INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ROORKEE

MIC-206 (Theory of Production Processes)

NDT (Non-Destructive Testing)

Dr. Amit Choudhary

Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering
IIT Roorkee
Inspection

What is Inspection?
• Definition – “Measuring, examining, testing and gauging one or more
characteristics of a product or service and comparing the results with specified
requirements to determine whether conformity is achieved for each
characteristic.” – ISO 2859

Objectives
• Assess conformity with design specifications.
• Improve product quality and reliability.

Stages
• Inspection can be performed at several places in production: from acceptance
of the raw materials and parts from the suppliers to the shipping of the
products to the customers.
• Inspected products can be the components used for production, work-in-
process inventory, or finished goods.
• For manufacturing systems which are in continuous operation and subject to
breakdown, inspection can be an appropriate maintenance strategy.

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 Inspection vs Process Control

Inspection
Accept
Customer
Specification Inspection Judgment
Requirements-
Drawings Methods Criteria
Quality
Reject

Process Control
Comparison
Process Control Charts
to standards
USL
Man Method UCL Stable
Characteristics

Control
Limits
LCL Abnormal
LSL
Machine Material

Measure to prevent repetition Check for cause of problem

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Inspection cost analysis
• Theoretically, the only way to achieve 100% good quality is by 100% inspection.

• All defects are screened and only good quality parts are passed.

Inspection cost = Fixed cost + Variable cost

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 Three Stages of Inspection Process

➢ In manufacturing ensuring product quality at different stages is crucial for maintaining high
standards, reducing defect, & meeting customer expectations.

➢ The Quality Inspection Process is typically divided into 3 primary types: Receiving
Inspection, In-Process Inspection, & Final Inspection.

➢ Each of these plays a vital role in identifying and resolving quality issues as early as
possible, thus minimizing production costs & ensuring reliability.

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 Receiving Inspection
Purpose: To ensure that raw materials and components meet quality standards before they enter
the production process.
Objectives:
➢ Ensure materials meet quality standards.
➢ Prevent defective materials from entering production.
➢ Confirm supplier compliance and track recurring issues.
Key Activities:
• Sampling Inspection: Randomly select samples for quality evaluation.
• Measurement & Testing: Use tools to assess materials against standards.
• Documentation & Records: Maintain inspection reports for traceability.
• Acceptable/Rejection Decision: Materials are accepted, rejected, or returned based on
inspection results.
Tools Used:
Key Roles Involved Relevent KPIs:
• Calipers, Micrometers, Height Gauges ▪ Quality Inspectors ▪ Supplier Quality
• Verification Software ▪ Procurement Specialists ▪ Incoming Defect Rate (IDR)
▪ Supply Chain Managers ▪ Lead Time for inspection
• Barcode Scanners

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 In-Process Inspection
Purpose: To detect and address quality issues during manufacturing, ensuring each step is
performed correctly.
Objectives:
➢ Identify defects or deviations as early as possible during production.
➢ Minimize rework, scrap, and production delays by catching issues early.
➢ Monitor processes to ensure consistency and adherence to specifications.
Key Activities:
• Regular Inspection: Check critical dimensions, tolerances, and parameters at various
production stages.
• Process Monitoring: Ensure equipment and operators are following std. procedures.
• Control Plans: Follow documented plans that specify inspection points, frequencies.
• Corrective Actions: Implement CAPA if deviations are detected.
Tools Used:
• Visual Inspection tools (magnifiers, cameras)
Key Roles Involved
• Gauges, fixtures, and measuring instruments ▪ Quality Engineers Relevent KPIs:
(CMM-Coordinate Measuring Instruments) ▪ In-process Defect Rate
▪ Weld Inspectors
▪ First Pass Yield (FPY)
• Process control charts for real-time ▪ Production Supervisors
▪ Rework Costs
monitoring
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 Final Inspection

