DESIGN OF STRUCTURES II
Basic Principles of steel structures
Steel - best structural material considering the weight to strength ratio
Steel is an alloy of iron (Fe) and carbon (C) (Less than 1 percent). Other elements are also
included to influence various properties of steel
Steel = malleable iron → C ≤2,1%
Steel for civil engineering → C < 0,2%
Today most of the structural steel shapes and plates are made by melting scrap
steel. The molten steel is poured into molds that have approximately the final shapes of the
member.
The shapes may be further proceed by cold rolling, by applying various coatings, and by
process of annealing (heated to an intermediate temperature range, held that temperature for
several hours, and allow to slowly cool to room temperature-less hardness, greater ductility).
Mechanical properties
Modulus of elasticity E = 210 000 MPa
Shear modulus G = 81 000 MPa
Poisson’s ratio ν = 0,3
Coefficient of thermal expansion α = 12×10-6 K-1
Density ρ = 7850 kg/m3
Steel is produced in a two-stage process.
First, iron ore is reduced or smelted with coke and limestone in a blast furnace
In the second stage, known as steelmaking, the impurities such as sulphur (S), phosphorus (P), and
excess carbon are removed.
Alloying elements such as manganese (Mn), nickel (Ni), chromium (Cr) and vanadium (V) are added
to influence the properties of steel. The process is performed by one of these methods
• in oxygen converters (the most common method)
• in electrical furnaces (only for high quality steels, usually not for civil engineering)
Production of steel - steel mill
An integrated steel mill has all the functions for primary steel production
• iron making
• coke furnace to produce coke from black coal (and other chemicals as by-products)
• steelmaking
• casting
• roughing rolling/billet rolling
• product rolling
What is steel structure?
Definition Steel structure is a structure which is made from organised combination of
structural STEEL members designed to carry loads and provide adequate rigidity.
➢ Steel structure section (I section., H section, channel, angles)
➢ Reinforced concrete structure section
➢ Concrete filled steel tubular structure
➢ Steel Reinforced concrete composite structure
Concrete has a high compressive strength and very low tensile strength(not taken
into consideration)
For a RC structure to be stable it has to bear both the tensile and compressive stress
so in order to take both the tensile and compressive stresses concrete structure is
provided with extra tensile strength by using steel bars, hence due to addition of steel
reinforcement it is called a Reinforced concrete structure
●RCC can be used framed for structures and load bearing structures
● percentage of steel used should not exceed the specified in code generally its 4%
Composite structures
● Composite concrete and steel sections are used in high rise buildings and in tube
structural systems etc
● High rise buildings like burj khalifa have been built using composite structure
Why do we choose steel structure?
High strength: The high ratio of strength to weight (the strength per unit weight)
Excellent ductility and seismic resistance: Withstand extensive deformation without failure
even under high tensile stress
Elasticity, uniformity of material: Predictability of properties, close to design assumption
Ease of fabrication and speed of erection
Structural design
Structural design may be defined as a mixture of art and science, combining the experienced
engineer’s intuitive feeling for the behaviour of a structure with a sound knowledge of
principles of statics, dynamics, strength of materials and structural analysis, produce a safe
economical structure which will serve its intended purpose.
Where and when do we use steel structures?
➢ Long-span structures
Airport Terminals
Stadiums
Theatres
Train Stations
Exhibition Centres
➢ Multi-storey & high-rise buildings
World trade centre
Tai bei 101 Jinmao tower
➢ Buildings of heavy duty plants
➢ Tower & mast structures
Eiffel Tower (1887) 9000tonnes of Wrought Iron used TV Tower
➢ Portal frames
➢ Bridges
➢ Infrastructures
➢ Deployable structures
➢ Generalized structures: mechanical
What are the main structural types?
▪ truss structures
Bar or truss members
▪ frame structures
Beams and columns
▪ grids structures
latticed structure or dome
▪ arch
▪ prestressed structures
▪ beam bridge arch bridge
▪ cable-stayed bridge
▪ suspension bridge
▪ truss bridge
▪ truss members
It is advantageous to use steel structural systems
in the following type of structures
❖Buildings on poor soil conditions
❖Buildings in earthquake regions
❖Multi storey and high rise buildings
❖Industrial buildings
❖Bridges
❖Car parks
❖Temporary buildings
❖Rapid constructions
❖Restoration and renovation constructions
❖Repair and retrofitting
PROPERTIES OF STEEL STRUCTURES
• Rapid construction in all weathers
• Ease of fabrication and speed of erection
• Easy field repair
• Design flexibility
• Renewable
• Components can be re-used
• Dimensional stability
• Repairing and strengthening
• Restoration and renovation
• Reduced form and scaffold
• Structure can start to function right after its completion
• Quality and comfort
• Reduced number of columns.
