.0 5.6 83.4 83.0 82.6 82.2 81.8 81.5 81.1 80.7 80.3 79.9 79.5 79.1 78.7 78.3 78.0 77.6 77.2 76.8
108.7 11.5 5.3 83.1 82.7 82.3 81.9 81.5 81.1 80.7 80.3 79.9 79.4 79.0 78.6 78.2 77.8 77.4 77.0 76.6 76.2
119.7 12.0 5.1 82.7 82.3 81.9 81.5 81.1 80.6 80.2 79.8 79.4 78.9 78.5 78.1 77.7 77.2 76.8 76.4 75.9 75.5
132.0 12.5 4.8 82.4 81.9 81.5 81.0 80.6 80.2 79.7 79.3 78.8 78.4 77.9 77.5 77.0 76.6 76.1 75.7 75.2 74.8
145.8 13.0 4.5 82.0 81.5 81.0 80.6 80.1 79.6 79.1 78.7 78.2 77.7 77.3 76.8 76.3 75.8 75.4 74.9 74.4 73.9
161.5 13.5 4.2 81.5 81.0 80.5 80.0 79.5 79.0 78.5 78.0 77.5 77.0 76.5 76.0 75.5 75.0 74.5 74.0 73.5 73.0
179.5 14.0 3.9 81.0 80.4 79.9 79.4 78.8 78.3 77.8 77.2 76.7 76.2 75.7 75.1 74.6 74.0 73.5 73.0 72.4 71.9
200.2 14.5 3.7 80.3 79.8 79.2 78.6 78.1 77.5 76.9 76.4 75.8 75.2 74.7 74.1 73.5 72.9 72.4 71.8 71.2 70.6
Certified Energy Manager® Boiler and Steam Systems 16
224.3 15.0 3.4 79.6 79.0 78.4 77.8 77.2 76.6 76.0 75.3 74.7 74.1 73.5 72.9 72.3 71.7 71.0 70.4 69.8 69.2

v2021.01.SI 8
 % Excess Stack Temperature Rise, °C
Air O2 CO2 176.7 182.2 187.8 193.3 198.9 204.4 210.0 215.6 221.1 226.7 232.2 237.8 243.3 248.9 254.4 260.0 265.6 271.1
0.0 0.0 11.8 82.5 82.3 82.1 81.9 81.7 81.5 81.2 81.0 80.8 80.6 80.4 80.1 79.9 79.7 79.5 79.3 79.0 78.8
2.2 0.5 11.5 82.4 82.1 82.0 81.7 81.5 81.3 81.1 80.9 80.6 80.4 80.2 80.0 79.7 79.5 79.3 79.1 78.8 78.6
4.5 1.0 11.2 82.3 82.0 81.8 81.6 81.4 81.1 80.9 80.7 80.5 80.2 80.0 79.8 79.5 79.3 79.1 78.9 78.6 78.4
6.9 1.5 11.0 82.1 81.9 81.6 81.4 81.2 81.0 80.7 80.5 80.3 80.0 79.8 79.6 79.3 79.1 78.9 78.6 78.4 78.2
9.5 2.0 10.7 81.9 81.7 81.5 81.2 81.0 80.8 80.5 80.3 80.1 79.8 79.6 79.4 79.1 78.9 78.7 78.4 78.2 77.9
12.1 2.5 10.4 81.8 81.5 81.3 81.1 80.8 80.6 80.3 80.1 79.9 79.6 79.4 79.1 78.9 78.7 78.4 78.2 77.9 77.7
15.0 3.0 10.1 81.6 81.4 81.1 80.9 80.6 80.4 80.1 79.9 79.7 79.4 79.2 78.9 78.7 78.4 78.2 77.9 77.7 77.4
18.0 3.5 9.8 81.4 81.2 80.9 80.7 80.4 80.2 79.9 79.7 79.4 79.2 78.9 78.7 78.4 78.2 77.9 77.6 77.4 77.1
21.1 4.0 9.6 81.2 81.0 80.7 80.5 80.2 79.9 79.7 79.4 79.2 78.9 78.7 78.4 78.1 77.9 77.6 77.4 77.1 76.8
24.5 4.5 9.3 81.0 80.8 80.5 80.2 80.0 79.7 79.4 79.2 78.9 78.7 78.4 78.1 77.9 77.7 77.3 77.1 76.8 76.5
28.2 5.0 9.0 80.8 80.5 80.3 80.0 79.7 79.5 79.2 78.9 78.6 78.4 78.1 77.8 77.6 77.3 77.0 76.7 76.5 76.2
31.9 5.5 8.7 80.6 80.3 80.0 79.7 79.5 79.2 78.9 78.6 78.4 78.1 77.8 77.5 77.2 77.0 76.7 76.4 76.1 75.8
35.9 6.0 8.4 80.3 80.0 79.7 79.5 79.2 78.9 78.6 78.3 78.0 77.8 77.5 77.2 76.9 76.6 76.3 76.0 75.7 75.5
40.3 6.5 8.2 80.0 79.7 79.5 79.2 78.9 78.6 78.3 78.0 77.7 77.4 77.1 76.8 76.5 76.2 75.9 75.6 75.3 75.1
44.9 7.0 7.9 79.7 79.4 79.1 78.8 78.5 78.2 77.9 77.6 77.3 77.0 76.7 76.4 76.1 75.8 75.5 75.2 74.9 74.6
49.9 7.5 7.6 79.4 79.1 78.8 78.5 78.2 77.9 77.6 77.3 77.0 76.7 76.3 76.0 75.7 75.4 75.1 74.8 74.5 74.1
55.3 8.0 7.3 79.1 78.8 78.5 78.1 77.8 77.5 77.2 76.9 76.6 76.2 75.9 75.6 75.3 74.9 74.6 74.3 74.0 73.6
61.1 8.5 7.0 78.7 78.4 78.1 77.8 77.4 77.1 76.8 76.4 76.1 75.8 75.4 75.1 74.8 74.4 74.1 73.8 73.4 73.1
67.3 9.0 6.7 78.3 78.0 77.7 77.3 77.0 76.6 76.3 76.0 75.6 75.3 74.9 74.6 74.2 73.9 73.6 73.2 72.9 72.5
74.2 9.5 6.5 77.9 77.6 77.2 76.9 76.5 76.2 75.8 75.5 75.1 74.7 74.4 74.0 73.7 73.3 73.0 72.6 72.2 71.9
81.6 10.0 6.2 77.5 77.1 76.7 76.4 76.0 75.6 75.3 74.9 74.5 74.2 73.8 73.4 73.0 72.7 72.3 71.9 71.6 71.2
89.8 10.5 5.9 76.9 76.6 76.2 75.8 75.4 75.0 74.7 74.3 73.9 73.5 73.1 72.7 72.4 72.0 71.6 71.2 70.8 70.4
98.7 11.0 5.6 76.4 76.0 75.6 75.2 74.8 74.4 74.0 73.6 73.2 72.8 72.4 72.0 71.6 71.2 70.8 70.4 70.0 69.6
108.7 11.5 5.3 75.8 75.4 74.9 74.5 74.1 73.7 73.3 72.9 72.4 72.0 71.6 71.2 70.8 70.3 69.9 69.5 69.1 68.6
119.7 12.0 5.1 75.1 74.6 74.2 73.8 73.3 72.9 72.5 72.0 71.6 71.2 70.7 70.3 69.8 69.4 68.9 68.5 68.1 67.6
132.0 12.5 4.8 74.3 73.9 73.4 72.9 72.5 72.0 71.6 71.1 70.6 70.2 69.7 69.3 68.8 68.3 67.9 67.4 66.9 66.5
145.8 13.0 4.5 73.4 73.0 72.5 72.0 71.5 71.0 70.6 70.1 69.6 69.1 68.6 68.1 67.6 67.1 66.6 66.2 65.7 65.2
161.5 13.5 4.2 72.5 72.0 71.5 70.9 70.4 69.9 69.4 68.9 68.4 67.8 67.3 66.8 66.3 65.8 65.3 64.7 64.2 63.7
179.5 14.0 3.9 71.4 70.8 70.3 69.7 69.2 68.6 68.1 67.5 67.0 66.4 65.9 65.3 64.8 64.2 63.7 63.1 62.6 62.0
200.2 14.5 3.7 70.1 69.5 68.9 68.3 67.7 67.2 66.6 66.0 65.4 64.8 64.2 63.6 63.1 62.5 61.9 61.3 60.7 60.1
224.3 15.0 3.4 68.6 67.9Certified
67.3Energy Manager®
66.7 66.1 65.4 64.8 64.2 63.5 62.9 62.3 61.7 Boiler
61.0 and 60.4
Steam Systems
59.7 59.1 17
58.5 57.8

% Excess Stack Temperature Rise, °C

Air O2 CO2 276.7 282.2 287.8 293.3 298.9 304.4 310.0 315.6 321.1 326.7 332.2 337.8 343.3 348.9 354.4 360.0 365.6 371.1
0.0 0.0 11.8 78.6 78.4 78.1 77.9 77.7 77.5 77.2 77.0 76.8 76.6 76.3 76.1 75.9 75.7 75.4 75.2 75.0 74.7
2.2 0.5 11.5 78.4 78.2 77.9 77.7 77.5 77.2 77.0 76.8 76.6 76.3 76.1 75.9 75.6 75.4 75.2 74.9 74.7 74.5
4.5 1.0 11.2 78.2 77.9 77.7 77.5 77.2 77.0 76.8 76.5 76.3 76.1 75.8 75.6 75.4 75.1 74.9 74.6 74.4 74.2
6.9 1.5 11.0 77.9 77.7 77.5 77.2 77.0 76.8 76.5 76.3 76.0 75.8 75.6 75.3 75.1 74.8 74.6 74.3 74.1 73.9
9.5 2.0 10.7 77.7 77.5 77.2 77.0 76.7 76.5 76.2 76.0 75.8 75.5 75.3 75.0 74.8 74.5 74.3 74.0 73.8 73.5
12.1 2.5 10.4 77.4 77.2 76.9 76.7 76.5 76.2 76.0 75.7 75.5 75.2 75.0 74.7 74.5 74.2 74.0 73.7 73.4 73.2
15.0 3.0 10.1 77.2 76.9 76.7 76.4 76.2 75.9 75.7 75.4 75.1 74.9 74.6 74.4 74.1 73.9 73.6 73.4 73.1 72.8
18.0 3.5 9.8 76.9 76.6 76.4 76.1 75.9 75.6 75.3 75.1 74.8 74.6 74.3 74.0 73.8 73.5 73.2 73.0 72.7 72.5
21.1 4.0 9.6 76.6 76.3 76.1 75.8 75.5 75.3 75.0 74.7 74.5 74.2 73.9 73.7 73.4 73.1 72.9 72.6 72.3 72.0
24.5 4.5 9.3 76.3 76.0 75.7 75.4 75.2 74.9 74.6 74.4 74.1 73.8 73.5 73.3 73.0 72.7 72.4 72.2 71.9 71.6
28.2 5.0 9.0 75.9 75.6 75.4 75.1 74.8 74.5 74.3 74.0 73.7 73.4 73.1 72.9 72.6 72.3 72.0 71.7 71.4 71.2
31.9 5.5 8.7 75.6 75.3 75.0 74.7 74.4 74.1 73.8 73.6 73.3 73.0 72.7 72.4 72.1 71.8 71.5 71.3 71.0 70.7
35.9 6.0 8.4 75.2 74.9 74.6 74.3 74.0 73.7 73.4 73.1 72.8 72.5 72.2 71.9 71.6 71.4 71.1 70.8 70.5 70.2
40.3 6.5 8.2 74.8 74.5 74.2 73.9 73.6 73.3 73.0 72.7 72.4 72.0 71.7 71.4 71.1 70.8 70.5 70.2 69.9 69.6
44.9 7.0 7.9 74.3 74.0 73.7 73.4 73.1 72.8 72.5 72.1 71.8 71.5 71.2 70.9 70.6 70.3 70.0 69.6 69.3 69.0
49.9 7.5 7.6 73.8 73.5 73.2 72.9 72.6 72.2 71.9 71.6 71.3 71.0 70.6 70.3 70.0 69.7 69.4 69.0 68.7 68.4
55.3 8.0 7.3 73.3 73.0 72.7 72.3 72.0 71.7 71.4 71.0 70.7 70.4 70.0 69.7 69.4 69.0 68.7 68.4 68.0 67.7
61.1 8.5 7.0 72.8 72.4 72.1 71.8 71.4 71.1 70.7 70.4 70.1 69.7 69.4 69.0 68.7 68.3 68.0 67.6 67.3 67.0
67.3 9.0 6.7 72.2 71.8 71.5 71.1 70.8 70.4 70.1 69.7 69.4 69.0 68.6 68.3 67.9 67.6 67.2 66.9 66.5 66.2
74.2 9.5 6.5 71.5 71.2 70.8 70.4 70.1 69.7 69.3 69.0 68.6 68.2 67.9 67.5 67.1 66.8 66.4 66.0 65.7 65.3
81.6 10.0 6.2 70.8 70.4 70.1 69.7 69.3 68.9 68.5 68.2 67.8 67.4 67.0 66.6 66.3 65.9 65.5 65.1 64.7 64.3
89.8 10.5 5.9 70.0 69.6 69.2 68.9 68.5 68.1 67.7 67.3 66.9 66.5 66.1 65.7 75.3 64.9 64.5 64.1 63.7 63.3
98.7 11.0 5.6 69.2 68.8 68.4 67.9 67.5 67.1 66.7 66.3 65.9 65.5 65.1 64.6 64.2 63.8 63.4 63.0 62.6 62.1
108.7 11.5 5.3 68.2 67.8 67.4 66.9 66.5 66.1 65.7 65.2 64.8 64.4 63.9 63.5 63.1 62.6 62.2 61.8 61.3 60.9
119.7 12.0 5.1 67.2 66.7 66.3 65.8 65.4 64.9 64.5 64.0 63.6 63.1 62.7 62.2 61.8 61.3 60.8 60.4 59.9 59.5
132.0 12.5 4.8 66.0 65.5 65.1 64.6 64.1 63.6 63.2 62.7 62.2 61.7 61.3 60.8 60.3 59.8 59.3 58.9 58.4 57.9
145.8 13.0 4.5 64.7 64.2 63.7 63.2 62.7 62.2 61.7 61.2 60.7 60.2 59.7 59.2 58.7 58.2 57.7 57.1 56.6 56.1
161.5 13.5 4.2 63.2 62.6 62.1 61.6 61.1 60.5 60.0 59.5 58.9 58.4 57.9 57.3 56.8 56.3 55.7 55.2 54.7 54.1
179.5 14.0 3.9 61.5 60.9 60.3 59.8 59.2 58.7 58.1 57.5 57.0 56.4 55.8 55.3 54.7 54.1 53.6 53.0 52.4 51.8
200.2 14.5 3.7 59.5 58.9 58.3 57.7 57.1 56.5 55.9 55.3 54.7 54.1 53.5 52.9 52.3 51.6 51.0 50.4 49.8 49.2
224.3 15.0 3.4 57.2 56.5Certified
55.9 Energy Manager®
55.3 54.6 54.0 53.3 52.7 52.0 51.4 50.7 50.1 Boiler
49.4 and Steam
48.7 Systems
48.1 47.4 18
46.8 46.1