Purpose: To ensure products are defect-free and compliant with specifications before shipment.
Objectives:
➢ Provide final verification of product quality.
➢ Prevent defective products from reaching the customer.
➢ Certify compliance with customer and regulatory requirements.
Key Activities:
• Visual and Dimensional Checks: Ensure the product’s appearance, fit, form, & functional
requirements meet standards.
• Functional Testing: Test the product under conditions it will face during use.
• Packaging Inspection: Verify correct labeling, packing, & documentation.
• Final Documentation: Generate certificates of conformance, quality reports & shipping
approvals.
Tools Used:
Relevent KPIs:
• Final inspection checklists Key Roles Involved
▪ Final Defect Rate
▪ Quality Engineers
• Functional testing rigs ▪ QMS ▪ On-Time Delivery Rate
• Quality Management System (QMS) ▪ Testing rigs ▪ Customer Complaints
software for tracking & reporting

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Non-Destructive Inspection

❑ Process of inspecting, testing or evaluating materials, components, or assemblies

for discontinuities or differences in characteristics without destroying the
serviceability of the part or system.
❑ Terms non-destructive examination (NDE), non-destructive inspection, and non-
destructive evaluation (NDE) are commonly used to describe this technology.
❑ It is a highly valuable technique that can save both money and time in product
evaluation, troubleshooting, and research.
❑ Because it allows inspection without interfering with a product's final use, NDT
provides an excellent balance between quality control and cost-effectiveness.
❑ Non-destructive tests are used in manufacturing and in-service inspections to
ensure product integrity and reliability, to control manufacturing processes, lower
production costs and to maintain a uniform quality level.
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NDT Techniques

Visual Testing

Liquid Penetrant
Testing

Magnetic Particle
Testing

Popular NDT Techniques Eddy Current

used are: Testing
Radiographic
Testing

Ultrasonic Testing

Acoustic Emission
Testing

Infrared
Thermography
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Visual Inspection

Visual Inspection provides a means of detecting and examining a variety of surface

flaws, such as corrosion, contamination, surface finish, and surface discontinuities
(e.g. welds, seals, solder connections, and burning, etc.)

❑ It is the most cost-effective method of detecting common defects in welding and castings.

❑ As it can be implemented easily throughout the progression of a job it is easy to eliminate

simple errors and problems preventing the follow-on effect.

❑ Even when other non-destructive techniques are used to detect surface cracks, visual
inspection often provides a useful supplement.

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Visual Inspection

Classification of Visual Inspection

Three Types of Visual Testing

Direct Unaided Direct-Aided Visual Remote Visual

Visual Testing Testing Testing

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 Direct Visual Inspection

❑ Direct visual examination is the type of examination made in

situations where there is an access to the area of interest
without any possibility of injury to the inspectors. Eye
❑ There is no interruption between the eye and the object.
object
❑ Defects can be detected are: cracks, corrosion layer, physical Direct Visual Testing
damage, surface porosity, misalignment of mated parts, etc.

Examples

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Direct Aided Visual Inspection

❑ The nature of the image is not modified.

❑ Modification of the image is only allowed by:
✓ Magnification with for example a mirror, a lens, or an
endoscope;
✓ Spectral or density filtering by a filter lens.

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Remote Visual Inspection

❑ The nature of the image is modified.

✓ For example: The optical image is converted into an electronic image by a camera.
❑ Equipment used: Camera, robotic device, fiber optics, portable video probes, etc.

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Visual Inspection

Basic Procedure for Visual Inspection:

❑ It generally comprises of three steps as:

1) Clean the inspection surface properly.
➢ (Contaminants such as oil, grease, scale, sand (on casting surface), etc. may interfere with
interpretation of results)
2) Adequately illuminate the specimen with light.
3) Examine the specimen with eyes or take the assistance of light-sensitive devices.

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Visual Inspection Testing Equipment

❑ Different kinds of equipment are used to improve the inspection quality.

❑ These equipment can be classified into two parts.
1. Optical Aids
2. Mechanical Aids

O
1. Optical Aids:

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Visual Inspection Testing Equipment
2. Mechanical Aids:
❑ Several mechanical gauges are also used to assist the visual inspection examinations.

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Visual Inspection/Testing
Advantages of Visual Inspection:
✓ It is a routine procedure.
✓ The cost of visual inspection is low.
✓ It can be very effective where examination is made before, during, and after the
manufacturing process.
✓ Testing is simple, and testing speed is high.
✓ Testing is possible while the test object is being used.
✓ Permanent records can be made available when the latest equipment is used.
Limitations of Visual Inspection:
✓ The scope is limited to surface defects.
✓ Limited to the visual acuity of the observer/inspector.
✓ Eye fatigue may cause the defects to remain undetected.

