‫‪Verse(s) of the Week‬‬

‫‪All dependent on HIM‬‬

‫شروع ہللا کے نام سے جو نہایت مہربان اور رحم کرنے واال ہے‬ ‫بسم ہللا الرحمن الرحيم‬

‫تم فرماؤ‪ :‬میں تو اپنے رب ہی کی عبادت‬ ‫ع ْوا َر ِب ْی َو َ َۤل ا ُ ْش ِر ُك ِب ۤه‬ ‫قُ ْل اِنَّ َم ۤا ا َ ْد ُ‬
‫کرتا ہوں اور کسی کو اس کا شریک نہیں‬ ‫ض ًّرا َّو ََل‬‫ا َ َحدًا(‪ )20‬قُ ْل اِنِ ْی َ َۤل ا َ ْم ِل ُك لَ ُك ْم َ‬
‫ٹھہراتا (‪ )20‬تم فرماؤ‪:‬بیشک میں تمہارے‬ ‫شدًا(‪ )21‬تم فرماؤ‪:‬یقینا ہرگز مجھے‬ ‫َر َ‬
‫لئے کسی نقصان اورنفع کا مالک نہیں‬
‫ہللا سے کوئی نہ بچائے گا اور ہرگز‬
‫ہوں (‪ )21‬تم فرماؤ‪:‬یقینا ہرگز مجھے ہللا‬
‫سے کوئی نہ بچائے گا اور ہرگز اس کے‬ ‫اس کے سوا کوئی پناہ نہ پاؤں گا۔‬
‫سوا کوئی پناہ نہ پاؤں گا (‪)22‬‬ ‫(‪)22‬‬
‫القرآن‪ :‬سورہ الجن (‪)20-22‬‬
‫‪Hadith(s) of the Week‬‬
‫‪Engage Allah‬‬
‫بسم ہللا الرحمن الرحيم‬

‫عنہ سے روایت ہے کہ رسول ہللا ﷺ نے فرمایا‪:‬‬

‫حضرت ابوہریرہ رضی ہللا ٗ‬

‫”جس نے کسی مومن سے دنیا کی تکلیفوں میں سے کوئی تکلیف دور کی ہللا اس کے آخرت کی تکلیفوں‬
‫میں سے کوئی تکلیف دور کرے گا‪ ،‬اور جس نے کسی مسلمان کی پردہ پوشی کی تو ہللا دنیا و آخرت‬
‫میں اس کی پردہ پوشی فرمائے گا‪ ،‬ہللا بندے کی مدد میں لگا رہتا ہے جب تک بندہ اپنے بھائی کی مدد‬
‫میں لگا ہے“۔‬

‫جامع الترمذی (‪)1425‬‬

STEEL STRUCTURES
LECTURE
INTRODUCTION TO STEEL STRUCTURES
COURSE CODE CE-4473
CREDIT HOURS 3+0
 BOOKS
Text Book(s):
• Steel Structures: Design and Behavior, Charles G. S., John E.J., Faris
A. M., Latest Edition
• AISC Manual
• AISC Specifications

Reference Book(s)
• LRFD Steel Design, William S., Latest Edition
• Applied Structural Steel Design, Spiegel & L. Burner, Latest Edition
• Steel Structures Design JACK C. McCORMAC STEPHEN F. CSERNAK
Course Learning Outcomes:
 GRADING

