MODULE VII – STRUCTURAL STEEL

• STRUCTURAL STEEL is one of the materials • Properties of steel can be predicted with a
which used for any kind steel construction, it is very high degree of certainty. In fact, steel
formed with a specific shape. shows elastic behavior up to a relatively high
• These steel materials are of certain standards and usually well-defined stress level.
of chemical composition and proper strength.
• Steel structures can be built with the high-
• The steel materials are also defined as hot quality relationship and narrow tolerances.
rolled products, having cross sections like
angles, channels and beam. • Prefabrication and mass production is usually
• All across the world, there is an increasing possible in steel structures.
demand for steel structures.
• The rapid construction is possible in the steel
• There is a big advantage of steel over the structures. This results in economic
concrete in terms of its ability to bear better construction of steel structures.
tension as well as the compression which
resulted in lighter construction. • The good fatigue strength is also the
• The steel authority of particular country takes advantage of steel structure.
care of the availability of structural steel for • If necessary, the steel structures can be
construction projects. strengthened any time in future.
• The reused capability of steel construction is
• There are various structures which come also the advantage.
under the edges of steel structures. These
structures may be used for the industrial,
residential, office and commercial purposes. DIS - ADVANTAGES OF STEEL
STRUCTURES
STEEL STRUCTURES CAN BE CLASSIFIED While in general, the disadvantages of steel
AS FOLLOWS: structures are as follows:
• Frame building
• Plate girder • Steel structures are more costly than other
• Steel arch bridge types of structures.
• Industrial building
• Transmission line towers • The strength of steel is reduced considerably
when heated at temperatures commonly
observed in fire; therefore the treatment of
ADVANTAGES OF STEEL STRUCTURES fireproof is needed.
In general, the advantages of steel structures
are as follows: • The steel structures when exposed to air and
water as in the case of bridges, there is a big
• Steel has a high strength to weight ratio. possibility of corrosion and it needs regular
Therefore the dead weight of steel structures is maintenance.
relatively small. This property makes steel a
very attractive structural material for some
multi-storey building, long-span bridges, etc.

• It can undergo the plastic deformation before

failure; this provides greater reserve strength.
This property is called as DUCTILITY.
PROPERTIES OF STEEL • HARDNESS
is regarded as the resistance of any material to
Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon. The special identification and scratching. This is generally
properties can be imparted to iron by adding a determined by forcing an indenter on to the
small percentage of manganese, sulfur, copper, surface. The resultant deformation steel is both
phosphorous, chrome and nickel, therefore elastic and plastic.
variety of steel can be produced.
The different methods to find out the hardness
Steel has a thermal expansion coefficient of metal which includes Brinell hardness test,
nearly equal to that of modern concrete. If this Vicker’s hardness test, and Rockwell hardness
were not so, it would cause problems through test.
additional longitudinal and perpendicular
stresses at temperatures different from the
temperature of the setting. • NOTCH TOUGHNESS
There is the possibility of microscopic cracks in
The slight changes in the chemical composition a material or the material may develop such
will result in the various types of steel. This cracks as a result of several cycles of loading.
type of steel is used as structural members like These cracks may result in sudden collapse of
tubes, sheets, pipes, bolts, rivets, the structure and it is very dangerous.
reinforcement bars, etc…
Therefore to ensure that this should not
happen, materials in which the cracks grow
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL slowly are preferred. These types of steel are
known as notch-tough steels and the amount of
The heat treatment and alloys used in the energy it absorb is measure by impacting the
production of steel results in different notch specimen.
properties and strength. The mechanical
properties of structural steel are as follows:
• FATIGUE STRENGTH:
• TENSILE STRENGTH A component of structure, which is designed to
The stress-strain curve for the steel is generally carry a single monotonically static load, may
obtained by conducting tensile test on any fail if the same load is applied cyclically a large
standard steel specimen. Tensile strength of number of times. If the example of a thin rod is
the steel can be defined in terms of yield considered, it bent back and forth beyond
strength and ultimate strength. yielding fails after few cycles of such repeated
bending.

This type of failure is termed as fatigue failure.