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Magnetic Particle Inspection/Testing

➢ For detecting surface and shallow subsurface discontinuities in

ferromagnetic materials such as iron, nickel, cobalt, and some of their
alloys.

➢ MPI is fast and relatively easy to apply, and part surface preparation is not as
critical as it is for some other NDT methods.

➢ It uses magnetic fields and small magnetic particles (e.g., iron filings) to detect
flaws in components.

➢ The method is used to inspect a variety of product forms, including castings,

forgings, and weldments.

➢ Many different industries use magnetic particle inspection for determining a

component's fitness-for-use.

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Magnetic Particle Inspection/Testing

➢ It is based on the magnetic flux leakage caused by material discontinuities,

which collects magnetic particles (either dry or in a wet suspension) to form
indications.

➢ Different types of direct/indirect methods are used to magnetize the component

to perform the inspection.

➢ After conducting a magnetic particle inspection, it is usually necessary to

demagnetize the component as it may interfere with manufacturing processes or
service.

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Principle of MPI

Magnetic Flux Leakage:

Magnetic moments in a ferromagnetic material have the tendency to align parallel to each
other under the influence of a magnetic field.

If any surface or sub-surface discontinuity is

present, the magnetic flux leaks out of the
material since air cannot support as much
magnetic field per unit volume as metals. As
it leaks, magnetic flux will collect
ferromagnetic particles (iron powder), making
the size and shape of the discontinuity easily
visible.

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Magnetic Particle Inspection/Testing

Color contrast

Fluorescent particles

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Magnetic Particle Inspection/Testing

Shallow cracks

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Magnetic Particle Inspection/Testing

Magnetic Field Orientation and Flaw Detectability:

➢ Orientation of the crack relative to the magnetic lines of force determines if the
crack can be detected properly.
➢ An orientation of 45 to 90 degrees between the magnetic field and the defect is
good to form an indication.
➢ Since defects may occur in various and unknown directions, each part is
normally magnetized in two directions at right angles to each other.
➢ Example: With circular magnetization, discontinuities that have a significant
dimension in the direction of the current (longitudinal defects) are detectable,
while transverse-type defects will not be detectable.

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Basic Steps for MPI:
There are five steps for magnetic particle inspection as:

1. Part preparation: Component pre-cleaning/degassing - Contaminants such as oil,

grease, or scale may not only prevent particles from being attracted to leakage fields

2. Application of fine magnetic particles on the test surface - Particles used in MPI are
made of finely divided ferromagnetic materials (high magnetic permeability and low
retention)

3. Introduction of magnetic field – Direct and Indirect Magnetization

4. Examination of the component surface for defect

5. Demagnetization of the component.

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Magnetic Particle Inspection/Testing
Demagnetization:
Parts inspected by the magnetic particle method may sometimes have an objectionable
residual magnetic field that may interfere with subsequent manufacturing operations or
service of the component.
Effects of Residual Magnetism:
✓It affects machining by causing chips to cling to a component.
✓Creates a condition known as "arc blow" in the welding process. Arc blow may cause the
weld arc to wander or filler metal to be repelled from the weld.

Methods of Demagnetization:
There are two methods of demagnetization as:

Heating Method:
✓This random orientation of magnetic domains can be achieved most effectively by heating
the material above its Curie temperature.

Electrical Method:
✓Subjecting the component to a reversing and decreasing magnetic field will return the
dipoles to a nearly random orientation throughout the material.

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Effect of Magnetic Direction

Longitudinal Circular

Components or materials must be magnetized in at least two directions for complete

coverage.

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Magnetic Particle Inspection/Testing

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Magnetic Particle Inspection/Testing
Advantages:
✓Rapid and economical compared
✓Staff can be trained quite rapidly to operate a procedure.
✓It can detect both surface and near sub-surface discontinuity
✓It can inspect parts with irregular shapes easily
✓Inspection and indications are fast and visible directly on the specimen surface.
✓Very portable method, especially when used with battery-powered equipment.