v2021.01.SI 9
 Example (4 Parts)
Using Combustion Efficiency Tables to Understand Relationships between Excess
Oxygen %, STR and Efficiency
Part 1: Consider a natural gas-fired boiler delivering 10 GJ/hour. The
exhaust has 5% oxygen (O2) and a 260C stack temperature rise (STR).

What is the combustion efficiency?

Certified Energy Manager® Boiler and Steam Systems 19

Part 1 Answer: If STR = 260 oC, with 5% excess O2:

Then, we would have an efficiency of 76.7 %

Certified Energy Manager® Boiler and Steam Systems

v2021.01.SI 10
 Example- Part 2
Benefits of Efficiency

What if we adjusted (tuned) the boiler to 2% excess O2

What would the combustion efficiency become?

Certified Energy Manager® Boiler and Steam Systems 21

Example- Part 2 Answer

Benefits of Efficiency

What if we adjusted (tuned) the boiler to 2% excess O2?

Then, we would have an efficiency of 78.4 %

Certified Energy Manager® Boiler and Steam Systems 22

v2021.01.SI 11
 We can also Increase Efficiency by Reducing STR
Common methods are:

• Clean the heat transfer surfaces (tubes).

• Sensible heat recovery from exhaust to feedwater using a

conventional economizer.

• Preheat incoming combustion air using an air preheat heat exchanger.

• Boiler efficiency benefit is roughly 2% for every 40°C increase in the
combustion air temperature.

Certified Energy Manager® Boiler and Steam Systems 23

Sensible Heat Economizer (non-condensing)

Extract heat from exhaust to

preheat feedwater.

TIP: Maintain minimum flue

gas temperature to avoid
condensing H2O or acidic
gases in the exhaust.
• Typically- maintain stack
temperature at about  170oC.

CleanBoiler.org

Certified Energy Manager® Boiler and Steam Systems 24

v2021.01.SI 12
 Example- Part 3
Benefits of Efficiency

What if we lowered the boiler stack temperature to 204 C by installing an

economizer in the exhaust stack?

Then, we would have an efficiency of 80.8 %

Certified Energy Manager® Boiler and Steam Systems 25

Example- Part 4: Calculate Fuel Savings per hour:

Fuel Savings = (Fuel Used)initial – (Fuel Used)final

(Fuel Used)initial (Fuel Used)final

1 1
= (10GJ/hour)∙(𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦) = (10GJ/hour)∙(𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦)
1 1
= (10GJ/hour)∙(0.767) = (10GJ/hour)∙(0.808)
= 13.0378 GJ/hour = 12.3762 GJ/hour

Fuel savings = 0.6616 GJ per hour

Certified Energy Manager® Boiler and Steam Systems 26

v2021.01.SI 13
 Condensing (Latent Heat) Economizer

• Some larger boiler systems may utilize condensing economizers which extract
the available latent heat of the water vapor in the exhaust stack.
• When designed and built into a new boiler or DHW heater, this is called a “condensing
boiler” or “condensing water heater”.

• Design and O&M issues:

• Condensed H2O from exhaust is acidic (pH 4). Condensate disposal system required.
• Municipal codes typically require condensate to be neutralized (pH = 7 +/-) before discharge to sanitary
sewer (not storm sewer).
• Due to low exhaust temperature, the incoming water must be cold enough, ideally  40C to recover
heat. Cannot condense H2O out of exhaust with incoming water  55C .

Certified Energy Manager® Boiler and Steam Systems 27

Condensing Boilers

Certified Energy Manager® Boiler and Steam Systems 28

v2021.01.SI 14
 Condensing Boilers
• Reclaims latent energy of ~420 kJ/kg of condensed
H2O vapor

• Efficiency gain about 15% over non-condensing

• Sizes thru 12 GJ per hour (and increasing)
• Modular for “N + 1” or “N + 2 design” instead of 100%
contingency Lochinvar Boiler
• Mandatory throughout Europe

Certified Energy Manager® Boiler and Steam Systems 29

Case Study:
Conventional vs. Condensing Domestic HW

Conventional
• Hot exhaust  170C. Requires metal or refractory stack
material. Greater touch temperature safety hazard.
• Nominal   85%
• Storage losses further reduce annual average .
• Quantity of hot water supply limited to storage
capacity.
• Requires more mechanical room space.

image source: flickr.com/photos/departmentofenergy/sets

Certified Energy Manager® Boiler and Steam Systems 30

v2021.01.SI 15
 Case Study:
Conventional vs. Condensing Domestic HW

Condensing
• Cool exhaust  40C. Can use plastic exhaust material.
Reduced touch temperature safety hazard.
• Nominal   95% (+/-)
• Typically instantaneous design with zero storage losses.
• Quantity of hot water unlimited (as long as unit is in
service).
• Response time to get hot water at tap can be longer, but
delay can be avoided with small a storage tank.
• Best practice: neutralize condensate before discharging
to a drain.
image source: photo by Eric Mazzi
Certified Energy Manager® Boiler and Steam Systems 31

Steam

Boiler and Steam Systems

v2021.01.SI 16
 Steam Basics

Certified Energy Manager® Boiler and Steam Systems 33

Steam Properties
• Enthalpy is measure of thermal
energy of a substance: h, kJ/kg

• Temperature (C) vs. specific

volume (m3/kg) or enthalpy
(kJ/kg) diagrams help us model
and quantify pure substances
like water.

Certified Energy Manager® Boiler and Steam Systems 34

v2021.01.SI 17
 Hf = Fluid
Hg = Steam
Temperature vs. Enthalpy Hfg = Phase Change Energy
Properties of steam @ 101.325kPa(a) = 0 kPa(g)
200 h = 2,828 kJ/kg
Latent Heat of
Vaporization (Work) Hfg
Temperature (°C)

150

100 hf = 419.1 kJ/kg hg = 2,676 kJ/kg

50 h = 209.3 kJ/kg

0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Enthalpy, h (kJ/kg)

Certified Energy Manager® Boiler and Steam Systems 35

Saturated Steam Tables

Two left columns give the one-to-one relationship between the pressure and
temperature at which water boils:

• Hf or hf column gives energy in liquid water

Note hf values at 0°C and 100°C

• Hfg or hfg gives energy required to vaporize the water

2257 kJ/kg at 100°C (Phase Change Energy)

• Hg or hg column gives hf + hfg

• the energy in saturated steam

Certified Energy Manager® Boiler and Steam Systems 36

v2021.01.SI 18
 vf vg hf hfg hg
C kPa MPa 3 3
m /kg m /kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg

Saturated Steam 0.01

5
0.6
0.9
0.0006
0.0009
0.0010002
0.0010001
206
147.02
0.001
21.019
2500.9
2489.1
2500.9
2510.1
10 1.2 0.0012 0.0010003 106.31 42.021 2477.2 2519.2

Tables 15
20
1.7
2.3
0.0017
0.0023
0.0010009
0.0010018
77.881
57.761
62.984
83.92
2465.4
2453.6
2528.4
2537.5

Organized by Temperature 25
30
3.2
4.2
0.0032
0.0042
0.001003
0.0010044
43.341
32.882
104.84
125.75
2441.7
2429.9
2546.5
2555.6
35 5.6 0.0056 0.001006 25.208 146.64 2418.0 2564.6
40 7.4 0.0074 0.0010079 19.517 167.54 2406.0 2573.5
45 9.6 0.0096 0.0010099 15.253 188.44 2394.1 2582.5
50 12.4 0.0124 0.0010121 12.028 209.34 2382.0 2591.3
55 15.8 0.0158 0.0010145 9.5649 230.24 2369.9 2600.1
60 19.9 0.0199 0.0010171 7.6677 251.15 2357.7 2608.8

See Appendix A 65
70
25.0
31.2
0.0250
0.0312
0.0010199
0.0010228
6.1938
5.0397
272.08
293.02
2345.4
2333.1
2617.5
2626.1
75 38.6 0.0386 0.0010258 4.1291 313.97 2320.6 2634.6
for FULL SIZE TABLES 80
85
47.4
57.9
0.0474
0.0579
0.001029
0.0010324
3.4053
2.8259
334.95
355.95
2308.1
2295.4
2643
2651.3
90 70.2 0.0702 0.0010359 2.3591 376.97 2282.5 2659.5
95 84.6 0.0846 0.0010396 1.9806 398.02 2269.6 2667.6
100 101.3 0.1013 0.0010435 1.6719 419.1 2256.5 2675.6
105 120.9 0.1209 0.0010474 1.4185 440.21 2243.2 2683.4
110 143.4 0.1434 0.0010516 1.2094 461.36 2229.7 2691.1
115 169.2 0.1692 0.0010559 1.0359 482.55 2216.1 2698.6
120 198.7 0.1987 0.0010603 0.8913 503.78 2202.1 2705.9
125 232.2 0.2322 0.0010649 0.77011 525.06 2188.0 2713.1
130 270.3 0.2703 0.0010697 0.66808 546.39 2173.7 2720.1
135 313.2 0.3132 0.0010747 0.5818 567.77 2159.1 2726.9
140 361.5 0.3615 0.0010798 0.50852 589.2 2144.2 2733.4
Engineering Thermodynamics (Wiley, New York, 1957) 145 415.6 0.4156 0.001085 0.44602 610.69 2129.1 2739.8
150 476.1 0.4761 0.0010905 0.3925 632.25 2113.7 2745.9
155 543.4 0.5434 0.0010962 0.3465 653.88 2097.9 2751.8
160 618.1 0.6181 0.001102 0.30682 675.57 2081.8 2757.4
Certified Energy Manager® Boiler and Steam Systems
165 700.8 0.7008 0.001108 0.27246 697.35 2065.5 2762.8