Examples: bridges, cranes, offshore structure,
slender tower, etc.
• CORROSION RESISTANCE: Followings are the standard shapes in which
Corrosion is the procedure in which oxidation the steel sections are available in the market:
of a metal in a normal atmospheric condition
owing to the excessive presence of moisture Angle Sections (Angle bars)
and oxygen in the air. Corrosion of the metal is Channel Sections
a very natural and rapid phenomenon in the I – Sections
areas of high humidity and places closer to T- Sections
saline water. Therefore the efforts to be made Round Bars
to control the corrosion by using galvanize and Square bars
epoxy coated reinforcement bars but failed in Corrugated sheets
practical usage due to the risk of disbanding, Expanded Metal
causing accelerated corrosion. Corrosion Flat bars
resistance elements such as copper, Plates
phosphorus and chromium are added in Rib type Steel Bars
appropriate measure to the metal which results
in corrosion resistance steel.
ANGLE SECTIONS
• Commonly known as ANGLE BARS.
USES OF STEEL IN BUILDING • Angle sections have two legs
CONSTRUCTION • If two legs are of equal length they are known
• Metals are widely used in construction field as equal angle section and otherwise called as
• Steel is strong in compression and tension unequal angle section.
hence it is suitable for all construction works
• Steel are highly elastic, ductile, malleable and • An ANGLE SECTIONS or ANGLEBAR,
weldable. also known as an "L-bracket" or an "angle
• They can be hardened and tempered and are iron," is a metal bracket in the form of a right
fusible at a low temperature than iron angle. It is made of galvanized steel and often
used in masonry, trusses or applied to different
surfaces through welding or drilling.

Angle bars are often utilized to support beams

and other platforms, but their usefulness goes
beyond their usual role. Angle bars can provide
additional strength, protect structures from
corrosion and even provide additional stability.

Example of EQUAL ANGLE BARS are:

• 50 mm x 50 mm x 3 mm (2” x 2” x 3mm); 100
mm x 100 mm x 5 mm (4” x 4” x 5mm)

Example of UNEQUAL ANGLE BARS are:

• 50 mm x 75 mm x 3 mm (2” x 3” x 3 mm_); 50
mm x 100 mm x 5 mm (2” x 4” x 5mm)

• Extensively used in the structural steelwork

especially in the construction of steel roof
trusses and filler joist

CHANNEL SECTIONS
• The channel sections consist of a • Commonly known as Rolled Steel Joist (RSJ)
web with equal flanges or I-Beams
• Channel Section is designated by the • An I-Sections consist of two flanges and a
height of web and width of flange. connecting web
• This section are available in sizes • It is designated by over-all depth, width of
varying from 100 mm x 45 mm to 400 flange and weight per meter length
mm x 100 mm • They are available in various sizes from 75
mm x 50 mm at 61N/m to 600 mm x 210 mm at
995N/m

• The channel sections are widely used as the

structural members in steel-framed structures,
crane girders, beams and steel bridges.

• The structural channel, also known as a C-

channel or Parallel Flange Channel (PFC), is a
type of (usually structural steel) beam, used • An I-beam, also known as H-beam (for
primarily in building construction and civil universal column, UC), w-beam (for "wide
engineering. flange"), universal beam (UB), rolled steel joist
(RSJ), is a beam with an I or Hshaped cross-
• Purlins and Girts are roll-formed from section.
HiTensile Galvanised steel. They are primarily
used to provide lightweight, economical, • The horizontal elements of the I are flanges,
efficient roofing and cladding support and the vertical element is the "web". I-beams
systems for framed structures. Purlins and are usually made of structural steel and are
Girts are available in a range of different sizes used in construction and civil engineering.
and configurations.
• The web resists shear forces, while the
flanges resist most of the bending moment
experienced by the beam

• RSJ are economical in material and are

suitable for beams, lintels, columns, grillage
foundations etc.
• Unequal I sections with heavy weight may
also used as rails.