Limitations:
✓It can only be used on ferromagnetic materials.
✓It is only effective for seeking surface-breaking or near-surface defects.
✓Components or materials must be magnetized in at least two directions for complete
coverage.
✓Weldments with different magnetic characteristics of base metal and weld metal are
difficult to inspect.
✓Post-cleaning and post-demagnetization is often necessary.

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Dye Penetrating Inspection/Testing

❑ Dye penetrant inspection (DPI), also called liquid penetrant inspection (LPI) or
penetrant testing (PT).
❑ It is widely applied and low-cost inspection method used to locate surface breaking
defects in all non-porous materials (metals, plastics, or ceramics).
❑ This technique is used to inspect casting, forging, and welding surface defects such as
hairline cracks, surface porosity, leaks in new products, and fatigue cracks on in-service
components.
❑ DPI is based upon capillary action, where low surface tension fluid penetrates into
clean and dry surface-breaking discontinuities.

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Dye Penetrating Inspection/Testing –
Principle/Steps

Test samples are often coated

with rust, dust and or oil-
grease.

1. Pre-cleaning of the
test piece

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Dye Penetrating Inspection/Testing

2. Apply penetrant and allow

to soak – dwell time
(High surface wetting ability)

3. Rinse the test piece

and let it dry

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Dye Penetrating Inspection/Testing

4. Apply developer
Fine grained white powder
suspended in liquid

and wait

The dye comes out and gets

attached to powder particles

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Dye Penetrating Inspection/Testing

Advantages of DPI:
✓ The method has few material limitations, i.e., metallic and non-metallic, magnetic and
nonmagnetic, and conductive and nonconductive materials may be inspected.
✓ Large areas and large volumes of parts/materials can be inspected rapidly and at low cost.
✓ Parts with complex geometric shapes are routinely inspected.
✓ Indications are produced directly on the surface of the part and constitute a visual
representation of the flaw.
✓ Aerosol spray cans make penetrant materials very portable.
✓ Penetrant materials and associated equipment are relatively inexpensive.

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Dye Penetrating Inspection/Testing

Limitations of DPI
✓ Only surface-breaking defects can be detected.
✓ Only materials with a relatively nonporous and smooth surface can be inspected.
✓ Pre-cleaning is critical since contaminants can mask defects.
✓ Metal smearing from machining, grinding, and grit or vapor blasting must be removed
prior to DPI.
✓ The inspector must have direct access to the surface being inspected.
✓ Surface finish and roughness can affect inspection sensitivity.
✓ Post-cleaning of acceptable parts or materials is required.
✓ Chemical handling (due to toxicity and flammability) and proper disposal is required.

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 Ultrasonic Inspection

➢ Ultrasonic Inspection: A non-destructive test method using ultrasonic waves for

examinations and measurements

➢ Ultrasonic Waves: High-frequency sound waves that vibrate above the upper
audible limit of human hearing, i.e., above 20 kHz (20,000 vibrations per second).

➢ Ultrasonic waves share physical properties with audible sound, except they are
beyond the range of human hearing.

➢ Travel Medium: Ultrasonic waves cannot travel through a vacuum.

Spectrum of Sound

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Ultrasonic Inspection

➢ Speed: They travel at the speed of sound in a given medium, with velocity
remaining constant in homogeneous media.

➢ Reflection and Refraction: Ultrasonic waves are reflected and refracted similarly
to light waves.

➢ Dependence on Material Properties: Their velocity depends on the density and

Young's modulus of the material.

➢ Speed in Different Media: The speed of ultrasonic waves is higher in denser

media, following the order: Vgas < Vliquid < Vsolid

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Ultrasonic Inspection

Principle of Ultrasonic Inspection

Acoustic Impedance (Z): Defined as the product of a material's density (ρ) and acoustic
velocity (V): Z=ρ⋅V

Wave Reflection: Ultrasound travels in a straight line and gets

reflected when it encounters an interface between materials with
different acoustic impedances.
Strong Reflection: Occurs at interfaces with a large
difference in acoustic impedance.
Weak Reflection: Occurs at interfaces with a smaller
difference in acoustic impedance, allowing part of the wave
to transmit through.

Reflection Coefficient (R): The fraction of the incident wave intensity that is reflected can be
calculated using:
R = [(Z2−Z1)/(Z2+Z1)]2
where Z1​ and Z2​ are the acoustic impedances of the two media.