• Smaller beam and column sections.
• Thin slabs.
• Space for installation.
RECYCLING
Steel is 100% recyclable.
• 100% of the steel used in construction (all products) are recyclable. More over 80% of these
steel have now themselves been produced from recycled steel. They conserve the planet’s
natural sources during construction by limiting the need for such materials as water and
aggregates. Additionally, steel structures can be partly or completely dismantled and reused.
ENVIRONMENT
To built in steel is to respect the environment.
• Steel construction may be recycled indefinitely.
• Sections are produced exclusively from steel scrap.
• Use natural recourses and energy in a rational way.
• It is possible to construct buildings in very small construction sites. Work site is clean and
does not generate dust and waste.
• The amount of work on site is limited and requires less transport
• Does not harm the environment in any stage of the construction. (Dry methods.)
EARTHQUAKE
Steel structural systems are advantageous in earthquake areas.
• Steel systems have low self-weigh. So earthquake load is less than the other systems
(F=m*a).
• The ability to absorb energy is in large amounts.
• Plastic hinges may occur and this gives more safety in design.
SUSTAINABILITY
• Less weight
• Small cross-sections
• Transparent facades
• Flexibility in design
• Easily modification or enlarging
• Re-use
• Recycling
ARCHITECTURAL
Steel creates architectural creativity and diversity.
RECONSTRUCTION WITHOUT DESTRUCTION
When steel buildings no longer have a reason for existence at the place in which they are
located, they can be dismantled and rebuilt elsewhere. This solution has proved itself for
buildings and car parks intended as temporary remedies to problems posed by current
requirements. So steel is reused in an optimum manner, and the costs of dismantling and
reconstruction are generally less than those of a new construction.
FIREPROOFING
Although structural members are incombustible, their strength is tremendously reduced at
temperatures commonly reached in fires. Furthermore steel is an excellent heat conductor
non-fireproofed steel members may transmit enough heat from burning section or
compartment of a building to ignite materials with which they are in contact in adjoining
sections of the building. When steel is used in combination with other acceptable materials
such as concrete and plaster, building code fire resistance requirements can be met or
exceeded. And the building may have to include a sprinkler system.
Fire Safety
Active systems: Fire detection systems, sprinkler systems
Passive systems will be more the part of the engineer. An engineer can design the structure
in such a way that it will achieve to resist in case of fire. (Can do some partitioning in the
building; fire resistance analysis)
SOLUTIONS FOR FIRE PROTECTIONS
• Board Fire Protection
• Sprayed Fire Protection
• Intumescent Coatings
• Composite Floors
• Slim Floor Systems
• Composite H Members
• Concrete filled tubular columns
• Shielded Members
• Water Filled Structures
CORROSION
• Most steels are susceptible to corrosion when freely exposed to air and water, and therefore
must be painted periodically.
BUCKLING
• As the length and slenderness of a compression member is increased, its danger of
buckling increases.
BRITTLE FRACTURE
• Under certain conditions steel may loose its ductility and brittle fracture may occur at places
of stress concentrations. (Fatigue type of loadings; very low temperatures; three axial stress
conditions.)
Constructability
It needs four processes to make a complete steel structure: Production, Detailing, Fabrication,
Erection
Production & Recycling
Generally, high quality steel can be produced from steel scraps within 3 hours. These scraps
are put in a furnace with carbon electrodes. Then, the molten metal is poured into the
container of required shape. The properties of steel are varied by its carbon content because it
is the major composition of steel with iron. As per the requirements, Mn, Ni and Cr also are
added to make changes the properties of steel. The unshaped steel pieces are in the form of
flats, billets, ingots and near net shapes before getting required structural member.#
Detailing
It is the process to create drawings and giving so precise and accurate dimensions to them
which help much for complete fabrication and erection of steel structures.
Fabrication
This is to be done in workshop with the help of detailed shop drawings. Generally, the
required holes in a steel member are drilled at one go. The other processes like welding,
punching and bending, etc. also are done in workshop. Finally, the parts are assembled
according to the assembly drawings and they are marked with separate assembly number.
Erection
After fabrication, the marked assemblies are taken to working site by transport. It is a
difficult process compared to detailing and fabrication. The detailed drawings should be more
comfortable to erection labours working and safety wise.