I - SECTIONS T - SECTIONS
• Tee Section, also known as T beam or T bar, • These are formed by passing steel sheets
is a structural beam with a “T” shaped cross through grooves.
section. • These grooves bend and press steel sheets
and corrugations are formed on the sheets.
• Tee section is generally made of plain carbon • These corrugated sheets are usually
steel. Manufacturing methods of “T” sections galvanized iron sheets or G.I sheets.
are hot rolling, extrusion and plate welding. • These sheets are widely used for roof
T bars are often used for general. covering

• T-SECTIONS, used in construction, are a

load-bearing structure of reinforced concrete,
wood or metal. T-sections are also known with
different definitions as T-beams or T-bars. They
are structural beams with a “T” shaped cross
section. The market offers a wide diversity of
several T-profiles:

• EQUAL LEG TEES, where the width and the EXPANDED METALS
height have the same measure,  Formed by cutting and expanding either
• UNEQUAL-FLANGE TEES, having the height plain sheets or ribbed sheets of mild steel
being half the width’s measure,  A diamond mesh appearance is formed
through out the area
 The manufactures sheets are thus known as
SQUARE BARS diamond mesh or rib mesh
• These are available in square cross-section  ct is also used as lathing material and for
with sides varying from 5 mm to 25 mm. partitions

• also known as square steel, and square metal

bar are a multipurpose steel section mainly
used for manufacturing and repairs. General
purpose square bars are part of our light and
re-rolled section, making it suitable for
everyday commercial projects

• Square Bar metals are widely used in many

industries for general assembly or
manufacturing. They are also used for general
repairs of plant equipment and railings.
Common applications include ornamental iron FLAT BARS
work, gates and protective barriers on • Flat bar is a basic of building support
windows. materials. They are generally used for support
braces, ladder hangers, gate latches, duct
• They are widely used in the construction of work, overhead doors, heaters and bracing.
steel grillwork, for windows, gates, etc… • Flat bars are easily cut to length and drilled or
welded into place for framework. Because
metal bars are durable, and can withhold the
construction weight, they are frequently used
for this purpose.

• Thickness varying from 5 mm to 40 mm

CORRUGATED SHEETS
• They are widely used in the construction of on reinforcing steel have been a standard
steel grill work for windows and gates. requirement since 1968, but PLAIN REBARS
are also used in situations where the
PLATES reinforcing steel is expected to slide. This is
 The plate sections of steel are available in typically the case when they're installed in
different sizes with thickness varying from 5 highway pavement and segmental bridges.
mm to 50 mm.
 They are used mainly for the following BAMBOO has been shown to be a viable
purposes in the structural steelwork: alternative to reinforcing steel in concrete
 To connect steel beams for extension of the construction.
length.
These alternate types tend to be more
 To serve as tensional members of steel roof expensive or may have lesser mechanical
and truss properties and are thus more often used in
 To form built-up sections of steel specialty construction where their physical
characteristics fulfill a specific performance
requirement that carbon steel does not provide.

Steel and concrete have similar coefficients of

thermal expansion, so a concrete structural
member reinforced with steel will experience
minimal differential stress as the temperature
changes.
GUSSET PLATE
is a plate for connecting beams and girders to
columns. A gusset plate can be fastened to a PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
permanent member either by bolts, rivets or • Although rebar has ribs that bind it
welding or a combination of the three. They are mechanically to the concrete, it can still be
used in bridges and buildings, as well as other pulled out of the concrete under high stresses,
structures. an occurrence that often accompanies a larger-
scale collapse of the structure. To prevent such
a failure, rebar is either deeply embedded into
REINFORCING STEEL BARS adjacent structural members or bent and
Rebar (short for reinforcing bar), known when hooked at the ends to lock it around the
massed as reinforcing steel or reinforcement concrete and other rebar.
steel, is a steel bar or mesh of steel wires used
as a tension device in reinforced concrete and • This first approach increases the friction
reinforced masonry structures to strengthen locking the bar into place, while the second
and aid the concrete under tension. Concrete is makes use of the high compressive strength of
strong under compression, but has weak concrete.
tensile strength.

used to help concrete withstand tension forces.

Concrete is sufficiently strong to compression
forces by nature, but tension forces can crack
it.

 DEFORMED REBARS
  The type of steel symbol must be noted. For
example,
"N" means the bar was rolled from a new billet,
"W" stands for weldable steel, and
"A" designates rolled axle steel.

• The rebar grade identification must be cited:

This is either 60 or 75, or metric 420 or 520.
THE GRADE INDICATES THE REBAR YIELD
STRENGTH.

