UNIT ONE

INTRODUCTION
1.1 The Nature and Uses of History

 The term history derived from the Greek word Istoria which means “inquiry” or “an account of one’s
inquiries.”
 Herodotus (c. 484-425 BC) often held to be the “father of history’’.
 There are two perspectives for history definition: traditional and modern
i. Traditionally define as history means all the things that have happened in the human past.
ii. Modern define as history can be defined as an organized and systematic study of the past.
 The study involves the discovery, collection, organization, and presentation of information about past
events.
Difference between history and other disciples; there are three points distinguishes history from other
subjects
a. Scope: - History studies the interaction between humans and their environment in the past while other
disciplines study the interaction between humans and their environment in the present state.
b. Time: In history Periodization- historians organize and divide the past into distinct periods. History is
conventionally divided into ancient, medieval and modern history.
c. Changing and continuities

Uses of History
o Helps Better Understand the Present
storehouse of information available
o Provides a Sense of Identity
memory is to the individual while history is to the society
o Provides the Basic Background for Other Disciplines
o Teaches Critical Skills- research skills, evaluate sources and make coherent arguments
o Helps Develop Tolerance and Open-Mindedness
Studying different societies in the past is like going to a foreign country
o Supplies Endless Source of Fascination
History Abused due these factors
1. The political elites distorted the course history to advance their current political agenda.
2. The historian themselves: historian should always be objective whenever write about the past.
1.2. Sources and Methods of Historical Study
 Sources: bring to life what appears to have been dead. They are vital to the study and writing of history.
 Historians are not creative writers like novelists.
 Therefore, the work of historians must be supported by evidence arising from sources.
 Historical sources are broadly classified into: Primary, Secondary and Oral data
Primary sources
 Surviving traces of the past available to us in the present.
o Original or first hand in their proximity to the event both in time and in space. Example:
manuscripts (handwritten materials), diaries, letters, minutes, court records and
administrative files, travel documents, photographs, maps, video and audiovisual materials,
and artifacts such as coins fossils, weapons, utensils, and buildings.
2 Secondary sources
o They are second-hand published and unpublished accounts of past events.
o often made based on primary sources
o Gives us what appear to be finished accounts of certain historical periods and phenomena.
Example: articles, books, textbooks, biographies, theses, dissertations, reports and stories or movies
about historical events.
3. Oral Sources
o Valuable for studying and documenting the history of non-literate societies.
Oral tradition- folk songs and folk sayings
o Oral history- oral testimonies or personal recollections of lived experience and serve as primary source
o Data should be subjected to critical evaluation.
o Primary and secondary sources must be verified for their originality and authenticity and reliability of
their reconstructions respectively.
o Oral data may lose its originality and authenticity due to distortion through time.
1.3. Historiography of Ethiopia and the Horn
Historiography
o Historiography is refers to the history of historical writing
o It studies how knowledge of the past is obtained and transmitted and how it has changed over time.
o The organized study and narration of the past
Herodotus and Thucydides (ancient Greek historians)
Han dynasty figure Sima Qian (145–86 B.C.E.) of Chinese.
o History emerged as an academic discipline in the second half of the 19th century first in Europe and then
other parts of the world.
o Modern historiography developed by Leopold Von Ranke (1795–1886)- “father of modern
historiography”. Ranke contributed the following things
 He used sources to write and study history
 He evaluated sources
 Opened history as an independent academic subject at Berlin University.
 He developed new historical methodology
o Sources of history of Ethiopia and Horn; The two ancient written documents on Ethiopia and the horn
Periplus of the Erythrean Sea ( 1st C )- the earliest known reference and Christian Topography (6th
century AD) composed by Cosmas Indicopleustes, a Greek sailor. It describes Aksum’s trade and the then
Aksumite king’s campaigns on both sides of the sea.
Manuscripts
o discovered Abba Gerima and Haiq Istifanos monastery in Wollo ( 13th C AD); essentially religious and
provide insights into the country's past
Hagiographies
o Largest groups of sources available for medieval Ethiopian history; originating from the Ethiopian
Orthodox Church.
o Enhance the prestige of saints; discuss indigenous Islam and contacts between the region's Muslim