Steam Tables also are organized by Absolute Pressure

Pgauge = Measured pressure
Patm = 101.325 kPa
Pabsolute = Pgauge + 101.325 kPa

Water can be liquid at higher pressures than 101.325 kPa

Vaporization occurs at higher temp
For example, at 700 kPa water boils at 165°C

Most boilers of interest are “saturated” steam boilers—meaning no heat is

added to the steam after the water vaporizes

Certified Energy Manager® Boiler and Steam Systems 38

v2021.01.SI 19
 vf vg hf hfg hg
kPa MPa C 3 3
m /kg m /kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg
500.0 0.500 151.84 0.0010926 0.3748 640.19 2107.9 2748.1

Saturated Steam 550.0

600.0
0.550
0.600
155.46
158.83
0.0010967
0.0011006
0.34259
0.31558
655.88
670.5
2096.4
2085.6
2752.3
2756.1

Tables 650.0
700.0
800.0
0.650
0.700
0.800
161.99
164.95
170.41
0.0011044
0.001108
0.0011148
0.29258
0.27276
0.24033
684.22
697.14
721.02
2075.4
2065.6
2047.3
2759.6
2762.7
2768.3
Organized by Pressure 900.0 0.900 175.36 0.0011212 0.21487 742.72 2030.3 2773
1,000.0 1.000 179.89 0.0011272 0.19435 762.68 2014.4 2777.1
1,100.0 1.100 184.07 0.001133 0.17744 781.2 1999.5 2780.7
1,200.0 1.200 187.96 0.001139 0.16325 798.5 1985.3 2783.8
1,300.0 1.300 191.61 0.001144 0.15117 814.76 1971.7 2786.5
1,400.0 1.400 195.05 0.001149 0.14077 830.13 1958.8 2788.9
1,500.0 1.500 198.3 0.001154 0.1317 844.72 1946.3 2791
1,600.0 1.600 201.38 0.001159 0.12373 858.61 1934.3 2792.9
1,800.0 1.800 207.12 0.001168 0.11036 884.61 1911.4 2796
2,000.0 2.000 212.38 0.001177 0.099581 908.62 1889.8 2798.4
2,200.0 2.200 217.26 0.001185 0.090695 930.98 1869.2 2800.2
2,400.0 2.400 221.8 0.001193 0.083242 951.95 1849.6 2801.5
2,600.0 2.600 226.05 0.001201 0.076897 971.74 1830.8 2802.5
2,800.0 2.800 230.06 0.001209 0.071428 990.5 1812.5 2803
3,000.0 3.000 233.86 0.001217 0.066664 1008.4 1794.9 2803.3
3,200.0 3.200 237.46 0.001224 0.062475 1025.5 1777.7 2803.2
3,400.0 3.400 240.9 0.001231 0.058761 1041.8 1761.2 2803
3,600.0 3.600 244.19 0.001239 0.055446 1057.6 1744.9 2802.5
3,800.0 3.800 247.33 0.001246 0.052468 1072.8 1729.0 2801.8
4,000.0 4.000 250.36 0.001253 0.049777 1087.4 1713.5 2800.9
4,200.0 4.200 253.27 0.001259 0.047333 1101.6 1698.3 2799.9
4,400.0 4.400 256.07 0.001266 0.045103 1115.4 1683.3 2798.7
4,600.0 4.600 258.78 0.001273 0.04306 1128.8 1668.5 2797.3
4,800.0 4.800 261.4 0.00128 0.041181 1141.8 1654.0 2795.8
Engineering Thermodynamics (Wiley, New York, 1957) 5,000.0 5.000 263.94 0.001286 0.039446 1154.5 1639.7 2794.2
5,500.0 5.500 269.97 0.001303 0.035642 1184.9 1604.8 2789.7
6,000.0 6.000 275.59 0.001319 0.032449 1213.7 1570.9 2784.6
6,500.0 6.500 280.86 0.001336 0.029728 1241.2 1537.6 2778.8
Certified Energy Manager® Boiler and Steam Systems
7,000.0 7.000 285.83 0.001352 0.02738 1267.4 1505.2 2772.6

Example 1: Saturated Steam

Water at 600 kPa is heated to saturated steam at constant pressure.
What is h in kJ/kg?

Certified Energy Manager® Boiler and Steam Systems 40

v2021.01.SI 20
 Saturated Steam
Tables
Organized by Pressure

Engineering Thermodynamics (Wiley, New York, 1957)

Certified Energy Manager® Boiler and Steam Systems 41

Solution to Example 1: Saturated Steam

Water at 600 kPa is heated to saturated steam at 600 kPa. What h is required?
h = hfinal - hinitial

from Saturated Steam Temperature Table:

hinitial = hf at 600 kPa = 670.5 kJ/kg hfinal = hg at 600 kPa = 2756.1 kJ/kg

h = 2756.1 – 670.5
= 2085.6 kJ/kg

FYI- you also can use hfg from the tables

Certified Energy Manager® Boiler and Steam Systems 42

v2021.01.SI 21
 Example 2: Saturated Steam
500 kg per hour of pressurized water enters a boiler at 115oC and exits at 1 MPa
saturated steam. What is the heat flow required to make this happen?
Hint: q = 𝑚ሶ h

Certified Energy Manager® Boiler and Steam Systems 43

Solution to Example 2: Saturated Steam

Use the Temperature
& Pressure Tables:

Certified Energy Manager® Boiler and Steam Systems

v2021.01.SI 22
 Solution to Example 2: Saturated Steam
500 kg per hour of pressurized water enters a boiler at 115oC and exits at 1
MPa saturated steam. What is the heat flow required to make this happen?
q = 𝑚ሶ h
kg kJ kJ
= 500 ∙ ( 2777.1 - 482.55 )
hour kg kg

kg kJ
= 500 ∙ ( 2294.55 )
hour kg

kJ
= 1,147,275 hour

Certified Energy Manager® Boiler and Steam Systems 45

Enthalpy Properties of Water and Steam

(at constant 0.7 MPa and changing temperatures)

Definitions:
hf = Enthalpy of Saturated Liquid
hg = Enthalpy of Saturated Vapor (steam)
TSuperheated Steam = TSat Steam + TSuperheat = 164.95˚C + 100˚C = 264.95˚C
(TSuperheat is the amount of superheat temperature added)

Water (liquid) Steam (water vapor)

TTap H20 TBoiling H20 TSat Steam TSuperheated Steam
Temperature TH20 = 0˚C = 21˚C = 164.95˚C = 164.95˚C = 264.95˚C

Enthalpy hf = 0 hf = 88.8 hf = 697.1 hg = 2,762.7 hg = 2,982.6

Certified Energy Manager® Boiler and Steam Systems 46

v2021.01.SI 23
 Superheated Steam
Adding heat to steam after fully vaporizing it into saturated steam is called
“Superheat”.

• Superheat is added to produce “dry steam” for use in turbines, such that no
water droplets can exist, otherwise the droplets will damage the turbine.

• Superheat also stabilizes the steam allowing it to be effectively used in

various process applications.

Certified Energy Manager® Boiler and Steam Systems 47

Superheated Steam Example

Instead of installing a Pressure Reducing Valve (PRV) install a “let-
down” turbine to reduce the temperature and pressure of superheated
steam from 750˚C and 1.1 MPa to 300˚C and 0.6MPa, and generate
some electrical energy.

a. How much energy are you capturing from each kg of steam by

changing the enthalpy ?

b. If the boiler runs 8,760 hours per year and sends 500 kg/hr to the
turbine, how much money are you saving if the cost of electricity
$0.15/kWh? Assume that the generator is 100% efficient.

Certified Energy Manager® Boiler and Steam Systems 48

v2021.01.SI 24
 Superheated Steam Tables

Certified Energy Manager® Boiler and Steam Systems 49

Solution
Enthalpy at 750°C = 4038.8 kJ/kg
Enthalpy at 300°C = 3062.1 kJ/kg

a) h = h750 - h300 = 976.7 kJ/kg

b) $ Savings:
976.7 kJ 500 kg 8760 hours 1 kWh $0.15
=( )∙( )∙( )∙( )∙( )
kg hour year 3600 kJ kWh

= $178,248/yr

Certified Energy Manager® Boiler and Steam Systems 50

v2021.01.SI 25
 Boiler Blowdown

Industrial Steam Systems

Certified Energy Manager® Certified Energy Manager®Boiler and Steam Systems 51

Boiler Blowdown
Water, not steam, is removed

• Top or surface blowdown

• Removes impurities
• Controls concentration of TDS (Total Dissolved Solids)
• Usually continuous and low flow rate
• Possible source of heat for makeup water or flash steam

• Bottom or mud blowdown

• Removes sediment settled on bottom of boiler
• Usually intermittent and brief (~5 seconds) with high flow rate

Certified Energy Manager® Boiler and Steam Systems 52

v2021.01.SI 26
 Blowdown
Video Showing TDS Impact

TDS =Total Dissolved Solids

Spirax
Certified Energy Manager® Boiler and Steam Systems 53

Boiler Water Treatment

• Control of water quality is critical to maintain efficiency and reliability of
boiler and steam systems.
• Example: 1 mm scale inside fire-tube boiler can increase fuel loss 2.5 to 4%
compared to new system.
• Types of contaminants to control include:
• suspended solids
• dissolved solids
• hardness (calcium and magnesium)
• ions (e.g. sodium, sulfate, metals)
• dissolved gases (e.g. O2, CO2).

Certified Energy Manager® Boiler and Steam Systems 54

v2021.01.SI 27
 Boiler Water Treatment
Treatment applications:
• Makeup water from raw or city water. Required due to unavoidable leak
losses, unreturned condensate, and/or blowdown.
• Feedwater
• Condensate return water
• Boiler startup and maintenance cleaning

Treatment systems:
• Solids and ions: clarifiers, filters, softeners, dealkalizers, decarbonators,
reverse osmosis units, and demineralizers
• Gases: deaerator, deaerating feedwater heater

Certified Energy Manager® Boiler and Steam Systems 55

Steam Traps: 3 Functions

1. Remove condensate.
• Condensate must be removed to prevent water hammer and equipment damage.
• Steam traps which are failed closed are not removing condensate.

2. Remove non-condensable gases such as air and CO2.

3. Block live steam. Passing dry or “live” steam in a failed open trap is a
common type of steam leak.

See CEM Maintenance Section for more on quantifying steam leaks, and steam trap maintenance

Certified Energy Manager® Boiler and Steam Systems 56

v2021.01.SI 28
 oF o
388 200 C

Certified Energy Manager® Boiler and Steam Systems 57

Steam Traps: Three Common Approaches

Type How it works Example applications Visual

Mechanical (float, Based on density (buoyancy) Process equipment

ball, bucket) difference between steam & requiring fast removal of
condensate condensate.

Thermodynamic Based on velocity & pressure Steam main Lines

(disc) differences between steam &
condensate

Thermostatic Based on temperature Steam sterilizers. Heat

(temperature, difference between steam & tracing.
balanced pressure) condensate
Image sources: Mechanical: tlv.com, Thermodynamic: armstronginternational.com, Thermostatic: spiraxsarco.com
“F&T”= Float and Thermostatic Trap

Certified Energy Manager® Boiler and Steam Systems 58

v2021.01.SI 29
 Steam & Condensate Leak Management
Common sources:
• Steam traps passing dry steam
• Valves
• Expansion joints
• Drip legs
• Flange connections & bends
• Pumps
• Tanks
• Heat exchangers
See CEM Maintenance section for further information

360proactiveengineering
Certified Energy Manager® Boiler and Steam Systems 59

Condensate Return Management

• Net result if you can increase the % of condensate returned to the
Boiler:

• Reduced makeup water, sewer and treatment costs

• Reduced fuel consumption

• Reduced risk of fines (sewer departments may fine you if you discharge water
that is too hot down the drain)

Certified Energy Manager® Boiler and Steam Systems 60

v2021.01.SI 30
 Flash Steam
Consider the energized condensate in the
diagram.