• A symbol identifying the manufacturer that

rolled the bar must be included: This is usually
a single letter or a plain symbol

 Lower-strength reinforcing steel bars have

REBAR: REINFORCING STEEL BAR only three marks that identify:
SPECIFICATIONS  The mill that produced the bar,
 Reinforcing bars are hot-rolled using different  The rebar size,
steel materials.  and The type of steel used.
 Most rebars are rolled from new steel billets,
but others are rolled from steel debris or High-strength reinforcing steel uses a
railroad rails. continuous line system to show steel grade. If
 Rebars are required to contain some sort of the rebar contains two lines, it indicates that
identification that can be used to identify the the rebar was rolled into the 75,000-psi bars.
mill that produced the reinforcing steel bar. When a single line is present, it represents a
60,000-psi bar.

COMMON TYPES OF REBARS

The American Society for Testing and Materials
(ASTM) has created a standard identification CARBON STEEL REBARS:
ruling that all rebars must comply with:  This is the most common type of rebar and
 The number must identify the bar size. is sometimes referred to as a "black bar."
 • Their roots to ASTM specifications. And the
 It's extremely versatile but it corrodes more terms ‘Structural’, ‘Intermediate’, and ‘High-
easily than other types, making it inappropriate tensile’ or iginated from earlier versions of
in areas that are subject to high humidity or in ASTM-A615 but remained unchanged in
structures that are frequently exposed to water. deference to custom and familiarity among
users.
 Many consider carbon steel rebars to be the
best option in all other types of construction. • The table below provides a handy reference
as to the common understanding in the market
regarding these grades
WELDED WIRE FABRIC:

 Welded wire fabric (WWF) is made from a

series of steel wires arranged at right angles
and electrically welded at all steel wire
crossings.

 It can be used in slab-on-ground slabs where

the ground has been well compacted.

 A heavier fabrication of welded wire fabric

can be used in walls and structural floor slabs.
This is commonly used in box culverts,
drainage structures, and in small concrete
canals.

EPOXY-COATED REBARS:
 Epoxy-coated rebars are expensive and
used in areas that will be in contact with salt
water or where a corrosion problem is REINFORCING STEEL BAR SIZES
imminent.
 The only problem is that the coating can be • The standard sizes that the Company
very delicate, so bars should be ordered from a manufactures and sells are as follows: 10mm
reputable supplier Ø, 12mm Ø,16mm Ø, 20mm Ø, 25mm Ø,
28mm Ø, 32mm Ø, and 36mm Ø.
The steel reinforcing bars may also be coated
in an epoxy resin designed to resist the effects • FOR SPECIAL ORDERS, it can also make
of corrosion mostly in saltwater environments, 40mm Ø and 50mm Ø bars.
but also land based constructions.

SPECIFICATIONS AND GRADING OF

REBARS

• The three grades under this specification

namely, Grades PNS 230, 275, and 415 trace
  They can be used for all major types of
reinforced concrete structures.
 They serve as efficient and economical
concrete reinforcement.
 When these bars are used, the processes of
bending, fixing and handling are simplified to a
great extent. It results into less labour charges.
RIBBED STEEL BARS
• These bars are produced from the ribbed-tor Rebar significantly increases the tensile
steel which is a DEFORMED HIGH strength of the structure. Rebar's surface is
STRENGTH STEEL. often "deformed" with ribs, lugs or indentations
• These bars have ribs or projections on their to promote a better bond with the concrete and
surface. reduce the risk of slippage.
• The most common type of rebar is carbon
steel, typically consisting of hot-rolled round
bars with deformation patterns