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Ultrasonic Inspection: Working

•Pulser/Receiver: An electronic device that produces high voltage electrical pulses.

•Transducer: Driven by the pulser, it generates high-frequency ultrasonic energy.
•Sound Propagation: The ultrasonic energy is introduced into the material and propagates as
waves.
•Discontinuities: When there is a discontinuity (e.g., a crack) in the wave path, part of the
energy is reflected back from the flaw surface.
•Signal Transformation: The reflected wave signal is transformed into an electrical signal
by the transducer and displayed on a screen.
•Signal Analysis: The travel time of the signal can be directly related to the distance traveled.
Information about the reflector's location, size, orientation, and other features can be obtained
from the signal.

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Ultrasonic Inspection

Use of Couplant Material

Purpose: Couplant material, usually a liquid, is used to facilitate the transmission of
ultrasonic energy from the transducer into the test specimen.

Acoustic Impedance Mismatch: The couplant is necessary because there is a large acoustic
impedance mismatch between air and the test specimen.

Function: The couplant displaces the air, allowing more sound energy to enter the test
specimen, resulting in a usable ultrasonic signal.

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Ultrasonic Inspection

Two ultrasonic inspection techniques: the pulse-echo technique

and the through transmission technique.
Pulse-Echo Technique
Process: Pulses of ultrasonic waves are transmitted into the
material under test by a transducer. Reflected waves (echoes)
from discontinuities are received by the same or another
transducer and displayed.
Display: The relative size and depth of the discontinuity are
shown in terms of amplitude and calibrated form.
Accessibility: This technique is useful when access to only one
side of the material is possible.

Through Transmission Technique

Process: Two transducers are used, one as a transmitter and the
other as a receiver, located on opposite sides of the test
specimen.
Application: This technique is useful for detecting
discontinuities that are not good reflectors and when the signal
strength is weak.
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 Ultrasonic Inspection

Advantages of Ultrasonic Inspection

Depth Penetration: Superior depth of penetration for flaw detection compared to other
methods.
Single-Sided Access: Only requires access to one side of the material when using the pulse-
echo technique.
Accuracy: High accuracy in determining the position, size, and shape of reflectors.
Detailed Imaging: Automated systems can produce detailed images.
Severity Assessment: Can determine not only the presence of a flaw but also the severity of
the damage.

Limitations of Ultrasonic Inspection

Surface Accessibility: The surface must be accessible to transmit ultrasound.
Skill and Training: Requires more extensive skill and training compared to some other
methods.
Coupling Medium: Normally requires a coupling medium to promote the transfer of sound
energy into the test specimen.
Material Challenges: Difficult to inspect materials that are rough, irregular in shape, very
small, exceptionally thin, or not homogeneous.
Defect Orientation: Linear defects oriented parallel to the sound beam may go undetected.

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Ultrasonic Inspection - Principle

Rigid end

Free end
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Ultrasonic Inspection - Principle

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Ultrasonic Inspection - Principle

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Ultrasonic Inspection - Principle

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Ultrasonic Inspection - Principle

Steel Sample Recording screen

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Ultrasonic Inspection - Principle

Steel Sample Recording screen

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Ultrasonic Inspection - Principle

Steel Sample Recording screen

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UM6XKvXWVFA
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Radiographic Inspection

➢ Radiography is a non-destructive inspection technique where many types of

manufactured components can be examined to verify the internal structure and integrity
of the specimen.

➢ Radiography started with the discovery of X-rays by W. C. Roentgen in 1895, and

radioactivity by Becquerel in 1896

➢ Term radiography usually implies a radiographic process that produces a permanent

image on film or paper

➢ X-rays and gamma rays both are used in radiography

➢ By using radioactive sources such as radium, far higher photon energy could be obtained
than those from normal X-ray generators

➢ Radiography has seen expanded usage in industry to inspect not only welds and castings

➢ The presence of hydrogen in castings is revealed by neutron absorption

(hydrogen has high neutron absorption)
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Radiographic Inspection

➢ Unlike light, however, they have higher energy (shorter wavelength) and the ability to
penetrate, travel through, and exit various materials such as carbon steel and other metals.

➢ When the components are subjected to radiography, these radiations travel and are
transmitted through them in different amounts by different materials, depending upon their
radiological densities.