S.N Description Number Weightage

1 Quiz 4 4 x 5 = 20
2 Assignment 4 4 x 5 = 20

3 Mid Term 1 20

4 Final Term 1 40
 The stainless-steel exterior of Frank Gehry’s Walt Disney
Concert Hall in Los Angeles has a visually soft appearance that
complements the building’s billowing, sail-like design.
 Surrounded by ribbons of steel, the Dear Jingumae Building, a
commercial space in Tokyo, was designed by architect Yoshihiro
Amano to mimic the natural movement of clothing.
Empire State Building
➢ Located in New York
➢ 4th tallest building in United States and 29th tallest
in the world
➢ 102 Storey, 1250 feet high
➢ 73 Elevators
➢ 57000 tons of steel columns and beams
Eiffel Tower
➢ Located in Paris
➢ Constructed in 1889
➢ Equivalent to 81 Storeybuilding
➢ Named after the Engineer who made it ‘Gustave Eiffel’
➢ Most visited paid monument in the world (6.91 million in
2015)
➢ Tower has three levels; restaurants on first twoand
observation deck on third
Bird’s Nest Stadium
➢ Located in Beijing
➢ It’s a stadium
➢ Consists of 24 steel columns each
weighing 1000 tons
➢ Comprised of 42000 tons of crisscross
steel beams
Golden Gate Bridge
➢ Located in San Fransisco
➢ Suspension bridge
➢ Deck supported by steel trusses
➢ 1.2 million steel rivets hold the
bridge together. This is a segmentof
one of those replaced during the
seismic retrofit of the bridge.
Minato Bridge
➢ Located in Osaka Japan
➢ Cantilever truss bridge
➢ Consists of double deck
➢ Designers selected cantilever truss
over arch or suspension type
because of poor subsoil conditionsof
alternating layers of clay and gravel.
➢ Used high strength steelreduced
mass
Roof Trusses
Roof Trusses Airport Hangers
Power Infrastructure
Tower Cranes
Storage tanks
WORKSHOP/ WAREHOUSE
CONNECTIONS
• Steel structures are assembly of structural steel shapes
joined together by means of riveted / bolted or welded
connections.

• Joints are monolithic in concrete structures whereas in

steel structures special methods are required to join
individual members.

5
Bolted Connections

8
Riveted Connections
• There are two major categories of steel structures:-
- Framework or Skeletal Systems
- Shell Systems

11
 Framework or Skeletal Systems

• The main load carrying elements are one-dimensional

or line elements (such as beams, columns, etc.)
forming two-dimensional or three-dimensional frames.

• Examples are:-
• The frameworks of industrial buildings with their
internal members such as crane girders, platforms,
etc.

• Highway and railways large span bridges.

12
 Framework or Skeletal Systems

• Multi-story buildings, large halls, domes etc.

• Towers, poles, structural components of hydraulic
works.

• All other trusses and rigidly connected frame

structures.

14
Industrial Building

13
Shell Systems
• The main load carrying elements in this category of
structures are plates and sheets.

• Examples are:-
-Gas tanks for storage and distribution of gases.
-Tanks and reservoirs for storage of liquids.
-Bins and bunkers for storage of loose material.
-Special structures such as blast furnace etc.
-Large diameter pipes.

15
Large Diameter Pipe

17
MERITS & DEMERITS OF STEEL
STRUCTURES
Merits of Steel Construction

1. Reliability

• Consistency and uniformity in properties.

• Better quality control due to factory manufacture.

• Large elasticity and ductility.

20
 2. Ready to Use
• Rolled steel sections are manufactured in factories.

• Also, the members may be cut & prepared for

assembly in factories while only joining is carried out
at site.

• Sometimes parts are also assembled in the factories,

that is, there is great adaptation to prefabrication.

21
3. Lesser Construction Time

• Because of its industrial nature, progress of work is

very fast resulting in economical structures.

• The reason is that these structures can be put to use

earlier.

• The reduction in labor cost & overhead charges and

the benefits obtained from the early use of the
building contribute to economy.

27
4. High Strength & Light Weight Nature

• Steel has more strength as compared to RCC

structures
• It is light in weight which means that the dead load will
be smaller.

• Dead loads are bigger part of the total structure load. If

dead load reduces, the resulting member will be
smaller.

• This fact is important for long span bridges, tall

buildings & for structures having poor foundations.

28
5. Durability & Performance
• Durability means long life of structures.

• If properly maintained with painting, etc., the

properties of steel do not change appreciably with
time.

30
6. Elasticity

• Steel behaves closer to design assumptions than

most of the other materials because it follows Hook’s
Law up to fairly high stresses.

• The steel sections do not crack or tear before

ultimate load and hence the moment of inertia of a
steel structure can be definitely calculated.

31
7. Ductility & Warning before Failure

• The property of a material by which it can withstand

extensive deformation without failure under high
tensile stresses is said to be its ductility.
• Mild steel is a very ductile material. The percentage
elongation of a standard tension test specimen after
fracture can be as high as 25 to 30%.

• This gives visible deflections or evidence of

impending failure in case of overloads.

• The extra loads may be removed to prevent collapse.

• Even if collapse occurs, time is available for
occupants to vacate the building. 32
8. Additions to Existing Structures

• Additions to existing steel structures are very easy to

be made.

• Connections between new and existing structures

can be employed very effectively.