Pressure & temperature losses are

unavoidable, such as dropping from high
pressure to low pressure. This results in
formation of vapor.

This formation of vapor due to pressure

drop of a saturated liquid is called flash
steam.

Certified Energy Manager® Boiler and Steam Systems 61

Flash Steam
• Flash steam can often be recovered as useful heat and can be
used for deaerators or process needs.

• The % of condensate (saturated liquid) flow that converts to

flash steam can be calculated.

(hf, high – hf, low)

% flash steam =
(hfg, low)

Certified Energy Manager® Boiler and Steam Systems 62

v2021.01.SI 31
 Example: Flash Steam
780 kg/hr of
condensate at 0.8MPa
is discharged to a
pressurized flash tank
at 250kPa.

Estimate the kg/hr of

flash steam formed.

Certified Energy Manager®Boiler and Steam Systems 63

Solution: Flash Steam

(hf, high – hf, low)
% flash steam =
(hfg, low)
0.8 MPa high pressure is hf = 721.02
0.25 MPa low pressure is hf = 535.35
low pressure is hfg = 2181.2
(721.02 – 535.35)
= = 0.085 or 8.5%
(2181.2)

kg/hr flash = (0.085) ∙ (780 kg/hr)

= 66.4 kg/hr of flash steam generated

Certified Energy Manager®Boiler and Steam Systems 64

v2021.01.SI 32
 Trends in Boilers and Steam
for Advanced Efficiency & GHG Reduction

• Replacing large, older boilers with smaller condensing boilers

• Electrification of heating applications using electric heat pumps: ground

source, air source, or waste heat source. GHG benefits if electricity is low CO2e

• Fuel substitution with biofuels, such as wood waste, wood pellets &
renewable sources

• Installing natural gas-powered (absorption or engine driven) heat pumps

instead of boilers

Certified Energy Manager® Boiler and Steam Systems 65

Summary: Boilers and Fuel Combustion

• Combustion is a chemical reaction of fuels (e.g. natural gas, oil) with air (O 2, N2)
which releases heat. C in fuel exhausts as CO2. H in fuel exhausts as H20. Excess
air is always necessary, which results in excess O2 in exhaust.
• Use combustion efficiency chart to estimate  based on: excess O2 & STR.

• Condensing boilers recover heat by condensing H2O in the exhaust ( > 90%).

• Global warming pollutants: CO2, CH4, N2O.

• Saturated steam is best for heating applications (CEM focus). Superheated steam
is best for power generation.

Certified Energy Manager® Boiler and Steam Systems 66

v2021.01.SI 33
 Summary: Boiler-Steam Distribution & End Uses
• Boiler water quality: treat water to limit scale, deaerate to remove unwanted gases, do
blowdown.

• Steam traps are designed to remove condensate & non-condensable gases, while
retaining dry steam.

• Condensate return includes pumping systems and condensate treatment.

• Use heat exchangers for DHW, space heating, and industrial heating.

• After extracting heat from steam, hot condensate inevitably produces flash steam.

Certified Energy Manager® Boiler and Steam Systems 67

List of Energy Saving Measures

• Boiler design, operating & maintenance:
Manage steam & hot water usage to supply what is needed, when needed (temperature, pressure & flow setpoints,
schedules)
Automatic O2 trim control to maintain minimum feasible excess O2
Condensing boiler vs. non-condensing (built-in heat recovery)
Turbulators in fire-tubes & other features to improve heat transfer
Water-side: periodic maintenance to remove scale, clean tubes and heat transfer surfaces
Combustion side: periodic maintenance to remove soot, calibrate sensors, tune controls
Pump & fans: right-size, variable speed controls, etc.
Steam leaks from traps, valves, expansion joints
Insulate pipes, valves, traps (see CEM Industrial and Building Envelope sections)
• Heat recovery:
Air preheaters: heat exchanger stack exhaust to incoming combustion air
Non-condensing Economizers: stack exhaust to incoming feedwater
Condensing Economizers: stack exhaust to incoming cold water (requires treatment & disposal of condensed H2O)
Blowdown: extracted boiler water to incoming makeup water or feedwater
Flash steam: flash recovery vessel to use flash steam
Recover as much condensate as feasible (saves: purchased fuel, water, treatment & sewer charges)

Certified Energy Manager® Boiler and Steam Systems 68

v2021.01.SI 34
 Review
Awareness of:
• Terminology
• Water Tube, Fire Tube, Condensing Boilers
• Saturated & Superheated Steam, Steam Traps

Ability to:
• Estimate Combustion Efficiency
• Calculate Heat Flows and Enthalpy Values using Steam Tables
• Describe Opportunities to Save Energy
• Blowdown Heat Recovery, Flash Steam Utilization, Economizers, etc.

Certified Energy Manager® Boiler and Steam Systems 69

Quiz #1
Which approach is most likely to provide the greatest improvement in
boiler combustion efficiency (assuming no change in fuel properties)?
A. Increase stack temperature and increase combustion air temperature
B. Fix all steam leaks
C. Reduce stack temperature and decrease combustion air temperature
D. Increase boiler excess O2 and increase stack temperature
E. Reduce boiler excess air and reduce stack temperature

Certified Energy Manager® Boiler and Steam Systems 70

v2021.01.SI 35
 Quiz #2
A back-pressure steam turbine that runs off of superheated steam drives
a generator. The turbine + generator assembly is 65% efficient. Steam
enters the turbine at 1,100 kPa and 550°C and is exhausted at 700 kPa
and 325°C.

What is the approximate kW output of the generator if the steam flow to

the turbine is 3,600 kg per hour?

Certified Energy Manager® Boiler and Steam Systems 71

Quiz #3
Water is heated from 15C to 700 kPa saturated steam.
Calculate: h in kJ/kg

Certified Energy Manager® Boiler and Steam Systems 72

v2021.01.SI 36
 References
• U.S. Department of Energy (2014)“Improving Steam System Performance: A Sourcebook
for Industry”. The appendix of this sourcebook lists many additional resources.
• www.energy.gov/eere/amo/tip-sheets-system Tip Sheets: Steam and Process Heating
• Kitto & Stultz (2005) “Steam: Its Generation and Use” The Babcock & Wilcox Company
• ASHRAE Handbook (2016) System & Equipment (SI Version).
• Capehart, Kennedy & Turner (2016, 8th edition International) “Guide to Energy
Management” Fairmont Press.
• Doty & Turner (2013, 8th edition) “Energy Management Handbook” Fairmont Press
• IPCC, 2014: Climate Change 2014: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working
Group III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change [Edenhofer et al (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom
and New York, NY, USA.

Certified Energy Manager® Boiler and Steam Systems 73

v2021.01.SI 37
 Section 4.2
CHP Systems and Renewable Energy

CHP Systems & Renewable Energy

Learning Objectives & Contents

Awareness of:
• CHP:
• Benefits, Equipment and Design Types
• Comparing CHP Fuel & Operating Costs vs. Utilities
• Renewables:
• Policies and Technologies
• RECs, PPAs, Net Metering and Net Zero
• Storage Technologies

Ability to:
• Determine Basic Feasibility for a CHP System
• Compare Different Types of Renewable Energy and Storage Technologies

Certified Energy Manager® CHP Systems & Renewable Energy 2

v2021.01.SI 1
 Definition of Combined Heat & Power (CHP)
Simultaneous production and use of useful mechanical energy and
useful thermal energy

• Mechanical energy can be used directly to:

• Generate electricity,
• Power an air compressor, etc.
• Turn the shaft of a chiller’s compressor

• Thermal energy can be used directly, or

• Generate cooling (heat source for absorption chiller)

Certified Energy Manager® CHP Systems & Renewable Energy 3

Why Consider CHP

CHP is more fuel efficient than centralized power generation because CHP
produces power where it is used at the building, so power is not lost during
transmission over large distances, and because heat recovery from CHP system
operation displaces on-site fuel purchases. Because CHP systems operate every
day, they are more reliable during grid outages than traditional emergency back-up
generators. This resiliency makes them popular with hotels, multifamily buildings,
hospitals, nursing homes, and industrial facilities.

Increasing fuel efficiency also decreases emissions of environmental pollutants

such as CO2, SOx, and NOx. These pollutants have been linked to global climate
change, acid rain, and other forms of environmental damage. To maximize these
benefits, CHP systems must be properly sized for the buildings they serve.

Certified Energy Manager® CHP Systems & Renewable Energy 4

v2021.01.SI 2
 CHP Energy Balance

US EPA
Certified Energy Manager® CHP Systems & Renewable Energy 5

CHP Emissions Balance

52,400
MWh

US EPA
Certified Energy Manager® CHP Systems & Renewable Energy 6

v2021.01.SI 3
 Benefits of CHP
Energy consumers choosing to adopt CHP receive many benefits:

• Efficiently supplementing a facility’s use of grid-supplied power

• Reducing energy costs
• Providing resiliency in the event of a grid-based power outage
• Reducing fuel use and the production of greenhouse gases
• Reducing strain on the electric grid during peak demand periods
• Allowing emergency “sheltering in place” for multi-family residential, hotel, and
critical infrastructure facilities of refuge such as hospitals, nursing homes and
police stations

Certified Energy Manager® CHP Systems & Renewable Energy 7

PURPA – Allowed End-Users to Install CHP

• The Public Utility Regulatory Policies Act of 1978 (PURPA) was enacted
following the energy crisis of the 1970s to encourage cogeneration and
renewable resources and promote competition for electric generation. It
also sought to encourage electricity conservation.
• The Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) and the states were
directed to implement PURPA, with FERC determining what constitutes a
qualifying facility (QF) and providing guidance on avoided costs. State
public utility commissions (PUCs) have responsibility for determining the
avoided costs for the utilities they regulate and to establish the rates,
terms, and conditions of power purchase contracts and interconnection.

Certified Energy Manager® CHP Systems & Renewable Energy 8

v2021.01.SI 4
 Major Barriers to a Successful CHP Project
Most are not Technical Barriers
Application procedures
Back up, standby and exit fees
Feed-tariffs and metering
Financing, Insurance
Load retention rates
Interconnection
Siting and permitting (regulations and land area)
Environmental (emissions) regulations
Skilled labor (design, maintenance, operation)
Noise issues
Litigation

Certified Energy Manager® CHP Systems & Renewable Energy 9

CHP Terminology
Cogeneration uses waste heat for many different processes, such as
space heating or drying.

Combined-Cycle power generation is a two-cycle electricity generation

process that uses the heat from the first cycle to run a second cycle.

NYSERDA

Certified Energy Manager® CHP Systems & Renewable Energy 10

v2021.01.SI 5
 Cogeneration: Topping Cycle
Makes Mechanical Energy 1st , then Residual Thermal Energy is used for Heating.

Example: Diesel engine, gas turbine (or steam boiler with turbine) turns a shaft to supply
mechanical energy to a generator producing electric power. Waste heat recovered from
the exhaust gas and engine coolant (if diesel) produces useful hot water or steam.
mechanical electric
fuel input power power
Electric
Prime Mover Turbine
Generator

steam exhaust
Process Heater

cold process fluid hot process fluid

Certified Energy Manager® CHP Systems & Renewable Energy 11

Cogeneration: Bottoming Cycle

Makes Thermal Energy 1st, then Residual Energy is used for Mechanical or Electric power.

Example: Boiler supplies steam to heat a process and the residual steam then goes
to a turbine to supply mechanical power.

mechanical
superheated Process Heater power electric
fuel steam
Steam Steam Electric power
Boiler Turbine Generator

feedwater
cold process fluid
hot process fluid

Certified Energy Manager® CHP Systems & Renewable Energy 12

v2021.01.SI 6
 Combined Cycle
Makes Electricity at least 2 times (via different methods)

Heat
Recovery
Steam
Generator

Certified Energy Manager® CHP Systems & Renewable Energy 13

Combined Cycle with Cogeneration

fuel input

Combustor
mechanical electric
air input power
power
Compressor Electric
Gas Turbine
Generator

hot exhaust
mechanical electric
power power
Heat Recovery Steam Electric
Steam Generator Turbine Generator

low temperature steam

Process Heater

cold process fluid hot process fluid

Certified Energy Manager® CHP Systems & Renewable Energy 14

v2021.01.SI 7
 1 to 500 kW Reciprocating Engine CHP
Fuel can include natural gas, diesel, biogas,
gasoline, and propane.

