aoa nfm & fam Only for Training purpose ferqa uraeeset COMPREHENSIVE COURSE ON GENERAL PERFORMANCE (steragt / January - 2008) ware sten AU INA uiiteal_Issued by Aero vawerat duck site Sar fees: National Aviation Company of India Limited wettetot forerrgor wfsigmMr stoysiteT, Operations Performance Training Section-l Performance Performance is the capability of aircraft at various stages ofits flight. ‘The capabilitv may be in terms of Weight, Altitude, Speeds, Distances, GradientRate of Climb, Obstacle clearance, Manoeuvreability or Range etc. ¥, 1 — ---- PERFORMANCE Q Mandatory Performance Itis the minimum laid down performance to be met by. an aircraft for grant of Certificate of Airworthiness by the appropriate authority. In India, the DGCA is the certifying authority. The basic principle governing the minimum standards laid down is that ‘a conventional ‘Tranisport Aircraft (Category ‘X) shall not &have to forcedand in case of an engine «C) Net Performance failu at any stage of its flight”. The ‘Aeroplane Flight Manual", which forms part of Certificate of Airworthiness, specifies the performance of aircraft complying with the mandatory performance. Operational Performance It is the performance specified by the manufacturer forthe day to day operations ‘ofthe fleet. ‘This is more conservative than the Mandatory Performance and is described in the “Flight Crew Operations Manual”, The operational performance data is used for planning purposes. Q) Demonstrated Performance Demonstrated Performance is the performance recorded during demonstration flights by the manufacturer for Certificate of Airworthiness. Q The Mandatory Performance is specified as: (2) Gross Performance - For certification purpose. () Net Performance - For Obstacle Clearance purpose. Q Gross Performance Gross Performance is the average performance expected to be achieved by aifleet of aircraft type. +2 Net Performance is the performance obtained by reducing the gross performance in a specified manner 10 allow for degradation that cannot be accounted for, due t0 factors such as (@) Variation in Operating techniques! maintenance practices, (b)_ Degradation of aircraft performance due to ageing of the fleet. (© Deviation of environmental conditions from those assumed. «Q ‘he following terms describe areas of defined dimensions under the control of appropriate authority declared as suitable for take-offfanding purposes. O Runway Runway is a defined area an a land aerodrome prepared for landing and take- off of aircraft > 3 -TERMS ASSOCIATED WITH RUNWAY O Stopway Stopway is a defined rectangular area at the end of take-off run available in which an aircraft can be stopped in the event of an abandoned take-off. > Width ofa stopway is same as that of the runway. +O Clearway Clearway is a defined rectangular area on ground or water over which an aeroplane ca portion of ts initial climb to a ren height specified > Clearway starts at the end of RWY, > Its length is not more than half the RWY length > Its width is not less than 75 m (250 feet) either side ofthe extended centre line of RWY. . > Obstacles/ground should not project above plane sloping up from the end of RWY at 1.25% within the clearway. Q Threshold Threshold is the beginning of that portion of runway usable for landing. The threshold must be at orafter the line where the ‘obstacle clearance plane’, intersects the runway. For this reason threshold may be displaced from the beginning of the runway. Q Obstacle Clearance Plane Obstacle Clearance Plane starts along.a line perpendicular to the centre line of the runway and sloping up at 1.2% and tangential to all obstructions or clears all obstructions." The width of the obstacle clearance plane is: (2) 200" either side of runway centre line fom the start of the plane til the end of runway. +4 (6) Thereafter uniformly increases 10 500! at 1500! from the start of the plane. (0) Thereafter it is 500° either si centre line of the plane. of the ‘The centre line of the plane follows the take-off paths for take-off and it follows the approach path for landing,Ut TORA Take-off Run Available is the length of runway declared as available and suitable for ground run of aeroplane taking-off > ‘TORA = DECLARED RUNWAY LENGTH Q TODA ‘Take-off Distance Available is the length of take-off run available plus the length of learway, ifany. > TODA = TORA + CLEARWAYQ ASDA QO LDA Acceleration Stop Distance Available isthe Landing Distance Available is the length length of take-off run available plus the of runway declared as available and length of stopway, if any. suitable for the ground run of aeroplane lading > ASDA = TORA + STOPWAY > LDA= RUNWAYLENGTH (Threshold toend of Runway) k= cwr- LDA 1/2 