34
9. Possible Reuse

• Steel sections can be reused after a structure is

disassembled.

10. Scrap Value

• Steel has a scrap value even though it is not re-

useable in its existing form.

35
Steel Scrap

36
11. Water-Tight & Air-Tight

• Steel structures provide completely impervious

construction.

• Structures like reservoirs, oil pipes, gas pipes etc.,

are preferably made from structural steel.

37
12. Long Span Construction
• High-rise buildings, long span bridges and tall
transmission towers are made up of structural steel.

• Industrial buildings up to a span of 90 m can be

designed by plate girders or trusses.

• Bridge spans up to 260 m are made with plate girders.

• For truss bridges, spans of 300 m have been used.

38
Long Span

39
Long Span

41
Long Span

45
Long Span

46
Demerits of Steel Construction

1. Corrosion
• Most steels are susceptible to corrosion when freely
exposed to air and water.
• They must be periodically painted.
• This requires extra cost and special care.
• The use of weathering steels, in suitable design
applications, tends to eliminate this cost.
• If not properly maintained, steel members can
loose 1 to 1.5 mm of their thickness each year.
• Such constructions can loose weight up to
35% during their specified life and can fail under the
external loads.
49
Corrosion

51
Corrosion

52
2. Fireproofing Costs
• Although steel members are incombustible, their
strength is tremendously reduced at temperatures
prevailing in fire.

• At about 400°C, creep becomes much more pronounced

• Extra cost is required to properly fire proof the

building.

53
Steel building on fire

55
3. Susceptibility to Buckling

• Steel sections usually consists of a combination of

thin plates.

• The overall steel member dimensions are also

smaller than reinforced concrete members.

• If these slender members are subjected to

compression, there are greater chances of buckling.

• Steel when used for columns is sometimes not very

economical because considerable material has to be
used to stiffen the column against buckling.

56
Buckling

58
 4. Higher Initial Cost / Less Availability

• In few countries, Pakistan is one such example, steel is not

available in abundance and its initial cost is very high compared
with the other structural material.

• This is the most significant factor that has resulted in the

decline of steel structures in these countries.

59
 5. Aesthetics

• For majority of residential & office buildings, steel structures without

the use of false ceiling and cladding are considered to have poor
aesthetic appearance.

• A considerable cost is to be spent on such structures to improve their

appearance.

60
False Ceiling

62
Cladding

63
1.3 Comparison with Concrete Construction
Concrete structure Steel structure

Durability 
Earthquake
resistance 
Load carrying
capacity 
Scrap value

Light weight 
Foundation 
Construction time 
Labor 
Cost 
5
Joining 
 Structural Steel Sections

Steel Structural
• Hot-Rolled Sections.
Sections
• Cold Formed Sections.

• Built-Up Sections.
 Structural Steel Sections
In 1896, the Association of American Steel
Manufacturers (now the American Iron and Steel
Institute, or AISI) made the first efforts to
standardize shapes. Today, nearly all structural
shapes are standardized, though their exact
dimensions may vary just a little from mill to mill
1.2 Steel Sections
Hot-rolled Sections
Steel structures can be economically rolled into wide variety
of shapes and sizes. Usually, the most desirable members
are those which have large moment of inertia in proportion
to their areas such as I, T And C shapes.

Steel sections are usually designated by the shapes of

their cross sections. For example, angles, tee, zee,
plates, channels etc.

5
5
Shape Dimensions

5
Steel shapes are identified by certain system described in
AISC manual.
A W27 x 114 is a W section approx. 27 inch deep, weighing
114 lb/ft.
A S12 x 35 is a S section approx. 12 inch deep, weighing 35
lb/ft.
An L6 x 6 x 1/2 is an equal leg angle, each leg being 6
in long and 1/2 in thick
An MC18 x 58 is a miscellaneous channel 18 in deep,
weighing 58 lb/ft, which cannot be classified as a C shape
because of its dimensions. 5
Cold Framed Sections

Cold framed sections are made by bending thin sheets of

carbon or low-alloy steel into almost desired sections.

These are normally used for light members in roofs, floors

and walls.
These shapes vary in thickness from 0.01 to 0.25 in.

Cold working reduces ductility somewhat but it enhances the

strength. Under certain conditions, specifications will permit
the use of these higher strengths.