Available in many sizes and configurations.

Some small cogeneration systems are now

provided with an Internal Inverter which
makes grid interconnection easier and allow
for the system to run during a black-out. 100 kW Unit

Tecogen Corporation

Certified Energy Manager® CHP Systems & Renewable Energy 15

Multi MW Reciprocating Engine CHP

• Large CHP systems use the waste heat created during an engine’s
operation to generate overall plant efficiencies of ~ 90%.

INNIO Corp.

Certified Energy Manager® CHP Systems & Renewable Energy 16

v2021.01.SI 8
 CHP - Shaft Power for Chilled Water & Heating
Natural Gas Engine Driven Chillers can also be defined as Cogeneration
Features & Benefits:
• Emissions controls, compliance with stringent emissions
control standards

• Variable-speed operation can yield high part-load

efficiencies and longer life

• High-temperature engine jacket and exhaust waste recovery 400 Ton natural gas driven chiller
Tecogen Corporation

• Switching to natural gas-driven cooling frees electrical

capacity for other useful purposes

• Minimizes cooling-related electric bills in peak times

Economics often better than cogeneration (no grid connections/agreements)
Certified Energy Manager® CHP Systems & Renewable Energy 17

Microturbines

Microturbines operate on a variety of fuels,

including natural gas, associated gas, biogas,
LPG/propane, and liquid fuels (diesel,
kerosene, and aviation fuel).

In resource recovery applications,

microturbines burn waste gases that would
otherwise be flared or released directly into
the atmosphere.

Capstone Turbine Corporation

Certified Energy Manager® CHP Systems & Renewable Energy 18

v2021.01.SI 9
 Large Multi MW Turbines used for CHP
• The gas turbine compresses air and mixes it with fuel that is then burned at
extremely high temperatures, creating a hot gas, which moves through blades in
the turbine, causing them to spin quickly, powering the generator.

MTU Aero Engines

Certified Energy Manager® CHP Systems & Renewable Energy 19

Fuel Cells
Fuel cells use a chemical reaction rather than a combustion
process to produce electricity. Requires hydrogen as a fuel
source. Fuel processors can extract hydrogen from other
source fuels such as natural gas or coal.

Emission levels are excellent because of non combustion

reaction

Several technologies are available, and reasonably cost

effective, while others are still developmental and very
expensive.

Fuel processor, maintenance costs, and stack life are concerns

Wikimedia Commons

Certified Energy Manager® CHP Systems & Renewable Energy 20

v2021.01.SI 10
 Fuel Cells are Produced in Many kW Sizes

1.5 kW 460 kW 14.9 MW

Solid Power Doosan Fuel Cell Energy

Certified Energy Manager® CHP Systems & Renewable Energy 21

Note: These are approximate values,

CHP Technology Comparison

Table 1-3. Comparison of CHP Technology Sizing, Cost, and Performance Parameters
which can vary as technology or
pricing changes.
Technology Recip. Engine Steam Turbine Gas Turbine Microturbine Fuel Cell
Electric efficiency (HHV) 27­41% 5­40+% 2 24­36% 22­28% 30­63%
Overall CHP efficiency (HHV) 77­80% near 80% 66­71% 63­70% 55­80%
Effective electrical efficiency 75­80% 75­77% 50­62% 49­57% 55­80%
0.5­several hundred
Typical capacity (MWe) .005­10 0.5­300 0.03­1.0 200­2.8
usuallycommercial
below 2.8 MWCHP
MW
Typical power to heat ratio 0.5­1.2 0.07­0.1 0.6­1.1 0.5­0.7 1­2
Part­load ok ok poor ok good
1,200­3,300
CHP Installed costs ($/kWe) 1,500­2,900 $670­1,100 2,500­4,300 5,000­6,500
(5­40 MW)
Non­fuel O&M costs ($/kWhe) 0.009­0.025 0.006 to 0.01 0.009­0.013 0.009­.013 0.032­0.038
Availability 96­98% 72­99% 93­96% 98­99% >95%
Hours to overhauls 30,000­60,000 >50,000 25,000­50,000 40,000­80,000 32,000­64,000
Start­up time 10 sec 1 hr ­ 1 day 10 min ­ 1 hr 60 sec 3 hrs ­ 2 days
100­500 50­140
Fuel pressure (psig) 1­75 n/a 0.5­45
(compressor) (compressor)
natural gas, biogas,
natural gas, synthetic
LPG, sour gas, natural gas, sour gas, hydrogen, natural gas,
Fuels all gas, landfill gas, and
industrial waste gas, liquid fuels propane, methanol
fuel oils
manufactured gas
space heating, hot process steam, district
heat, hot water, LP­HP hot water, chiller,
Uses for thermal output water, cooling, LP heating, hot water, hot water, LP­HP steam
steam heating
steam chilled water
Power Density (kW/m2) 35­50 >100 20­500 5­70 5­20
0.013 rich burn 3­way Gas 0.1­.2 Wood 0.2­.5
NOx (lb/MMBtu)
cat. Coal 0.3­1.2 0.036­0.05 0.015­0.036 0.0025­.0040
(not including SCR)
0.17 lean burn
0.06 rich burn 3­way Gas 0.4­0.8
NOx (lb/MWhTotalOutput)
cat. Wood 0.9­1.4 0.52­1.31 0.14­0.49 0.011­0.016
(not including SCR) EPA CHP
0.8 lean burn Coal 1.2­5.0.

2 Certified
Power efficiencies at the Energy Manager®
low end are CHP
for small backpressure turbines with boiler and for large Systemscondensing
supercritical & Renewable Energy for power generation at the high end.
steam turbines 22

Catalog of CHP Technologies 1­6 Introduction

v2021.01.SI 11
 CHP Example
A CHP facility consumes 600,000 GJ/year of Methane and generates 15,000
MWh/year, plus 200,000 GJ/year of heat which is used by a facility.
Estimate the annual net financial benefit of the CHP unit to this facility.
Assume:
• Natural gas is purchased at a cost of $4.00/GJ
• The utility grid’s electricity price is $0.12/kWh
• The “free” 200,000 GJ/year of delivered heat replaces a natural gas-fired boiler that had an
efficiency of 78%.
• O&M costs for the CHP unit are $25,000/year.
• The CHP system was financed and the payments (principal and interest) are $150,000/year.
• Ignore tax benefits

Certified Energy Manager® CHP Systems & Renewable Energy 23

Space to Solve Problem:

Certified Energy Manager® CHP Systems & Renewable Energy 24

v2021.01.SI 12
 kWh
CHP Example Answer 600,000 GJ
CHP
System
Annual Costs: Heat
Gas Cost = (600,000 GJ)($4.00/GJ) = $2,400,000
O&M Costs= $25,000
Finance Costs = $150,000
Total Costs = $2,400,000 + $25,000 + $150,000 = $2,575,000

Annual Benefits:
Power Cost Avoided = (15,000,000 kWh)($0.12/kWh) = $1,800,000
Boiler Gas Costs Avoided = (200,000 GJ)($4.00/GJ)(1/.78) = $1,025,641
Total Benefits = $1,800,000 + $1,025,641 = $2,825,641

Net Annual Benefit = Annual Benefits – Annual Costs

= $2,825,000 - $2,575,000
= $250,641

Certified Energy Manager® CHP Systems & Renewable Energy 25

Additional CHP Tools

EPA, DOE and others…

Certified Energy Manager® CHP Systems & Renewable Energy 26

v2021.01.SI 13
 Renewable Energy

Certified Energy Manager® CHP Systems & Renewable Energy 27

Certified Energy Manager® CHP Systems & Renewable Energy 28

v2021.01.SI 14
 Countries with RE & Carbon Policies by Sector

World Bank, State and Trends of Carbon Pricing 2018

Certified Energy Manager® CHP Systems & Renewable Energy 29

Renewable Portfolio Standards by State

% of Renewable Energy Required per State… due by Year X

Certified Energy Manager® CHP Systems & Renewable Energy 30

v2021.01.SI 15
 Capacity Factor Equation

With renewable energy, the ”fuel” (solar, water, etc.) is practically free, but can also
be intermittent.
Actual Energy Produced (MWh)
Capacity Factor for Generation =
Capacity ∙ Time Period

For Example:
A 5 MW wind turbine may only produce 15,000 MWh during a whole year. Thus, its capacity factor
15,000 MWh
would be =
5 MW ∙ 8,760 hours
= 34.2%

Certified Energy Manager® CHP Systems & Renewable Energy 31

Capacity Factors for Utility-Scale Generation

Energy Source Capacity Factor
Solar PV 24.5%
Solar Thermal 21.8%
Wind 34.8%

Note: other sources such as geothermal,

or ocean current energy harvesting will have much
higher capacity factors, because the source energy is available all the time.

US Energy Information Agency 2019 Year-End Data

Certified Energy Manager® CHP Systems & Renewable Energy 32

v2021.01.SI 16
 Traditional Hydro Electric Dam
Three Gorges Dam China (22,500MW)

Certified Energy Manager® CHP Systems & Renewable Energy

Low Impact Hydro

• Take advantage of the power of
water while mitigating the
environmental cost(s)
• Examples:
• Low-fall dams
• In river turbines (shown)

Ocean Renewable Power Company

Certified Energy Manager® CHP Systems & Renewable Energy 34

v2021.01.SI 17
 Tidal Power
• Predictable and reliable, but not always aligned with peak demand
• Can be installed along coast lines only
• Min height of tides required; 5 meters

La Rance Tidal Power Plant, France

240MW (540GWh/yr)
Operational since 1966

Certified Energy Manager® CHP Systems & Renewable Energy 35

Ocean Wave & Currents

• Mass of water > air, therefore
greater generating power

• Consistency of flow means

better dispatchability

Deployment of AR1000 at the EMEC test site (Image Atlantis Resources Corp.)
Certified Energy Manager® CHP Systems & Renewable Energy 36

v2021.01.SI 18
 Geothermal Generation
Geothermal power plants use hydrothermal resources
that have both water (hydro) and heat (thermal).
Surprise Valley Electric

This energy resource is obtained by drilling wells into

the earth and then piping steam or hot water to the KenGen: GeoThermal in Kenya… 95% Cap. Factor!
surface. The hot water or steam powers a turbine that
generates electricity.

Some geothermal wells are two miles deep.

Certified Energy Manager® CHP Systems & Renewable Energy 37

Biomass
• Biomass is organic material that comes from plants
and animals

• When biomass is burned, the chemical energy in

biomass is released as heat

• Biomass can be burned directly or converted to

liquid biofuels or biogas that can be burned as fuels

https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/?page=biomass_home

Certified Energy Manager® CHP Systems & Renewable Energy 38

v2021.01.SI 19
 Biodiesel: Solid Biomass:
from Jatrova plant Olive waste is burned to give heat

Certified Energy Manager® CHP Systems & Renewable Energy 39

Waste to Energy Plant in Shenzhen, China

Technically- not “renewable”… but popular

Jan 2019 - Under Construction Designed to process about 33% of Shenzhen’s entire waste

www.archdaily.com

Certified Energy Manager® CHP Systems & Renewable Energy 40

v2021.01.SI 20
 Waste to Energy: Landfill Gas
Note that landfill gas quality can change as the landfill ages

Advanced Disposal

Certified Energy Manager® CHP Systems & Renewable Energy 41

Solar Resource Map

Iea.org

Certified Energy Manager® CHP Systems & Renewable Energy 42

v2021.01.SI 21
 Concentrated Solar Power (CSP)
Common for Utility Scale Solar
There are 4 types of CSP systems:
Line Concentration 1(1) 3(3)
(1) Parabolic trough
(2) Fresnel

Point Concentration 2 4
(3) Solar tower (2) (4)
(4) Dish Sterling

1/22/2021
Certified Energy Manager® CHP Systems & Renewable Energy 43

Solar Thermal for Power Generation

A solar power tower system uses a large field
of flat, sun-tracking mirrors called heliostats
to reflect and concentrate sunlight onto a
receiver on the top of a tower. Sunlight can
be concentrated as much as 1,500 times.
Some power towers use water as the heat-
transfer fluid.