➢ Radiological density is the measure of how much a material can absorb or attenuate X-
rays. It is represented by varying shades of gray on a radiographic image.

➢ Radiological density is determined by both the density and the atomic number (the
number of protons in an atom's nucleus) of the material being imaged (Al 13 and Ti 22).

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Radiographic Inspection: Principle

➢ The part is placed between the radiation source and a piece of film.

➢ The part will stop some of the radiation. Thicker and more dense areas will stop more
radiation.

➢ The unabsorbed radiation exposes the film emulsion, similar to the way light exposes
the film in photography.

➢ Development of the film produces an image that is a two-dimensional shadow picture of

the object.

➢ Variations in the density, thickness, or composition of the object being inspected cause
variations in the development of the film.

➢ Evaluation of the radiograph is based on a comparison of the differences in the

photographic density with known characteristics of the object itself or defects present in
the test object.

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Radiographic Inspection

X-ray Part placed between the radiation source and film

Beam Part stops some of the radiation

The film darkness (density)

will vary with the amount of
radiation reaching the film
X-ray film through the test object.

Steel Sample
= more exposure
Top view of developed film
= less exposure
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Radiographic Inspection: Radiograph

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Radiographic Inspection

Essential Elements for Radiography Testing:

1. A source of penetrating radiation, such as an X-ray machine.

2. The object to be radiographed, such as a weldment or casting.

3. A recording or viewing device, usually photographic film enclosed in a light-tight holder.

4. A qualified radiographer trained to produce a satisfactory exposure.

5. A person skilled in the interpretation of radiographs.

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Radiographic Inspection: factors for proper
imaging

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Radiographic Inspection

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Radiographic Inspection: Computed
Tomography
Tomography is an imaging technique that creates a detailed cross-sectional image of a
specific layer or section of a solid object. The term comes from the Greek words "tomos"
(slice) and "graphia" (describing).

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Radiographic Inspection: Advantages

Detection of Internal Defects: Radiographic inspection can detect internal defects such as
cracks, voids, and inclusions that are not visible on the surface

Versatility: It can be applied to a wide range of materials, including metals, plastics,

composites, and ceramics

Quantitative Results: Provides quantitative data about the size and location of defects,
which can be crucial for assessing the integrity of the material

Permanent Record: The radiographs (images) produced can be stored and reviewed later,
providing a permanent record of the inspection

Large Object Inspection: Capable of inspecting large and complex objects, making it
suitable for various industrial applications

High Sensitivity: Radiographic testing is highly sensitive and can detect very small defects

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Radiographic Inspection: Disadvantages

Safety Concerns: The use of X-rays or gamma rays poses potential health hazards to
personnel. Proper safety measures and protective equipment are essential to minimize
exposure

Time-Consuming: The process can be slow, especially for large-scale inspections, as it

requires careful setup and exposure times

High Skill Requirement: Interpreting radiographic images accurately requires a high

degree of skill and experience

Cost: The equipment and materials needed for radiographic testing are expensive to acquire
and maintain

Environmental Impact: The use of radioactive materials can have environmental

implications, requiring careful handling and disposal

Limited Portability: Traditional radiographic equipment can be bulky and difficult to

transport, although advances in technology are improving this

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Safety in NDT

Radiographic Testing (RT)

•Radiation Exposure: Implement strict protocols to minimize exposure to X-rays and
gamma rays.

•Shielding and Barriers: Use lead shields and barriers to protect operators and bystanders.

•Dosimeters: Equip personnel with dosimeters to monitor radiation levels.

Ultrasonic Testing (UT)

•Electrical Safety: Ensure equipment is properly grounded and disconnected from power
when not in use.

•Couplant Handling: Use non-toxic couplants and handle them with care to avoid skin
irritation.

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 Safety in NDT

Magnetic Particle Testing (MT)

•Magnetic Fields: Be cautious of strong magnetic fields that can affect electronic devices
and pacemakers.

•Dust Control: Use local exhaust or respiratory protection to control dust from magnetic
particles.

Liquid Penetrant Testing (PT)

•Chemical Exposure: Avoid skin contact with penetrants and developers, which can cause
dermatitis.

•Ventilation: Ensure proper ventilation to avoid inhalation of fumes.

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Thank You!

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