• Each bar is to be twisted individually and it is THE NOMINAL SIZE OF REBAR

tested to confirm the standard requirements.  For both the plain round bar and the rebar,
the word ‘size’ and nominal diameter are used
• These bars are widely used as reinforcement interchangeably.
a concrete structures such as buildings,
bridges, docks and harbors structure, roads,  For a rebar, alternatively known as a
irrigation works, pile foundations, pre-cast ‘deformed steel bar’ , its ‘size’ specifically
concrete works, etc.These bars are widely refers to the size of a plain round bar having
used as reinforcement a concrete structures the same weight per meter as the rebar.
such as buildings, bridges, docks and harbors
structure, roads, irrigation works, pile  A specific ‘size’ of plain round bar refers to its
foundations, pre-cast concrete works, etc. nominal diameter. This ‘size’ also refers to the
diameter of a circular plain round bar having a
certain unit mass or weight per meter.
Following are the advantages of the RIBBED
STEEL BARS.  A plain round bar and a rebar of the same
‘size’ will have the same unit mass or weight
 It is possible to bend these bars through 180 per meter of bar.
degrees without formation of any cracks or
fractures on their outside surface.
 It is possible to weld certain type of ribbed
steel bars by electric flash, butt welding or arc
welding.
 There is over-all reduction in reinforcement
cost to the extent of about to 30 to 40% when
these bars are used.
 These bars are easily identified as they have THE PROPER WAY OF MEASURING A
got peculiar shape. PLAIN ROUND BAR
 These bars possess better structural • For a plain round bar, determining its 'size'
properties than ordinary plain round bars. It is involves simply taking a direct physical
therefore possible to design with higher measurement of its diameter since its circular
stresses. cross section should remain quite uniform
 These bars possess excellent bonding throughout its length.
properties and hence the end hooks are not
required.
 • A plain round bar is considered to be MECHANICAL PROPERTY
dimensionally acceptable if its diameter, as SPECIFICATIONS
measured, falls within the dimensional
tolerances allowed by the Standard. • Maximum yield strength of Weld able steel
bars shall not exceed 540 MPa** Tensile
strength shall not be less than 1.25 times the
PLAIN STEEL BARS actual yield strength.
• Also called as ROUND BARS •
Round sections, which are made up of mild
steel, medium tensile steel or high tensile steel
are used in reinforced cement concrete

THE PROPER WAY OF MEASURING A

REBAR
 A rebar however is not measured in the
same way as a plain round bar. Because of its
non-uniform cross section, a rebar must
comply with the allowable ‘Variation in Mass’
(VIM) in lieu of measurement of its diameter.

 Checking for this VIM involves taking and

weighing one meter of rebar and comparing the
findings against the standard value. Because
variation in cross sectional area occurs during
hot rolling, a corresponding variation in linear
weight is to be expected. For this reason, PNS-
49 provides for an allowable ‘variation in mass’
(VIM) of ±6%, measured using one meter of
rebar.

LENGTH TOLERANCE
 The cut length of a rebar varies as well
because of shrinkage as it cools down. The
standard however limits this shrinkage, and the
minimum lengths of the finished rebar are
shown below

 Rebar comes in these commercial lengths:

6.0, 7.5, 9.0, 10.5, and 12.0 meters.
MODULE VI – WOOD AND WOOD
PRODUCTIONS
 Special lengths of 13.5 and 15.0 meters are
subject to special orders and negotiations.
• WOOD is that fibrous substances which
compose the trunk and branches of the tree
that lies between the pith and the bark.
• WOOD is one of the most common of the
building materials.
• WOOD is also known as XYLEM
• The versatility of using wood in the  Availability of Various Varieties of Woods
construction has lifted it to its present
importance in the field of construction. Small
houses and even palatial homes used wood DIS-ADVANTAGES
from its structure down to the finishing and  Cannot be used in Construction of Longer
articulate carvings. Span
 Shrinkage and Swelling of Wood
• Even with the introduction and acceptance  Highly Combustible
of new methods and materials in  Deterioration of Wood
construction, wood is evidently much in  Irregular Properties and Grain Varieties
use. Concrete buildings used wood from the
very start of its erection. Likewise, steel
construction also use wood. Definition of Terms
LUMBER - Is the term applied to wood after it
• Many Scientists and Engineers are engaged is sawed or sliced into boards, planks, timber
in the study and research for the development etc.
of new methods of full utilization of wood. New
processes are being developed to reduce if not LUMBER, collective term for harvested wood,
to eliminate waste in the manufacturing of whether cut into logs, heavy timbers, or
wood. members used in light-frame construction.

LUMBER is classified as hardwood or

PROPERTIES OF WOOD AS BUILDING softwood. The term often refers specifically to
MATERIAL the products derived from logs in a sawmill.
 String Material
 Durable LUMBER is less processed than TIMBER.
 Light in Weight
 Ease of working and fastening ROUGH LUMBER - lumber that has not been
 With artistic and natural beauty dressed since it was sawed.