Advanced designs are experimenting with

molten nitrate salt because of its superior
heat transfer and energy storage capabilities.
The thermal energy-storage capability allows the
system to produce electricity during cloudy
Reddit
weather or at night.

Certified Energy Manager® CHP Systems & Renewable Energy 44

v2021.01.SI 22
 Solar Thermal – Small Scale

Flat Plate Evacuated Tubes Cover Type (Swimming Pools, etc.)

Reddit
Certified Energy Manager® CHP Systems & Renewable Energy 45

Solar Thermal Systems by Application

https://www.iea-shc.org/Data/Sites/1/publications/Solar-Heat-Worldwide-2018.pdf

Certified Energy Manager® CHP Systems & Renewable Energy 46

v2021.01.SI 23
 iea.org

CHP Systems & Renewable Energy 47

iea.org
CHP Systems & Renewable Energy 48

v2021.01.SI 24
 US Solar Price Drop & Installation Growth

Certified Energy Manager® CHP Systems & Renewable Energy 49

California ISO System Load Curve… the “Duck Curve”

The need for electric energy storage helps distribute solar energy to other parts of the day

With the rapid increase in renewable energy in several parts of the country, the typical peak
kW period experienced by the power grid is moving towards late afternoon as opposed to
historically early afternoon

Certified Energy Manager® CHP Systems & Renewable Energy 50

v2021.01.SI 25
 Photovoltaic Panels
Typical Roof Mounted Panels Thin Film Style Shingle Style

Certified Energy Manager® CHP Systems & Renewable Energy 51

Photovoltaic Panels
Floating

NBC.com

Certified Energy Manager® CHP Systems & Renewable Energy 52

v2021.01.SI 26
 Two Popular Types of Solar Photo Voltaic “PV” Panels
Polycrystalline cells are:
• Bluish in color and have a characteristic ‘metal
shard’ pattern on the surface
• More sensitive to heat, losing efficiency as
temperatures rise
• Lower efficiency than monocrystalline

Monocrystalline cells are:

• Black and even in color.
• More expensive than polycrystalline
Civic Solar

Certified Energy Manager® CHP Systems & Renewable Energy 53

12.5% Return / Year for 25 Years

Solar PV Case Study
• In Kentucky, USA:

After 30% US Tax Credit

Certified Energy Manager® CHP Systems & Renewable Energy 54

v2021.01.SI 27
 Solar PV Case Study
• Production information by panel:

You can see if a panel is under-performing.

Also: this system’s virtual layout

was not accurate compared to
Certified Energy Manager® CHP Systems & Renewable Energy actual panel locations. 5555

Beware of Shading!
5% to 10% of shading reduced production by 25%!

CHP Systems & Renewable Energy

v2021.01.SI 28
 Relocating Panels did Improve Performance

57

CHP Systems & Renewable Energy

Solar PV Case Study

You can see when clouds have impeded generation

• 15 kW system
• You can see generation/time

Certified Energy Manager® CHP Systems & Renewable Energy 58

v2021.01.SI 29
 Example: Undersized Inverter
See how the peak is “capped”
by 11.5 kW Inverter…

CHP Systems & Renewable Energy

Types of PV Projects

Distributed and
Off Grid Utility Scale
Grid-Tied

Certified Energy Manager® CHP Systems & Renewable Energy 60

v2021.01.SI 30
 Distributed Generation & Storage
In some places… DG can be less expensive than the ”Traditional Grid”

Which system is less expensive?

vs

Traditional Grid Infrastructure Solar PV + Battery + Backup Generator

Certified Energy Manager® CHP Systems & Renewable Energy 61

Wind Turbine Generators

2018 Worldwide Installed Capacity

http://www.greenbyte.com/resources/evolution-of-wind-power/

Certified Energy Manager® CHP Systems & Renewable Energy 62

v2021.01.SI 31
 Largest Wind Turbine Generators
Off Shore On Shore
12MW 7.5 MW

• Rotor 220m
• Max height 260m
• Swept area 38,000m2
https://www.ge.com/renewableenergy/wind-energy/turbines/haliade-x-offshore-turbine http://www.astroman.com.pl/index.php?mod=magazine&a=read&id=900

Certified Energy Manager® CHP Systems & Renewable Energy 63

3 kW Vertical Axis Turbine - Basic One Line Drawing

Inverter

REC Meter

Acela Energy Group

Certified Energy Manager® CHP Systems & Renewable Energy

v2021.01.SI 32
 3 kW Vertical Axis Turbine – Net Metered

Acela Energy Group

Certified Energy Manager® CHP Systems & Renewable Energy 65

Net Metering
Any excess energy you generate goes into the electric grid and creates a
“credit” for future energy consumed.
• “Net” may be defined as a billing period (monthly) or annually

Many USA states require utilities to offer net-metering programs for

renewable energy systems.

“Zero Energy” Buildings:

Energy used on an annual basis = amount of renewable energy created onsite

Certified Energy Manager® CHP Systems & Renewable Energy 66

v2021.01.SI 33
 Certified Energy Manager® CHP Systems & Renewable Energy 67

“RECs”, “SRECs” and “PPAs”

• 1 Renewable Energy Certificate = 1MWh Produced from renewable sources
• SRECs are Solar Renewable Energy Certificates

• Power Purchase Agreements (“PPA”):

• 3rd Party pays for installation and sells you the energy produced on your site (at a
known price) for 15-25 years.
• You get “green” power and a known future energy cost (lower risk)

Certified Energy Manager® CHP Systems & Renewable Energy 68

v2021.01.SI 34
 Energy Storage

Certified Energy Manager® CHP Systems & Renewable Energy 69

Battery Storage - Onsite

There are a wide-variety of applications for onsite energy storage,
including:
• Electric bill management
• Consumption of onsite generation
• Demand response
• Backup power & micro-grid support
• Ancillary services

Certified Energy Manager® CHP Systems & Renewable Energy 70

v2021.01.SI 35
 Utility Scale Battery Storage & Solar

Tesla

Certified Energy Manager® CHP Systems & Renewable Energy 71

Pump Storage
Pumped hydroelectric storage facilities store energy in the form of water in an upper reservoir,
pumped from another reservoir at a lower elevation. During periods of high electricity
demand, power is generated by releasing the stored water through turbines in the same
manner as a conventional hydropower station. During periods of low demand (usually nights
or weekends when electricity is also lower cost), the upper reservoir is recharged by using
lower-cost electricity from the grid to pump the water back to the upper reservoir.

Consumers Power

Certified Energy Manager® CHP Systems & Renewable Energy 72

v2021.01.SI 36
 Energy Storage - Flywheels
A Flywheel is essentially a mechanical battery that
stores kinetic energy in a rotating mass.

Advanced power electronics and a

motor/generator convert that kinetic energy to
electric energy, making it instantly available when
needed.

The systems are modular and can be configured to

meet the power capacity demands of a variety of
applications, from 100 kW to multi-MW systems.
Beacon Power

Certified Energy Manager® CHP Systems & Renewable Energy 73

Review
Awareness of:
• CHP:
• Benefits, Equipment and Design Types
• Comparing CHP Fuel & Operating Costs vs. Utilities
• Renewables:
• Policies and Technologies
• RECs, PPAs, Net Metering and Net Zero
• Storage Technologies

Ability to:
• Determine Basic Feasibility for a CHP System
• Compare Different Types of Renewable Energy and Storage Technologies

Certified Energy Manager® CHP Systems & Renewable Energy 74

v2021.01.SI 37
 CHP and Renewable Energy Quiz #1
1. Utilities that are beginning to see a high saturation level of solar PV are
putting pressure to change which of the following rate structures?

A. Demand charges (assuming that solar impacts the utility’s coincident demand)
B. Power factor adjustment
C. “Time of Use” rates
D. “Sinusoidal Ranking Fee”
E. Both A and C

Certified Energy Manager® CHP Systems & Renewable Energy 75

CHP and Renewable Energy Quiz #2

2. A facility that can operate the CHP plant for less cost than it pays for
energy from the local utility should operate the plant under the
following strategy?

A. Base load the CHP plant to maximize its operating hours

B. Perform peak shaving to reduce expensive demand charges
C. Perform valley filling to further reduce associated energy costs
D. Operating the CHP system as a standby system or as part of a demand
response program the local utility offers
E. Utilize the CHP in conjunction with the local utility’s time of use rates and
operate the CHP system during the utility’s off-peak hours

Certified Energy Manager® CHP Systems & Renewable Energy 76

v2021.01.SI 38
 CHP and Renewable Energy Quiz #3
3. A grocery store installs a 15kW solar PV system on its roof. It is
“grid-tied” to the local utility. If this location receives 3,000 hours of
sunlight per year, how many kWh would be produced in a year?

A. 131,400 kWh will be produced each year.

B. 45,000 kWh will be produced each year.
C. An amount much less than 45,000 kWh, because the output depends on the
solar PV system’s “capacity factor”, local weather, etc.

Certified Energy Manager® CHP Systems & Renewable Energy 77

v2021.01.SI 39
 Section 4.3
Industrial Systems

Industrial Systems

Learning Objectives & Contents

Awareness of:
• Pump Systems
• Terminology, Pump Curves, Power Equations
• Compressed Air
• Typical System Layout & Equipment
• Waste Heat Recovery
• Terminology, Basic Applications

Ability to:
• Basic savings estimates for pumps, compressed air and waste heat recovery
• Identify some energy waste streams within industrial facilities

Certified Energy Manager® Industrial Systems 2

v2021.01.SI 1
 Pumps: Comparing 5 year Life Cycle Costs
Automobile Maintenance
Pump
& Insurance Purchase Price
5% 1%

Energy Cost
31%
Purchase
Price
48%
Maintenance
& Insurance Energy Cost
21% 94%

Certified Energy Manager® Industrial Systems 3

Pump Classifications
Pumps Single Stage

Positive
Dynamic
Displacement

Rotary Reciprocating Centrifugal Axial

Single Multiple
Diaphragm Piston, Plunger
rotor rotor

Most of the
pumps within
industrial &
commercial facilities
Multi-Stage…to increase pressure
Certified Energy Manager® Industrial Systems 4

v2021.01.SI 2
 Pump Power Equations
Simplified kW (motor mech. output or shaft power)
for Water Pumping

Power (kWm) = Pressure ∙ Flow

Head [m] ∙ Flow [LPS] ∙𝜌

= 102 ∙ Pump Efficiency

Total Head = Static Head + Velocity Head + Frictional Head

Head units are in meters
LPS is Liters Per Second You can save energy by reducing Head or Flow
𝜌 is fluid density in g/cm3 (water is 1 g/cm3)
102 is a constant for SI units… Google if you want details

Certified Energy Manager® Industrial Systems 5

Pump Curves
Pressure vs Flow

Point A: Minimum Pump Curve (larger impeller) System Curve

pressure (to overcome
HEAD) and have some B
flow.
Pump Curve (smaller impeller)

Point B: Optimal
Head, H

operating area
A Velocity and Friction Head
Elevation Head

Pressure Head

Volume Flow Rate, Q

Certified Energy Manager® Industrial Systems 6

v2021.01.SI 3
 Optimizing Pumps
In many facilities, pumps are oversized and not managed well.

If you see pump “throttling” (restricting the outlet flow of a pump by partially
closing a valve), install a VFD and use affinity laws to calculate savings.

Power Flow 𝑥
(Power21) = (Flow21)
In the field… 𝑥 might be 2.5 to 2.8 (instead of 3)

Thecontrolblog.com
Certified Energy Manager® Industrial Systems 7

Optimizing Pump Systems

Additional Ideas

• Modify the centrifugal pump

• Trim or replace impeller
• Use smaller pumps so unneeded capacity can be switched off

• If you hear cavitation noise (sounds like pumping gravel):

• Investigate pump inlet conditions
• Raise suction liquid level or lower pump

• Reduce pipe resistance

• Friction loss = resistance x velocity x pipe length
• Check losses at valves and components (elbows, strainers, orifices)
Get advice from your local pump expert

Certified Energy Manager® Industrial Systems 8

v2021.01.SI 4
 Compressed Air Systems

Industrial Systems Certified Energy Manager® 9

Compressed Air Systems

Industry uses compressed air for:
• Pneumatic Tools, Production Equipment
• Dehydration / Refrigeration / Filtration / Aeration
• Conveyors, Packaging

• Benefits:
• High-Torque and variable output
• Non-Flammable and low risk of sparks

But… most systems are < 10% efficient… so try to minimize use
• Ask: Do you really need compressed air? Is there a substitute?