TORA- a+] —AS ba——- + ———IODA- DECLARED DISTANCESMinimum Control Speeds QO The ability 19-cofteol the aircraft is most critical whenvone power unit becomes suddenly inoperative. ‘The asymmetric thrust produced has to be countered by the rudder force, which depends on rudder deflection and the speed, The asymmetric force, depends on the thrust Of the five engine, which depends on ‘Temperature and Pressure Altitude for a --eeSPEEDS ASSOCIATED WITH TAKE-OFF & LANDING siven power setting. wo such minimum control speeds defined are a) Veg b)_ Vinca (also referred to as Ve) When one engine -is inoperative, unless Vincg is attained take-off should not be continued and unless a speed higher than Ymca (by a specified safety margin) is attained the aircraft should not be lifted off ground. +7 4Both Vineg and Vinca are considered at the following settings 2) Thrust = Max 1/0 Thrust b) Wr = Max certificated TOW. ©) Configuration = 10 Configuration QO Vincg (Minimum Control speed on ground) (i) With rudder pedal force sot exceeding 150 Ibs, (b) With bank not exceeding 5 deg, (©) Directional change not exceeding 20 deg. (4) Without reducing thrust on live engine (©) Aeroplane airborne and with negligible ground effect HA undroanniog » OS rd a cael a Veg is defined as the minimum cas 1) Limits of Vca during the take-off run at which, when one engine becomes suddenly jnoperative, it is possible to recover directional control of the aircraft and continue take-off, (a) Using primary aerodynamic controls (Rudder) alone. (b) With rudder pedal force not exceeding 150 Ibs. ‘Vinca may not exceed 1.20 Vs, where Vs is the stalling speed for the Configuration stated above (Vea <= 1.2 Vs) Take-off Speeds (© Assuming 7kt cross wind-from the CI During the take-off when one engine inoperative engine side. (@) Without reducing thrust on live engine (6) Landing gear remaining extended. Q Vinca (Minimum Control Speed in the air) Vinca is defined as the minimum CAS at which when one engine becomes suddenly inoperative, it is possible to maintain directional contro! of aircraft. becomes inoperative, depending on, at what stage it takes place, two possible sequences arise O Continuation of Take-off i) From standing start the aircraft accelerates on both engines til ‘Velocity Engine failure. ii) * thereafter, it accelerates on single engine, 4i)_ rotation initiated at Vr and it fits off at Viofiv) aircraft accelerates to take-off safety speed (V2) ¥) and attains a sereen height of 35° within TODA (Vv) (VI) (1) an) (tI) (IV) Q Ver YR Yor v2 h engine-P-ha— SINGLE ENGINE ACCELARATION—e Acceleration | TODA: O Reject Take-off if) till the engine failure is recognised and action initiated to i) From standing start the aircraft abandon take-off fat V1 or earlier) accelerates on hotly 3h iv) the aiccratt stars decelerating ii) tothe speed at which engine fails ¥) and comes to a complete stop (Vef), thereafter it accelerates on within the ASDA, single engine () qa an). (ty) w) BRAKE RELEASE eM ce ENG ACCN TRE Storer(QQ The Calibrated Air Speeds V1, Vr and V2 are called the Take-off Speeds", which are described in succeeding paragraphs. V2 (Take-off Safety Speed) CQ. Take-off Safety Speed V2 is the CAS that has to be attained by 35" height during take-off and which ensures 15 degree angle ‘of bank manoeuvre capability and specified safety margin in relation to stall, and control of aircraft during the take-off climb on single engine, Q Limits of V2 @) Min V2 is higher of (i) and (ii) below. i) 1.2 Vs, where Vs is the Stalling Speed with 1/G up and Flaps in ‘HO Configuration. ii) 1.1 Vmea (b) Max V2, though not specified is governed by tye speed limit and the ine acceleration capability from liftoff 35! height. Qi Factors affecting V2 (a) Vs which in turn depends on i) Aircraft weight (V2 increases with weight) ii) Configuration (V2 is less for higher Flaps) iil) CG Position “(V2 is more for forward CG) (b) KVS Factor or V2VS (Min 1.2) (©) 1.1'Vmea (which in turn depends on PA. and Temperature) Vr (Rotation Speed) OQ) the Rotation Speed Vris the CAS at which rotation is initiated to attain speed V2 by 35) height. Q. Limits of Vr (@) Vr shall not be less than i) 1.05 Vmea i) 110%8 ii) aspeed at which when the aircraft is rotated at maximum rate would result in a Vlof not less than = 1.05 Vinu for single engine and = 1.10 Vinu for wo engine take-off (b) Ve may not exceed V2. However, under conditions of high temperature at high PA. the Air Speed Indicator may over-read due to change in pressure error. This is allowed for by tabulating higher speed as Vr. In such cases Vr may be found to be 1 Ktorso higher than V2. + 10 +O Wlof (ift-off Speed) Itis the speed at which the aircraft will lift