Wood has become one of the most SURFACED OR DRESSED LUMBER - Is a

important building materials lumber that has been dressed by a planing
machine (wood planer) for a smooth surface
and uniformity of size. Most commonly on all
sides and edges.

Good Lumber – is a lumber whether it is rough

ADVANTAGES AND DIS-ADVANTAGES OF or surfaced or dressed lumber.
WOOD ADVANTAGES
 Natural Material Note: In ordering a lumber in hardwares and
 Readily Available construction suppliers, there are only two
 Low Production Energy lumber that they will going to ask you whether it
 Quicker and Economical Construction is a GOOD LUMBER or a COCO LUMBER
 No Thermal Expansion
 Sound Absorption
 High Strength COCONUT TIMBER is a hardwood-substitute
 Easy Workability from coconut palm trees. It is referred to IN
 Easy Maintenance and Replacement THE PHILIPPINES AS COCONUT LUMBER,
 Good in Insulation OR COCO LUMBER, and elsewhere
additionally as cocowood or red palm It is a
new timber resource that comes from
plantation crops and offers an alternative to
rainforest timber. CLASSIFICATION OF WOOD
• Wood used in building construction are those
S2S; S4S are dressed lumber wherein the wood which grow larger by addition of layer on
number connotes the number of smooth side the outer surface each year known to botanist
such as as OXOGENS.
s2s means smooth on two sides,
s3s smooth on three sides and WOOD ARE CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO:
s4s smooth on four sides. 1. MODE OF GROWTH:
A. EXOGENEOUS are those outward growing
trees which are most preferred for lumbering.
SLAB B. ENDOGENEOUS are those inside growing
Is a kind of rough lumber which is cut tangent trees and are not preferred for lumbering
to the annual rings, running the full length of because they produced a soft c enter core.
the fog and containing at least one flat surface
or face and sawn on the other. 2. DENSITY: Density is either:
a. Soft b. Hard
TIMBER, also known as lumber, is a type of
wood that has been processed into beams and 3. LEAVES :
planks, a stage in the process of wood The leaves of a tree is either:
production. a. Needle shape {conifers) b. Broad shape

4. SHADE OR COLOR:
FINE GRAINED - When the annual rings are a. White b. Yellow c. Red d. Brown e. Black,
small, the grain or marking which separates etc.
adjacent rings is said to be fine grained; when
large, it is called Coarse Grained. 5. GRAIN: a. Straight b. Cross c. Fine
d. Coarse
• Fine grain refers to the types of wood that
have very small, tight lines in the wood. It may 6. NATURE OF THE SURFACE WHEN
also be referred to as a smooth grain. SAWED: a. Plain b. Grained c. Figured or
• Fine grain woods have natural lines in the marked
wood that are small and very close together.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF WOOD

Density and Specific Weight. All the
mechanical properties of clear wood are
related to its density, which varies directly with
the apparent specific gravity. The true specific
gravity of wood is approximately equal for all
species and averages 1.54, whereas the
specific weight and apparent specific gravity
vary with density of wood.

Bulk Density. Depends on the volume of pores

and moisture content of the wood. For most
wood species, the bulk density is less than Defects are irregularities found in wood. The
density. Bulk density value is used to most common defects in wood are:
determine the quality factor which is the ratio of 1. CAUSED BY ABNORMAL GROWTH
compressive strength to the bulk a. Heart Shakes are radial cracks originating
density. at the heart of the logs.
b. Wind Shakes or Cup Shakes are cracks or
Shrinkage. Is the reduction in linear and breaks across the annual rings of timber during
volumetric dimensions in drying of wood. its growth caused by excessive bending of the
Evaporation of capillary water is not tree due to wind.
accompanied by shrinkage, the latter taking c. Star Shakes composed of several heart
place only when hygroscopic moisture shakes which radiate from the center of the log
evaporates. Because of structural non- in a star-like manner.
uniformity, wood shrinks or d. Knots occurs at the starting point of a limb
swells irregularly in various directions. or branch of the wood.