Certified Energy Manager® Industrial Systems 10

v2021.01.SI 5
 Compressed Air Systems
Inefficient Starting with Compressor Other Losses

80%
Lost Other Losses

Other Losses
Other Losses
Energy Input

AirBestPractices.com

Certified Energy Manager® Industrial Systems 11

Equipment
Layout

Improving_Compressed_Air-Sourcebook.pdf

Certified Energy Manager® Industrial Systems 12

v2021.01.SI 6
 Compressor Types
Type Size Pressure Flow Applications
(kW) (bar)
Reciprocating <10 – 7,000 Up 200 bar Small- Tires, PET preforms, high-P applications, etc.
High maintenance cost.
Large
Rotary Screw 2 – 1,000 6-14 Small - Industrial, manufacturing, etc.
Most common comp.
Med
Centrifugal 75 - 18,000 3-40 Large Large industrial, steel, petrochemical, mining, etc

Quincy, Ingersoll-Rand
Certified Energy Manager® Industrial Systems 13

Refrigerated Dryer

Certified Energy Manager® Industrial Systems 14

v2021.01.SI 7
 Desiccant Dryer

Pattonsinc.com
Certified Energy Manager® Industrial Systems 15

Deliquescent Dryer
Similar to desiccant (media is in direct contact with compressed air), but deliquescent
uses disposable media (for example- salt)

Certified Energy Manager® Industrial Systems 16

v2021.01.SI 8
 Receivers (storage tanks)
• Pressure buffer
• Prevents excessive cycling of
load/unload compressors

m3
Sizing: System volume = 1.6 × flow capacity
min
(but varies a great deal)

Located before dryer (wet), after dryer (dry), throughout

plant, and at large loads

Certified Energy Manager® Industrial Systems 17

How to Save Energy

A Good Reference
1. Eliminate compressed air needs (if possible)
2. Fix leaks
3. Reduce excess pressure
• supply should be ~ 10% > task
4. Improve controls
5. Intake cold outside air
6. Reject waste heat
Then…upgrade equipment

Certified Energy Manager® Industrial Systems 18

v2021.01.SI 9
 Savings
Ideas

Cooler Intake Air

Certified Energy Manager® Industrial Systems 19

How to Save Energy

Step 1: Eliminate Compressed Air Needs (if possible)

Poor Application Substitute

Open Blowing, Drying Low Pressure Blowers, Fans, Engineered
Nozzles, etc.
Sparging (aerating/agitating a liquid) Low Pressure Blowers, Mixers
Cooling Programmable Controllers, Cabinets Refrigerated Cabinet Coolers
Air Motors Electric Motors (if can be safe)

Improving_Compressed_Air-Sourcebook.pdf
Certified Energy Manager® Industrial Systems 20

v2021.01.SI 10
 How to Save Energy
Step 2: Fix Leaks

Start a leak repair program (and continue)

• Manage leakages to a target load of 10%
• If leaks are left unmanaged, they will increase by 5% per year
• Action:
• Fix 20% of the largest leaks first (within 1 to 2 weeks)
• Smaller leaks should then be attempted within 3-4 months
• Next fix small leaks that can only be detected with an ultrasonic leak
detector
EI-701 ultrasonic leak detector
(http://e4i.com)

Certified Energy Manager® Industrial Systems 21

Leak Locations

People
“Air is Free”
Hose clamps

Valves and Open receiver

connectors tank drain
valves

Certified Energy Manager® Industrial Systems 22

v2021.01.SI 11
 Estimating Compressed Air Leak Losses
Losses From Compressed Air Leaks (kWh/year) via SI and Imperial Units
@ 8760 hours/year
Approximate
Hole Air Pressure in bar (psig)
Diameter
mm (in) 4 (58) 5 (72) 6 (87) 7 (102) 8 (116) 9 (131)
1 (5/128) 900 1,300 1,600 2,000 2,400 2,900
2 (5/64) 3,700 5,100 6,500 8,100 9,700 11,500
3 (1/8) 8,400 11,400 14,600 18,200 21,900 25,900
6 (1/4) 33,700 45,500 58,600 72,700 87,700 103,500
9 (3/8) 75,800 102,400 131,800 163,600 197,400 232,800
Table derived from 2016 Compressed Air and Gas Handbook, Chapter 8, Table 8.21 and Table 8.25, Compressed Air and Gas Institute, for a 2-stage
compressor, 21.1°C air, and using orifice coefficient of 0.60. [Energy loss is rounded off to the nearest 100 kWh.]

Certified Energy Manager® Industrial Systems 23

Compressed Air Leaks

Alternate Estimation Method… the “bleed-down” leakage test
If you know the Volume of the Compressed Air (mostly the storage
receiver tanks)… you can determine the Normal cubic meters per
minute (Nm3/min) massflow lost.
V (P1 - P2 )
R=
R = Leak Rate (Nm3/min) ( Dt) x Patm
V = Volume of System (m3)
P1= Initial Pressure (barg)
P2= Final Pressure (barg) A Nm3/min of air
is one m3/min of air at
Patm= Atmospheric pressure standard conditions.

∆t = Time Interval between P1 and P2 measurements (minutes)

Certified Energy Manager® Industrial Systems 24

v2021.01.SI 12
 How to Save Energy
Step 3: Reduce Excess Pressure

Don’t make more pressure than you need.

• Supply lowest possible pressure to support productive demand
• Each 1 bar of pressure reduction reduces compressor energy consumption by 6%.
Approximation for displacement compressor systems operating in the 6 bar range.

• Additionally, a leak at 7 bar will waste 6% - 12% more than at 6 bar = Artificial
Demand
• Supply high pressure needs with storage or dedicate smaller compressors (instead
of increasing the pressure of the whole system)
• Total distribution piping pressure drop should be less than 0.15 bar (excl. ΔP
over treatment components)
• Check air velocity and pipe diameters
• <5m/s in compressor room; <10m/s in main header; <15m/s in distribution drops

Certified Energy Manager® Industrial Systems 25

How to Save Energy

Step 4: Optimize Controls

• Investigate operational strategies

• Match supply closely to demand, in the most efficient way
• i.e. Operate all operating displacement compressors at full load, with only ONE
compressor operating as load-following (or “trim”)
• More than one part-load compressor in the same system, is wasting energy
• Program a pressure “set-back” during non-production shifts
• Saves compressor energy and reduces leak rates too
• Minimizing “swings” in pressure produced
• Also- make sure air intake filters are clean

Certified Energy Manager® Industrial Systems 26

v2021.01.SI 13
 How to Save Energy
Step 5: Reduce Intake Temperature

Relocate air intake to cooler location (outside)

Air Intake Temp, °C Power Savings, %
−1 7.5
10 3.8
21 0
32 (3.8)
44 (7.6)
Ref: Gatts, RR., RG Massey, and JC Robertson. 1974. Energy Conservation Program Guide for Industry and Commerce, NBS Handbook 115, US
Department of Commerce, National Bureau of Standards, Washington DC, Page 3-33.

Certified Energy Manager® Industrial Systems 27

How to Save Energy

Step 6: Recover Waste Heat

• Heat Recovery - 100% of compressor input energy is lost as heat; of which

76% - 96% can be recovered
• In a fully loaded 75 kW compressor, at least 230,000 kJ/hr can be
recovered, equal to about thirty-three 2,000 watt electric water heaters
• Recovered heat can heat water up to 70oC (oil-injected), or 90oC (oil-free)

• For each 10 m3/min: assume at least 230,000 kJ is available to recover.

Compressed Air Systems Fact Sheet #10, US Dept. of Energy

Certified Energy Manager® Industrial Systems 28

v2021.01.SI 14
 Waste Heat Recovery

Industrial Systems Certified Energy Manager® 29

Waste Heat Recovery

Waste heat is present in most industrial facilities but… to harvest, it
must be:
• High quality
• Near a location where it can be reused
• Right timing (waste heat & need for waste heat)

Certified Energy Manager® Industrial Systems 30

v2021.01.SI 15
 Waste Heat Sources
• Combustion flue gas or other waste heat stream
• Flash steam recovery
• Boiler blow-down
• Lost condensate
• Heat of compression from compressor
• Waste combustibles
• Exothermic process
• E.g. chemical plant making sulphuric acid (S + O2 > SO3)
• Condensing water (refrigeration, compressed air)

Certified Energy Manager® Industrial Systems 31

Waste Heat Uses

• Preheat combustion air, boiler feed water
• Preheat process flow or furnace
• Absorption cooling
• Drying biomass fuel
• Space heating
• Domestic hot water heating

Certified Energy Manager® Industrial Systems 32

v2021.01.SI 16
 Results
982oC Exhaust is used to Pre-Heat Incoming Air…

Certified Energy Manager® Industrial Systems 33

∙ J
q = [m] ∙ [Cp] ∙ ∆T [ = W]
Heat Flow Equations m∙ = mass flow rate
s
Cp = specific heat
For gases

Recall that for air (at standard temperature and pressure):

1m3 1.2 kg 1.006 kJ kJ

q = LPS ∙ 1000 L ∙ m3 ∙ ∙ DT [ = kW]
kgoC s

But you can use the same formula template for other gases (just plug in the Density, Cp and ∆T)
1m3
q = [LPS ∙ 1000 L ∙ Density] ∙ [Cp] ∙ ∆T

Certified Energy Manager® Industrial Systems 34

v2021.01.SI 17
 Warm Water

Heat Transfer Basics

200oC Fluid or Gas Input Heat Exchanger 95oC Fluid or Gas

• Heat in = Heat out

• Heat given up = Heat absorbed
• q200C to 95C = qcold water to warm water
Cold Water Input

If you know the flow rate, Cp and ∆T of the input energy stream, you can calculate the output side.

Certified Energy Manager® Industrial Systems 35

Air Preheater

Heatcalc.com
Certified Energy Manager® Industrial Systems 36

v2021.01.SI 18
 Radiation Recuperator
Air to Air Exchanger on the Stack

Boiler

IndiaMart.com

Certified Energy Manager® Industrial Systems 37

Plate and Frame Heat Exchanger

Kelvion.com

Henniganengineering.com Kelvion.com

Certified Energy Manager® Industrial Systems 38

v2021.01.SI 19
 Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers

Waste Heat Recovery Equipment

Exhaust Air
GrabCad.com Baffle / Plate
Exchanger
TLV.com

Certified Energy Manager® Industrial Systems 39

Waste Heat R
Baf
Outside Air

Baffle Outside
/ Plate Air Exchanger Exhaust Air
Transfer Typical
Installation
Efficiency
Up To 70%
Exhaust Air

Outside Air Outside Air

Outside Air

Exhaust
Outside Air Air
OH 15-09

Tran
Effic
Certified Energy Manager® Industrial Systems 40
Up To
Exhaust Air

Outside Air
v2021.01.SI 20
 Waste Heat Recovery Equipment
“Run Around” System
"Run-Around" System
Heat Pump System
Circulating Pump

Expansion Valve
EXHAUST AIR
Compressor

Outdoor Exhaust
Air Air

Condenser Evaporator

Coil Coil
Transfer
Efficiency
Up To 60%
OUTSIDE AIR
OH 15-08 HEAT PUMP
Cooling & Heating
Coefficient of Performance: 2 and Up

Certified Energy Manager® Industrial Systems 41

Heat Exchanger Comparison

Type Advantages Disadvantages

Large
Shell & Tube High operating pressures
More difficult to clean

Small
Plate and Frame Easier to clean Low operating pressures
Expandable capacity

Large
Direct Contact Large flow rates Requires make up water
Limited applications

Certified Energy Manager® Industrial Systems 42

v2021.01.SI 21
 “MEASUR”
DOE Tools:
Can Help You

Certified Energy Manager® Industrial Systems 43

Certified Energy Manager® Industrial Systems 44

v2021.01.SI 22
 Certified Energy Manager® Industrial Systems 45

If you are about to do an Energy Audit

Leverage the Industrial Assessment Center Data… search their data for ECMs

Certified Energy Manager® Industrial Systems 46

v2021.01.SI 23
 You can sort this data by facility type and location to find which ECMs are popular.