community and the outside world.
o A parallel hagiographical tradition exists among Muslim communities.
Chronicle
o They are indigenous tradition of history writing first written in Ge’ez (14th c); then in Amharic (until 20th
c). Example: Glorious Victories of Amde-Tsion – earliest the Chronicle of Abeto Iyasu and Empress
Zewditu – the last.
o Chronicles have strengthens and weaknesses
 Strengthens
o They gave factual details on historical facts.
o They kept the correct chronological order of historical events.
o They traced the correct genealogy of the rulers.
Weaknesses
o They mixed facts with legends of the past and contemporary.
o They kept adulatory tone on the deeds and actions of kings.
o Between 10th- 16th centuries Arabic-speaking visitors provided useful information on various aspects of
the region’s history. For example, al-Masudi and Ibn Battuta
o For the 16th and 17th centuries we have two documents composed by Yemeni writers.
Futuh al Habesha (The Conquest of Abyssinia) composed by Shihab ad-Din recounts the wars between
the Christian kingdom and Adal Sultanate in sixteenth century. Al-Haymi documented the experience of
Yemeni delegation to the court of Fasiledas (r. 1632-67) in 1647.
o Abba Bahrey's Ge'ez account of the socio-political organization and movement of the Oromo people
written in 1593.
o Between early 16th -19th century’s European missionaries and travelers also contributed to the
development of Ethiopian historiography.
 Francisco Alvarez wrote The Prester John of the Indies
 James Bruce's wrote Travels to Discover the Source of the Nile
 Hiob Ludolf (1624-1704) composed Historia Aethiopica and found Ethiopian studies in Europe
o In early 2oth century there were many domestic writers
 Negadrases Afework Gebre-Iyesu- Tobiya
 Gebre-Hiwot Baykedagn---- Atse Menilekna Ityopia and Mengistna Yehizb Astedader
 Blatten geta Hiruy Wolde-Selassie-- Ethiopiana Metema, Wazema (Eve), Yehiwot Tarik and Yeityopia
Tarik.
o Unlike chroniclers, these writers dealt with a range of topics from social justice, administrative reform
and economic analysis to history.
o The Italian occupation (1936-1941) of Ethiopia interrupted this early experiment in modern history
writing.
o After liberation, Tekle-Tsadik Mekuria served as a bridge between the writers of the pre-1935 period
and the subsequent generation of Ethiopian professional historians. He wrote eight volumes of history
books.
o Yilma Deressa's Ye Ityopiya Tarik Be 'asra Sidistegnaw Kifle Zemen.
o Blatten geta Mahteme-Selassie Wolde-Meskel, wrote Zikre Neger (Ethiopia's pre-war administration,
including the land tenure system and taxation).
o Dejjazmach Kebede Tesema, wrotes Yetarik Mastawesha in 1962 E.C.
o The 1960s was a crucial decade in the development of Ethiopian historiography due to the following
events:
 history emerged as an academic discipline
 history became full-time occupation
 History Department opened in 1963 at Haile Selassie I University (HSIU).
 The establishment Institute of Ethiopian Studies (IES).
 Professionalization of history.
o Journal of Ethiopian Studies launched to disseminate the results of research findings.
UNIT TWO
PEOPLES AND CULTURES IN ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN
Human Evolution
o The Great East African rift valley system is the cradle of humankind. There are two theories of human
evolution; these are creationist and naturalist (scientific).
o Human evolution accounts only a fraction of history of the globe-formed 4.5 B.P
o Earliest life- emerged b/n 3 & 1 bil. Yrs. B. P. Blue green algae, small plants, fishes, birds and other small
beings - emerged at c.800 mil. Years B. P. Primates – emerged b/n 200-170 mil. yrs B. P. Primates
evolved into: Pongidae (such as gorilla, chimpanzee, orangutan, gibbon etc) and Hominidae (human
ancestors).
o Biological and cultural evolution have been discovered in the Lower Omo and Middle Awash River
valleys by both Ethiopian and foreign scholars.
o Chororapithecus estimated about 10 million yrs, discovered at Anchar, West Hararghe.
o Australopithecus afarensis, Selam date back about 3.3 million yrs, Dikika, Mille in Afar
o Australopithecus afarnesis (Lucy/Dinkinesh) estimated to 3.18 million yrs, Hadar in Afar
1974.
 o The main features evolution was the development of human brain, based on this there are three genus Homo
Homo habilis
Homo erectus
Homo sapiens
o Homo habilis- skillful use of hands, found in the Lower Omo.
o Homo erectus- walking upright, discovered at Melka Kunture, Konso Gardula and Gadeb with 900-1100
cc brain size. It originated in Africa then distributed in the rest of the world. Invented fire and began
burial practice.
o Archaic Homo sapiens: Wise human being discovered in M.Awash with brain size of 1300-1400cc.
o Homo sapiens sapiens discovered at Porc Epic near Dire Dawa, and Kibish around Lower Omo.
o Cultural evolution is related to socio-economic transformations. It grouped into Stone, Bronze & Iron
Age.
There are three stone tools