Swelling. Is the capacity of wood to increase 2. DUE TO DETERIORATION:

both its linear and volumetric dimensions when a. Dry Rot is the presence of moisture caused
it absorbs water. Swelling of wood along the by fungi in seasoned wood.
length of fibres ranges from 0.1 to 0.8 b. Wet Rot takes place sometimes in the
percent, 3 to 5 percent in the radial direction growth of the tree caused by water saturation.
and 6 to 12 percent in the tangential
direction. SEASONING OF LUMBER
• Trees when fallen contains moisture in their
Note: Wood has three principal axes— cell layer. These moisture should be expelled
longitudinal, radial and tangential thoroughly to preserve the lumber from
shrinkage or decay.
• Experiments have proven that timber
'immersed in water immediately after being
PREPARATION OF WOOD fallen and squared is less subject to splitting
• Lumbering is the term applied to the and decay.
operations performed in preparing wood for • It reduces warping but makes the wood brittle
commercial purposes. It involves logging which and less elastic. Soaking timber into liquid is
is the process or operation of felling or cutting the ' method of seasoning practiced by the
of trees including its hauling and delivery to the ancient Roman builders.
sawmill for sawing. • Sometimes wood are steeped in oil of cedar
• Sawing on the other hand, is the operation of to protect it from worm attack.
preparing or cutting the logs into its commercial • SALT WATER makes wood harder, heavier
sizes. and durable. However, wood intended for use
in buildings has the tendency to attract
moisture from the air.
The methods and manner of log sawing are: The Two methods adopted in seasoning of
1. PLAIN OR BASTARD SAWING: Is the lumber are:
cutting of the logs entire through the 1. NATURAL OR AIR SEASONING this is
diameter and parallel chords tangential to considered as one of the best method of
the annual rings. seasoning lumber although the period involved
is relatively longer.
2. QUARTER OR RIFT SAWING
a. Radial b. Tangential c. Quarter Tangential The processes are:
d. Combined Radial and Tangential a. Lumber is piled outside where its length are
sloped at about 10 cm. to the meter height.
b. Lumber is piled in a well ventilated shed.
DEFECTS OF WOOD Each piece is properly and evenly spaced from
each other for free circulation of air around the a. By impregnating the timber with a 2 percent
lumber. zinc chloride solution followed by an injection of
about 45 kg of creosote oil per cubic meter of
2. ARTIFICIAL SEASONING the lumber is wood.
stacked in a drying kiln and then exposed to
steam and hot air. Artificial seasoning is b. The cylindrical tank is filled from the
resorted for quick drying but wood from this charging tank with creosote oil at a
process is quite inferior than that seasoned by temperature of 930°C and pressure is applied
the natural method. The different artificial until the timber absorb oil to a pre· determined
seasoning methods employed are: amount.

A. FORCED AIR DRYING fans are used to c. A partially seasoned timber is run into the
booster the circulation of air preparatory metal cylinder 2.50 to 3.00 m. diameter by 50
process to kiln drying. meters long and the doors or heads bolted. A
B. KILN DRYING lumber is dried in a specially pressure of 1.5 kg per sq. cm. steam is applied
built room or chamber by which temperature in 30 minutes and maintained from 1 to 5
and humidity as well as the circulation of air is hours. A vacuum of 60 centimeters is created
controlled. and maintain for 1 ½ hour when creosote oil is
C. RADIO FREQUENCY DIELECTRIC introduced at a temperature of about 70° C. A
DRYING a very fast method of drying lumber pressure of about 12 to 14 kg. per cm2 is then
wherein the use of radio frequency dielectric applied until the timber has absorbed 50 kg. of
heat is employed. Drying through this process oil per cubic meter.
may only take 24 hours as compared to the
other methods. • d. Another method is by immersing timber into
2 ·solution of corrosive sublimate, 1 part of
CAUSES OF DECAY AND METHODS OF bichloride mercury to 99 parts of water for a
PRESERVATION period of 5 to 10 days sufficient enough to
Wood does not decay naturally through age, insure thorough penetration of the preservative.
nor will it decay if it is kept constantly dry or The sublimate is insoluble in water/ and
continuously submerged in water. remains in timber for a longer time than salts
like zinc chloride.
The common causes of decay in wood are:
1. Alternate moisture and dryness • The external non-pressure process of
2. Fungi and molds preserving wood is the application of a
3. Insects and worms penetrating nature as tar oils, carbolineum,
4. Heat and confined air spirittine, solignum, etc. It may be applied on
the surface of wood either by brush, spray or
by immersion. External preservatives could
only be effective if the wood to be treated is
absolutely dry and · well-seasoned in order to
The essential requirement to achieve a absorb a sufficient quantity of the preservative.
successful preservation of wood is good • All tar oil products should preferably be
seasoning and the process of preserving applied hot.
wood are:
1. EXTERNAL; The wood is coated with a
preservative coating (as paint) which will MEASURING WOOD
penetrate the fibers. • Although the System International (SI) has
2. INTERNAL; A chemical compound is already superseded the English System of
impregnated at a pressure to permeate the measure, the board foot as the unit measure of
wood thoroughly. The different processes are: lumber popularly and widely used is still
presented for reference in preparation for the
transition from English to Metric approach. A
board foot is actually one square foot of wood
one inch thick.