Certified Energy Manager® Industrial Systems 47

Review
Awareness of:
• Pump Systems
• Terminology, Pump Curves, Power Equations
• Compressed Air
• Typical System Layout & Equipment
• Waste Heat Recovery
• Terminology, Basic Applications

Ability to:
• Basic savings estimates for pumps, compressed air and waste heat recovery
• Identify some energy waste streams within industrial facilities

Certified Energy Manager® Industrial Systems 48

v2021.01.SI 24
 Industrial Quiz:
1. 1100 litres per minute is flowing through a pump, which is lifting
the water 30 meter higher than the pump (ignore friction head). If
the pump is 80% efficient, and the motor is 90% efficient, what is
the approximate kW? (assume drive efficiency is negligible)

2. On a 150 kW compressor, you can reduce the compressed air

discharge from 7 bar to 5.5 bar. Approximately what % of energy
will be saved?

Certified Energy Manager® Industrial Systems 49

Industrial Quiz #3:

3. Hot gas (30,000 litres per minute @650oC) from an industrial
process enters a heat exchanger and exits at 400oC. The heat
recovered is used to pre-heat water (which enters the same heat
exchanger at 5oC and 1.3 litres per second). What would the
temperature of the water exiting the heat exchanger be?

Assume the average exhaust gas density at 650oC is 0.43 kg/m3 and
the average Cp is 1.11 kJ/kg.oC, (and the exchanger has no losses).

Certified Energy Manager® Industrial Systems 50

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 Section 4.4
Energy Savings Performance Contracting
and Measurement & Verification

Energy Savings Performance Contracting and Measurement & Verification

Why?
If you don’t have the cash on hand… your project is delayed.
• The cost of delay > financing cost

Financing and/or performance contracting might be the ONLY way to

get a project approved and implemented!

Don’t forget rebates… which can be ”free” $$ to help fund a project

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 Learning Objectives & Contents
Awareness of:
• 3rd Party Financing Options
• Using Cash on Hand, Borrow (Loan or Bond), Leasing
• Performance Contracting Terminology
• Contract Structures, Benefits and Risks
• M&V Terminology

Ability to:
• Determine which M&V Approach is best for an ECM

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Savings Performance Contracting and Measurement & Verification 3

Traditional Financing
Using “Cash on Hand”

• Simplest
• No financing approval required
• Less delays to implementation

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 Traditional Financing
Borrow (Loans and Bonds)

• Loans and bonds are very similar in structure and cash flows
• Borrow $$ and payback over time
• Similar to a mortgage

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Savings Performance Contracting and Measurement & Verification 5

Traditional Financing
Leasing

• “True Lease” or “Operating Lease” is a rental agreement

• Entire payment is tax deductible
• Lessee doesn’t own equipment at the end of the term

• Capital Lease is treated like a loan (for tax purposes)

• Lessee:
• Can deduct “interest” portion of finance payments
• Claims “depreciation” (tax benefit)
• Does own equipment at the end of term
If there is a “buy-out” option (for any value) at the end of term… it must be called a “capital lease”

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 Financing Rates

• The financing rate is dependent on:

• Customer credit,
• Contract terms,
• Project complexity (aka: “Performance Risk”)

• Financing payments are also called “Debt Service”

• Upfront project costs are typically paid by (and secured by) customer, with funds from
the bank/financier (even with performance contracts)

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Savings Performance Contracting and Measurement & Verification 7

How Financing can Add Value

and avoid delays from “lack of cash”

• Very effective if the discount (MARR) rate is high (over 25%) and finance rate is
lower (10% or less)
• Both of the above conditions are common

• See Example on next slide… where the MARR (Discount Rate is 30%).

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 Financing Example- Which has the higher NPV?
Project Cost = $1 Million Project Cost; Equipment Life = 10 years; Savings = $400k/year; Discount Rate = 30%, Tax Rate = 25%

Purchase Loan @ 8% Finance Rate

• Use Straight Line Depreciation… (= 100k/year) • Finance Payment A/P8, 10 Factor = 0.1490
• Taxable Income after Depr.: 400k – 100k = 300k/year • Finance Payment = $149k/year
• Taxes = ($300k ⋅ 0.25) = $75k/year • ~100k is ”principal payment”
• Savings After Taxes = (400k - 75k) = $325k/year • ~49k is interest expense (averaged), which is deductible
• The Cash Flow Diagram: • Taxable Income after Payment: 400k – 49k = 351k/year
• Taxable Income after Depr.: 351k – 100k = 251k/year
• P/A30, 10 Factor: 3.0915 • Taxes = ($251k ⋅ 0.25) = $62.75k/year
• Savings After Taxes = $351k - 62.75k/year = 288.25k
• PVSavings = (3.0915) ⋅ ($325k) = $1,004,737.5 • Subtract off Principle Paid to Bank = 288.25k – 100k = 188.25k
• NPV = $1,004,737.5 - $1,000,000 • The Final Cash Flow Diagram:
• NPV = 4,737.5 • P/A30, 10 Factor: 3.0915
• PVSavings = (3.0915) ⋅ ($188.25k) = $581,975
• NPV = $581,975 (there is no upfront investment)

Notes: These cash flows are “approximate” because we averaged

Certified Energy Manager® the
Energy Savings Performance interestand
Contracting expense (they&would
Measurement really
be different each 9year).
Verification

Performance Contracting
Definition

• Project where an Energy Service Company (ESCO) typically:

• Identifies, installs “savings-based” projects at a customer’s facility, and guarantees
the savings
• Usually arranged with loans, bonds and leases, such that the “savings guarantee” is
greater than the financing payments
• Sometimes, the ESCO can finance projects internally, but most would rather focus on their “core
business” (PC margins are much higher than financing margins)

• PCs are commonly used at government facilities

• less risk to the ESCO, because the customer will likely not go out of business during a long-term
contract

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 Review of 3rd Party Financing Cash Flows

Customer

Contractor
Bank/Financier

Woodroof, E. (2012) How to Finance Energy Management Projects, Taylor & Francis CRC Press, New York.

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Savings Performance Contracting and Measurement & Verification 11

Performance Contracting
A guarantee that the savings will occur

Customer

ESCO
Bank/Financier

Woodroof, E. (2012) How to Finance Energy Management Projects, Taylor & Francis CRC Press, New York.

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 Performance Contracting Additional Maintenance/Training is
usually needed to maintain savings
Overview

Additional Maint. / Training Additional Maint. / Training

The “do nothing” option

Source: University of North Carolina

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Savings Performance Contracting and Measurement & Verification 13

Performance Contracting
Popular Contract Structures

Shared Savings (the original PC)

• Documented savings are shared (usually a percentage basis)

Guaranteed Savings
• A “minimum” savings amount is guaranteed
• Additional savings kept by the customer

Other “Hybrids” are available too

• Tax advantages, other reasons

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 Performance Contracting
Risks and Benefits

• Risks
• PC development is complicated and takes time
• Long-term commitment with multiple parties
• Political influences, timelines and technical risks
• for more info…Google: “Beware of the Fine Print in Performance Contracts”

• Benefits
• Might be the only way to get a project approved and implemented
• Neutral or positive cash flow
• An ESCO can bring extra value
• Maintenance ideas, experience, processes, etc.

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Savings Performance Contracting and Measurement & Verification 15

Measurement and Verification (M&V)

• Definition

• Established Guidelines

• Measurement Methods

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 M&V
Definition

The process for quantifying savings delivered by an Energy Conservation

Measure (ECM).

There are “Protocols” (guidance documents) to help develop contract

language (M&V plans, measurement methods, equations, etc.) to adjust for
variances due to:
• Facility operations (Ex- a school starts offering extra classes in the evening)
• Weather
• Energy rates

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Savings Performance Contracting and Measurement & Verification 17

M&V
Definition
Savings = (Baseline Period Energy – Reporting Period Energy) ± Adjustments

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 Other M&V Benefits
• Increase energy savings (“what gets measured gets done”)
• Document financial transactions such as utility incentive, or ESCO
contracts
• Improve engineering design, operation, and maintenance
• Manage energy budgets

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Savings Performance Contracting and Measurement & Verification 19

Established Guidelines
• IPMVP
• Administered by EVO
• Most popular

• US Dept. of Energy
• Applies IPMVP for DOE sites

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 IPMVP
Measurement Methods:
• Option A = Retrofit Isolation-Key Parameter Measurement
• Option B = Retrofit Isolation-All Parameters Measurement
• Option C = Whole Facility Measurement
• Option D = Calibrated Simulation

Non-measured = “Stipulated” savings

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Savings Performance Contracting and Measurement & Verification 21

IPMVP
• Options A & B are both related to measurement of an isolated system
(lighting, compressed air system, HVAC system components, etc.):

Option A = Key Parameter Measurement (measure change of 1 thing)

Option B = Multi-Parameter Measurement (measure change of >1 thing)

• Both options can be short-term or continuous measurement

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 IPMVP Option A
• Applicable ECMs:
• Constant load (i.e. lighting, electric motor replacements)

• Best for:
• Small projects (M&V cost hard to justify)

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Savings Performance Contracting and Measurement & Verification 23

IPMVP Option B
• Applicable ECMs:
• Variable load (HVAC, chillers, boilers, etc.)
• When more measurements are needed to verify savings

• Best for:
• Complex projects that are “worth measuring” due to multiple variables.

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 IPMVP Option C
• Whole Facility Measurement (before and after)

• Best for:
• Projects where savings are projected to be > 10-20% of the baseline
• Aggregation of various ECMs within a metered building or group
• “Fast Track” projects

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Savings Performance Contracting and Measurement & Verification 25

IPMVP Option D
• Simulation… use when a baseline of data is not available

• Best for:
• New construction or unmetered buildings, etc.
• Industrial systems

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 IPMVP
• Tables to help decide:

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Savings Performance Contracting and Measurement & Verification 27

IPMVP
• Decision Trees too…

• Lots of examples in the Appendices

of IPMVP

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 For Additional Training on M&V:

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Savings Performance Contracting and Measurement & Verification 29

M&V - Periodic “Check Ups”

• Periodically verify that savings are “on track” with original estimates
• Adjust for changes in weather, occupancy, etc. (using IPMVP equations)
• Negotiations between ESCO and customer
• “Re-open” contract language/baseline that may need adjusting (due to ineffectiveness, etc.)
• Communication is important and “similar to a marriage”… try to fairly adjust for unforeseen
changes

• Annual M&V is required by many government locations, although increased

frequency may be good during the early months of operations.

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 Pitfalls of Performance Contracting
Many facility managers don’t have the time to
master guidelines such as IPMVP.
Here are some key problem-causing issues:
A. Politics and Attention Spans
B. Equipment / Installation
C. Estimated Savings
D. Additional Maintenance / Training Required to Maintain Savings
E. Measurement and Verification Plan & Procedures

Energy Savings Performance Contracting and Measurement & Verification 31

Investor Confidence Project

tools to make PC's "bankable" to investors

http://www.eeperformance.org/

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 M&V is a “Balancing Act”

Accuracy M&V Costs

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Savings Performance Contracting and Measurement & Verification 33

For Additional Training on Performance

Contracting & Financing:
• Training available as:
• “In-Person” or
• “On-Demand”

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 Review
Awareness of:
• 3rd Party Financing Options
• Using Cash on Hand, Borrow (Loan or Bond), Leasing
• See Financing Webinar for additional insights
• Search AEE’s YouTube Channel for: “Financing for Engineers”
• Performance Contracting Terminology
• Contract Structures, Benefits and Risks
• M&V Terminology

Ability to:
• Determine which M&V Approach is best for an ECM

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Savings Performance Contracting and Measurement & Verification 35

Quiz:
1. You have a “buy-out” option (with a known price stated in the lease
contract). What type of lease is it?

2. What are factors that can affect the finance rate charged by a bank?

3. What are the typical contract structures used for PCs?

4. What M&V measurement approach is best for a small chiller installation

in a large building (on a campus with one electric meter) with constantly
changing occupant and weather loads?

Certified Energy Manager® Energy Savings Performance Contracting and Measurement & Verification 36

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