o Mode I (Olduwan): discovered at Olduvai George in Tanzania, mainly characterized by crude & mono-
facial styles, produced by the direct percussion
o Mode II (Acheulean)- discovered at St. Acheul, France, produced by indirect percussion, by using hand-
ax or hammer, mainly characterized by bifacial, pointed and convex features
o Mode III (Sangoon)- flexible and fine form of production by the use of obsidian.
There are three Stone Age periods
i. Paleolithic (Old Stone Age, from 3.4 m - 11, 000 yrs B.P.) ; began shelter, developed language, clothing
and division of labour based on sex age.
ii. Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age /11, 000-10,000 B. P.)
iii. Neolithic (New Stone Age /10, 000-6, 000 B.P).
-Transformed from mobile to sedentary way of life.
- Shift from hunting & gathering to the domestication of plants & animals.
Languages and Linguistic Processes
o Ethiopia and the Horn have approximately 90 languages and 200 dialects, belonging to the Afro-Asiatic
and Nilo-Saharan superfamilies’.
o Afro-Asiatic languages include Cushitic (Northern: Beja; Central: Agaw languages like Awign, Kunfel,
Qimant, Hamtanga, Bilen; Eastern: Afar, Ale, Arbore, Baiso, Burji, Darashe, Dasanech, Gedeo, Hadiya,
 Halaba, Kambata, Konso, Libido, Mosiye, Oromo, Saho, Sidama, Somali, Tambaro, Tsemai; Southern:
Dhalo, Nbugua).
o Semitic languages in Ethiopia and the Horn are divided into North (Ge'ez, Rashaida, Tigre, and Tigrigna)
and South (Transverse: Amharic, Argoba, Harari, Silte, Wolane & Zay; Outer: Gafat (extinct) and
Gurage).
o Omotic languages include Anfillo, Ari, Bambasi, Banna, Basketo, Bench, Boro-Shinasha, Chara,
Dawuro, Dime, Dizi, Dorze, Garno, Ganza, Gayil, Gofa, Hamer, Hozo, Kachama-Ganjule, Karo, Keficho,
Konta, Korete, Male, Melo, Nayi, Oyda, Sezo, Shekkacho, Shekko, Wolayta, Yem, Zayse, etc.
o Nilo-Saharan languages include Anywa, Berta, Gumuz, Kacipo-Balesi, Komo, Kunama, Kwama,
Kwegu, Majang, Mi'en, Murie, Mursi, Nara, Nu'er, Nyangatom, Opo, Shabo, Suri and Uduk.
o Factors like population movement, warfare, trade, religious/territorial expansion, and urbanization
have caused intense linguistic changes.
Settlement Pattern
o Northeast Africa's population distribution reflects long historical processes.
o Cushitic and Semitic groups settled between the Red Sea and Blue Nile.
o Most Omotic peoples (excluding Bambasi and Boro) inhabit southwest Ethiopia's Omo River basin.
o Nilotes mainly live along the Ethio-Sudanese border, and the Chari-Nile/Karamojo cluster around Lake
Turkana.
Economic Formation
o Ethiopia and the Horn's economic activities, primarily agriculture and pastoralism, are shaped by
topography and climate.
o Pastoralism is practiced by Afar, Saho, Somali, Karayyu, and Borana, with the latter two dependent on
specific rivers.
o Cushitic, Semitic, and Northern Omotic groups practice mixed farming.
o Southern Omo groups combine pastoralism and fishing.
o Many Omotic groups also engage in crafts, metallurgy, weaving, and trade.
o Nilotes along the Blue Nile and Baro-Akobo are shifting cultivators, with cattle holding high value,
supplemented by apiculture, fishing, and hunting.
Religion and Religious Processes
o Indigenous religions in the region often center on a supreme being and utilize spiritual leaders to connect
with spirits.
o The Oromo's Waqeffanna exemplifies this, with Waqa (God) and diverse Ayyana (spirits) like Abdari
(plant fertility), Atete (animal fecundity), and others.
o The Irrecha thanksgiving festival is celebrated at riversides and mountaintops.
o Qallu/Qallitti mediates between Ayyana and believers through Dalaga at Galma.
o Until around 1900, pilgrims sought consecration from the Abba Muda at Goro-Fugug.
o Hadiya's Fandanano creed recognizes Wa'a as the supreme creator, with Elincho (sun) and Agana
(moon) as his eyes. Spirits like Jara, Idota, Hawsula, and Woriqa receive prayers and sacrifices. Some
are believed to have rainmaking abilities.
o Various ethnic groups in the region have diverse indigenous religious beliefs. The Kambata have
Negita/Aricho Magano (Sky God); the Gedeo, Mageno (Supreme Being); the Konso, Waaq worship;
the Gojjam Agaw, Diban; the Gurage, Waq/Goita, Bozha, and Damwamwit; the Yem, Ha'o, with the
So'ala clan overseeing Shashokam; the Konta, Docho spirit-cult; and the Wolayta, Tosa and Ayyana
spirits like Tawa-Awa, Sawuna, and others, with Sharechuwa practitioners and Becha/Kera Eza Keta
ritual houses.
o The Keficho have Yero, Eqo, and Dochi nayo, with Dejo harvest sacrifice and Dugo clan spiritual
leaders. Boro clans (Enoro, Endiwo, and Dowa) have Jqa supernatural power.
o The Nuer believes in Kuoth Nhial and clan spirits like WiW.
o Syncretism, the blending of indigenous beliefs with Christianity and Islam, is a notable feature.
Judaism
o In northern and northwestern Ethiopia, the Bete-Israel (Ethiopian Jews) practiced Haymanot.
o Their origins are variously traced to the Dan tribe's migration, arrival with Menilek I, arrival in the 6th
century AD led by Azonos and Phinhas, or intermarriage between Jewish immigrants and Agaw groups.