The formula being used in computing board

foot is:

• Illustration: From the above figure, find the

total board foot that could be derived from the
log for commercial purposes.

MANUFACTURED BOARDS
Manufactured boards are made of wood but
does not appear in their natural state. This type
of building materials can be classified as a type
of lumber as they are the by-product in the
manufacture of lumber. The complete utilization
of wood has led to an expanded field of
manufactured boards.

• Note* Under the English measure of lumber, There are different types of manufactured
the length is always ordered at even· length. boards available such as:
The above formula could not be used in finding 1. PLYWOOD is made of an odd number of
the board foot of logs. Instead, the following veneer sheets glued together with the grains
formula is applied: running at right angle to each other. Forest
laboratory test show that plywood shrinks less
Where: than 1/2 of 1% in drying from saturation to 6%
D = smaller diameter of the logs in inches L"" moisture content which is less than the
L = Length of log in feet shrinkage of solid wood of the same species
4 and 16 = are slab deduction allowance which under similar conditions. PLYWOOD is a panel
are constant in the formula of layers, or plies, of wood Plywood is light in
weight and strong that screw or nail can be where it is exposed to moisture for long
driven dose to the edges without danger of periods.
splitting.

1. PLYWOOD is a type of engineered wood • 2. HARDBOARD - Hardboard or pressed

made from thin sheets of wood veneer, called wood is made from wood chips which are
plies and veneers. The plies are bonded under exploded into fibers under steam of high
heat and pressure with strong adhesives pressure. The lining in the wood itself binds
usually phenol formaldehyde resin, making pressed wood together with no fillers or
plywood a type of composite material artificial adhesives applied. Pressed wood is
equally strong in all directions but very brittle.
A common reason for using plywood instead of Its color varies from light to dark brown.
plain wood is its resistance to cracking,
shrinkage, twisting/warping, and its general PHENOLIC PLYWOOD is common Eastern
high degree of strength. European or Scandinavian Birch plywood
(EURO Birch or Baltic Birch) bonded with
waterproof phenol resin adhesive and overlaid
on both sides with the phenol film (grade F/F).

PHENOLIC PLYWOOD is suitable for furniture

and cabinets, children’s furniture, millwork,
durable work surfaces, restaurants, concrete
forming, tooling and jigs and the transportation
industry.

ADVANTAGES • Environmentally friendly,

durable, workable, hygienic, no odor, easy to
clean, tough, waterproof, and resists commonly
used chemicals.

The different types of plywood are: 3. PARTICLE BOARD:

1. SOFT PLYWOOD - is usually made either of Is manufactured from wood chips, curls, fibers,
cedar or redwood and is typically used for flakes. strands, shaving. slivers, strands etc.
construction and industrial purposes bound together and pressed into sheets and
other molded shapes. Particle board has equal
2. HARDWOOD PLYWOOD - plywood is strength in all directions of a given cross
made out of wood from dicot trees (Oak, Beech sectional area, it is not brittle and can resist
and Mahogany) and used for demanding end warping.
uses. Hardwood plywood is characterized by
its excellent strength, stiffness and resistance
to creep. It has a high planar shear strength
and impact resistance, which make it especially
suitable for heavy-duty floor and wall
structures.

3. EXTERIOR OR MARINE PLYWOOD - is

manufactured from durable face and core
veneers, with few defects so it performs longer
in both humid and wet conditions and resists
delaminating and fungal attack. Its construction
is such that it can be used in environments