5
5
Concrete floor slabs are very often
cast on formed steel decks that
serve as economical forms for the
wet concrete and are left in place
after the concrete hardens.

These Sections with the deeper

cells have the useful feature that
electrical and mechanical conduits
can be placed in them.

5
Built-up Sections

Rolled steel sections are steel members readily produced by

the steel mills. They are manufactured in standard shapes
and sizes for each shape. They are made in lengths up to 12
meters long.

But when the structure needs even larger shapes from

considerations of load carrying capacity, then these standard
rolled shapes will be inadequate. So flat plates are
assembled to a suitable shape and welded together to
produce beams of the required sizes.
5
5
• Steel is an alloy consisting almost entirely of iron (usually over 98
percent) with small quantities of carbon, silicon, manganese, sulfur,
phosphorus, and other elements.

• Carbon is the material that has the greatest effect on the properties
of steel. The hardness and strength of steel increase as the carbon
content is increased more carbon will cause steel to be more brittle
and will adversely affect its weld ability.

• If the carbon content is reduced, the steel will be softer and more
ductile, but also weaker.
 MODERN STRUCTURAL STEELS

• silicon, nickel, manganese, and copper = alloy steel

• Fy = 36 ksi previously used

• Fy = 50 ksi now a days (Name A-992)
 Specification

AISC American Institute of Steel Construction

AWS American Welding Society

AASHTO American Association of State Highway &

Transportation Officials
ASTM American Society for Testing & Material

AISI American Iron & Steel Institute

ASCE American Society of Civil Engineers

1. AISC Specifications for Structural Steel

2. AISC Steel Construction Manual
65
 Design Process
Preliminary
Planning Structural Loads
Configuration Calculations

Preliminary
Evaluation Analysis Member
Selection

Redesign Final Design

 Our Goal

Evaluation
• Are all strength and serviceability requirements
satisfied and is result optimum? Compare the result
with predetermined criteria.

Redesign
• Repetition of any part of the sequence 1 through
6 found necessary or desirable as a result of
evaluation. Steps 1 through 6 represent an
iterative process.
 Predetermined Criteria

• Legal Document
• Design requirements and constraints
Building Code •
•
Architecture, Structural safety, Plumbing, HVAC etc.
Uniform Building Code (UBC), International Building Code
(IBC), Pakistan Building Code (PBC)etc.

• Set of rules for specific design components in order to

achieve objectives of Building Codes

Specifications • Good engineering practices based onresearch

• Incorporated in Building Codes
• No legal standing ontheir own
• AISC, AASHTO, ASTM, AREMA, ACI, AISI etc.
 Structures
Trusses

Compression Compression

Tension
Frames

Bending Bending

Bending & Bending &

Compression Compression
 Design Components

Tension Compression Beams Columns

Members Members • Bending • Axial
• Tension • Compression • Shear Compression
• Bending
• Also called
Beam-Column
Structural Analysis
 Loads

Dead Live Impact

Snow Wind Earthquake

Highway
Live Loads
 Dead Load

The loads which do not change their magnitude and position with
respect to time within the life time of a structure.

Dead loads are accuratelyknown.

Bifurcated into dead load and super dead load.

Also known as gravityloads.

 Dead Loads

Dead Load Super imposed

• Self weight of dead load
member • Floor finishes
• Light fixtures
• Mechanical
fixtures
• Electrical
fixtures
• Plumbing
• Partitions
 Live Load
The loads which change their magnitude and position with respect to
time within the life time of a structure.

Applied so as to give maximum moment, partial loading, alternate

span loading or full span loading.

They are empirical, conservative, based on accepted practiceand

experience rather than accurate calculations.

The probability of live load occurring uniformlyover the entire floor or all
floors of a building is very less, hence live load reduction is allowed
 Live Loads

Human Furniture Stored Vehicle Movable

occupants goods Storage equipment
 Live Load
The loads which change their magnitude and position with respect to
time within the life time of a structure.

Applied so as to give maximum moment, partial loading, alternate

span loading or full span loading.

They are empirical, conservative, based on accepted practiceand

experience rather than accurate calculations.

The probability of live load occurring uniformlyover the entire floor or all
floors of a building is very less, hence live load reduction is allowed
 Impact Load

The loads which is applied during a very short span of time.

Impact load is basically dynamic effect of live load.

Impact load is applied in highway bridge design and supports for

cranes and heavy machinery.