Christianity

o Christianity became Ethiopia's state religion in 334 AD under King Ezana, influenced by Syrian brothers
Aedesius and Frumentius (Fremnatos), who became the first Bishop of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church.
o In 1959, Abune Baslios became the first Patriarch.
o Christianity preached to the mass by the Nine Saints during Ella Amida II's reign (478-86).
o Christianity's spread in Ethiopia was furthered by the Nine Saints, the Zagwe dynasty, and the early
medieval period.
o Jesuit attempts to convert the Ethiopian Orthodox Church to Catholicism occurred in the 16th-17th
centuries.
o In 19th-century European diplomats and Ethiopian authorities signed treaties where missionaries played a
key role in religious expansion.
o Notable Catholic missionaries included Giuseppe Sapeto, Giustino De Jacobis, and Cardinal
Massaja.
o Protestantism was introduced and expanded by groups like the Anglican Church Missionary Society,
Church Missionary Society of London, and Wesleyan Methodist Society, led by figures such as
Gobat, Isenberg, and Krapf

Islam

o Facing Quraysh opposition in Makkah (610 AD), Prophet Muhammad sent followers to Aksum for
refuge, the first group led by Jafar Abu Talib.
o The Prophet praised Ethiopia's just king. King Armah Ella Seham (Ashama/Ahmed al-Nejash) granted
them asylum (615-28), refusing Quraysh requests for repatriation.
o Islam later spread peacefully in the Horn of Africa, primarily through trade.
o While Islam was established on the Dahlak Islands, its inland spread was limited due to Christianity's
strong presence in the north and restrictions on proselytization.
o Zeila was a key entry point for Islam, which reached Somali territories in the 8th century AD via the
Benadir coast (Mogadishu, Brava, Merca).
o The Mogadishu Minirate was established around 1269 by Abu Bakr Ibn Fukura al Din Sahil.