In buildings, conservative live loads may account for the impact load.
 Snow Load

It is treated as live load and taken on the roof of a structure.

Snow Load varies from 40 psf to 20 psf.

It depends upon type of roof, slope of roof and wind exposure.

Minimum live load taken on a roof is 20 psf which may not be snow
load.
 Wind Load
Wind loads are produced due to difference in atmospheric pressures
attributed to the difference in temperature.
 Wind Load
These differences are caused largely by unequal distribution of heat from the
sun, and the difference in thermal properties of land and ocean surfaces.
 Wind Load on Structures

Windward Side Leeward Side

Wind Load on Structures
 Wind Load

According to Bernoulli’s theorem, increase in static pressure is equal to

the decrease in dynamic pressure

𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑝 + 𝐷𝑦𝑛𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑞 = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 (𝑃𝑜)

1 2
𝑞= 𝜌𝑉
2
Conversion into equivalent static pressure

p = 𝑞𝐶𝑐𝐶𝑔𝐶𝑝
 Wind Load

P = 𝑞𝐶𝑐𝐶𝑔𝐶𝑝
P = static pressure

Q = dynamic pressure

Cc = Exposure factor Varies from 1 ( 0-40 ft) to 2 (750-1200 ft)

Cg = Gust factor, 2 for structural members & 2.5 for small elements like cladding

Cp = Shape factor for building as a whole

 Earthquake Load
Earthquakes are ground motions due to movement of tectonic plates that
form the earth surface.
 Earthquake Load
Movement of the tectonic plates occur at the faults which are
boundaries of these plates

San Andreas Fault

 Earthquake Load
These movements create waves on the surface of these plates which
create horizontal and vertical ground motions
Earthquake Load
 Earthquake Load
Seismic Body Waves
Wave Type Particle Motion Other Characteristics
(and names)
P, Alternating compressions )“pushes”( • P motion travels fastest in materials, so the
Compressional, and dilations )“pulls”( which are P-wave is the first-arriving energy on a
Primary, Longitudinal directed in the same direction as the seismogram.
wave is propagating (along the • Generally smaller and higher frequency
raypath); and therefore, than the S and Surface-waves.
perpendicular to the wavefront. • P waves in a liquid or gas are pressure
waves, including sound waves.
 Earthquake Load
Seismic Body Waves
Wave Type Particle Motion Other Characteristics
(and names)
S, Alternating transverse motions • S-waves do not travel through fluids, so do
Shear, Secondary, (perpendicular to the direction of not exist in Earth’s outer core (inferred to be
Transverse propagation, and the raypath); primarily liquid iron) or in air or water or
commonly approximately polarized molten rock (magma).
such that particle motion is in • S waves travel slower than P waves in a
vertical or horizontal planes. solid and, therefore, arrive after the P wave.
 Earthquake Load
Seismic Surface Waves
Wave Type Particle Motion Other Characteristics
(and names)
L, Transverse horizontal motion, • They are largest at the surface and decrease in amplitude
Love, Surface perpendicular to the direction of with depth.
waves, Long propagation and generally parallel • Love waves are dispersive, that is, the wave velocity is
waves to the Earth’s surface. dependent on frequency, generally with low frequencies
propagating at higher velocity.
• Depth of penetration of the Love waves is also dependent
on frequency, with lower frequencies penetrating to
greater depth.
 Earthquake Load
Seismic Surface Waves
Wave Type Particle Motion Other Characteristics
(and names)
R, Motion is both in the direction of • Rayleigh waves are also dispersive and the amplitudes
Rayleigh, Surface propagation and perpendicular (in generally decrease with depth in the Earth.
waves, Long a vertical plane), and “phased” so • Appearance and particle motion are similar to water
waves, Ground that the motion is generally waves. Depth of penetration of the Rayleigh waves is also
roll elliptical – either prograde or dependent on frequency, with lower frequencies
retrograde. penetrating to greater depth.
• Generally, Rayleigh waves travel slightly slower than
Love waves.
 Earthquake Load
Seismic Waves Summary

Body Waves Surface Waves

Earthquake Load
Interaction with Structure
 Earthquake Load
EQUIVALENT LATERAL FORCE PROCEDURE
 Earthquake Load
EQUIVALENT LATERAL FORCE PROCEDURE
Earthquake Load
Earthquake Load
Earthquake Load
Earthquake Load