off ground when rotated at Vr. The maximum value of Viof is governed by Tyre Speed Limit ‘The minimum value is 1.05 Vinu QQ Vmu (Minimum Measured Unstick Speed) This is the lowest CAS at which it is demonstrated that the aircraft can get airborne, ‘with both engines at Take-off thrust, and attain speed V2 by 35 ft. height. Q. Bre Speed Limit Considerations At high rolling speed of 1/G wheels, the centrifugal force of the tyres may exceed the strength of the tyre. So, the ground speed of the aircraft on the runway has to be limited ‘This places a limit on Vr and thus ow-take-off Weight and V2 VI (Decision speed or Critical gine Failure Recognition Speed i) 1 The Decision Speed VLis the CAS. ducing take-off run at which it is possible, with the critical engine inoperative. (@) to continue take off and achieve V2 by 35 fe height within TODA. (b) ( abandon take off and bring the aircraft to a complete stop within ASDA. OQ Limits of VI a) Vi cannot be less than Veg (YL >= Vineg) b) Vi cannot exceed Vr (V1 <= Vr) ©) Vi cannot be selected more than Vmbe (V1 <= Vmbe) O Vibe (Maximum Brake Energy Speed) Vmbe is the CAS, above which the application of wheel brakes may adversely affect the Brake System. Ymbe mainly depends on weight and ground speed. The factors affecting Vmbe are, a) Weight b) PA, Temperature and Wind (which affect G/S for a CAS) © RWYSlope —_} which affect 4) Configuration. } deceleration, O) Bffect of TORA/TODA and ASDA on VI Fora fixed TORA/TODA, with unrestricting ASDA, VINr ratio increases with weight. On the other hand if\ASDA is fixed and ‘TORA/TODA are not restricting alower VI/ Ve may enable increase in TOW. Hence. fora given airfield geometry (TORA/TODA and ASDA and associated conditions), there will be one maximum weight and a corresponding V1, such that in the event of critical engine failuce:- a) before V1, the 1/0 cannot be continued (NO GO") b) after V1, the 1/0 cannot be abandoned (‘G0") ©) atV1, both options are available NOGO") /0/ + il +i if the actual take off weight is less than Approach and Landing Speeds the weight limited by TORA/TODA.and ASDA, there will be a minimum and a ‘maximum V1 value, and a scope to select Viwithin thése values. Insuchacase,an Vref (Landing Reference Speed INCREASE in V1 will result in or Target Threshold Speed) a) Longer stopping distance U1 Vref is the target CAS at 50 fi. above the threshold in a normal landing. [tis equal 10 1.3¥sowhere Vso is the stating speed in landing configuration (Vref = 1.3 Yso). ©) Improvement in obstacle clearance. Q Vapp (Approach Speed) Vapp is aspeed specified for approach for landing. Itis more than Vref by a factor of headwind compouent and gust, up t0 2 max specified value Vapp = Vref + (A factor of HWC) + Gust * 124The Required Distances described in the succeeding paras are computed taking into 2 50% of Head wind than 150% of Tail wind fount not more # component and aot component. QTODR (Take off Distance Required) TODRis greater of the following : +-eeREQUIRED DISTANCES (a) The distance from standing startto the point the aircraft attains 35° height peed V2 with (@)_allengines on take-off thrust till V1, ’) at V1, the Critical engine is inoperative and remaining engines continuing on take off thrust.(b) 115% of the distance from standing start to the point aircraft attains 35° height and speed ¥2.with all engines on take off thrust l TORR (Take off Run Required) TORR is greater of the following (a) and (b) (@) The distance from standing start till Vo A La aut ENG ACCN: L NTorR .IS GREATER OF (AC) & (1-15 x AC’ | the mid-point(*) between the point of lift off and the point where the aircraft attains 35! height and speed V2 with VI 1 | TODR IS GREATER OF (AD) & (1-15 x Ve ALL ENG ACCELERATION @ _allengines on take off thrust til Vi, {ii) critical engine inoperative at VL and remaining engines continuing at take off thrust. 115% of the distance from standing start to the mid-point(*) beoween point of lift off and the point where aircraft attains 35' height and speed ‘V2with all engines on take off thrust. (* some regulatory authorities eg. BCAR consider 1/3 way point instead of midway point) V2 35 Ft. VLOF B c D (BC =CD) ONE ENG INOP ACCN—— wo | JUASDR — (Acceleration-Stop Distance Required) ASDR is the distance required from standing stact to complete stop, during a reject take off assuming @) aircraft accelerates onall engines at 7/0 thrust, tll the, point of engine failure and thereafter with Critical engine inoperative and the remaining engines on 1/0 thrust, (b) Engine failure is recognised at Vi and action initiated to abandon 1/0. (©) Then the aireraft retards with all available means of retardation but without the use of reverse thrust (@)_ Landing Gear remains extended. Ace Q Balanced Field Length Balanced Field Length is the condit when TODR o sO ASDR. Ti performance data provided in the FCOM is based on balanced field length concept Hones, where the Clearway/ Stopway are to be utilised, data from AFM is to be used .LDR (Landing Required) Distance LDR is 1.67 times the distance required during @ normal landing, to land from 50 ft. above ALL ENG: nN COMPLETE STOP wt oe INOP ACCN ASDR- fe TARDATION fl ‘ene more than 5% and ata speed not less than Vref) on a dry level surface, under ISA temp. condition. The LDR (value for dry runway) is increased by 15% for wet runway for flight despatch purposes. Inflight, the safety margin of 67% for LDR and the 15% inerease for wet runway conditions is not mandatory and the Commander of the aircraft is required to assess the stopping distances and safety margins necessary. the threshold at Veefand = to come to complete ——£ § 0----—_— 167%, stop (following a steady qyREgHoLD Oe descent to 50 ft point at adescent gradient of not - —LOR- | s> 194Based Standards And Recommended Practices adopted by the ICAO (Cefer Annextures 6 & 8), the member states formulate regulations governing International ‘Commercial Transport Operations. CAR (Civil Aviation Regulations) in India, BAR (Federal Aviation Regulations) in USA, JAR (Joint Airworthiness Requirements) in France and BCAR (British Civil on the Airworthiness --- REGULATIONS Requirements) in UK are examples of such regulations, In India , DGCA is entrusted the authority to grant Certificate of Airworthiness (CofA) to Transport Aircraft. Since almost all the Commercial Transport aircraft are ‘manufactured abroad and the ‘Aeroplane Flight Manuals” are prepated according to the regulations of the country where they are manufactured, the DGCA in principle, + 164cadorses the Certificate of Airworthiness CQ Take-off Distance Requirements granted in the country of origin, if the state adopts ICAO standards. ‘Thus, in general (a) TORR <= TORA Boeing. 737 are operated in accordance with FAR of USA, while A-300 and A-320 are as per (b) TODR <= TODA JAR of France. Negligible difference exists between PAR and JAR. Hence, in these notes, the definitions and the performance requirements are based on FAR, for two cengjries turbine powered aeroplanes only (© ASDR <= ASDA Take-off Regulations C1 As per reguiations take off path is from standing start till the aeroplane reaches 1500' or more height above take-off surface. The T/O Path is divided into TO Distance and T/O Flight Path. TAKE OFF PATH | 1/0 Ostet 1/0 eee eee I | int 1500 FT. v |seoenr SEGMENT IENT | SEGMENTQ take-off Flight Path Gross Gradient Requirements :- [SEGMENT |CONFIGURATION| — THRU: ‘SPEED GROSS MAXIMUM (eight) (One Eng. tnop)} CLIMB BANK | _ ba = _| crapienr | assume — 1 G5'o [110 Flaps Slats | Max. 1/0 v2 Positive No Bank 35% plus) ] WG going Up. | Thrust on liv Eng. i @5'plus [TO Flaps/slas | —do— ve 24% 15 degree 10400" | UG Up. above or more) 50 feet M1 Flaps /Slats ~do~ (1.2% gradient or ~do~ being retracted equivalent acecleration) v Flaps /Slats Max. continuous) Enroute 1.2% ~do~ enroute config, | THRUSTon | Climb live Eng | speed > 1.25Vs Net 1/0 Flight Path (b) Climb gradient requirements in APP 7 and Lag config described below. pethalong gradient of climb is 8% less than gross gradient of climb’along the Take-off Flight Path, The Net TO Flight Path i aerodrome. Landing Regulations O Fordespatch, the estimated landing wei! of aircraft at destinatior/alternate shows. ‘meet the following requirements. (®) LDR should be within the LDA. > Climb Regulations - General st clear all obstructions by 35 ff. vertically or by 200 f/300 ft. horizontally within/outside OQ The FAR lays down climb gradient requirements for various configurations, viz (@) VO Climb (which was covered under ‘HO Fight Path). (b) Approach Climb (in approach config, ‘on single eng.). (6) Landing Climb (in landing contig, on all engines). 18 &Ob the aiccratt should p——— be capable of CONFIGU. | THRUST RATION achieving the Climb | ‘gradients specified | a) Approach] i) App. Faps | One Engine [1.5Vs0 | 2.41% under the following | Climb | Slats (corres._} inop and the} (Y so in ponding to other at | Landing conditions (given in Landing Go-Round | Config, the table) at altitude config) Thrust with LG " Up corresponding to ue landing surface. retracted b) Landing | i)landing | Botheng [13V%0 | 3.2% Climb | Flaps / on TO (¥s0 in Slats thrust Lg, Config with 1G extended) nue extended I - 7 a Enroute Regulations Q The perforinance implied by the , regulations is described in general terms I Bnroute Gross Flight Path for win turbine engine aircraft in the succeeding paragraphs, Jtis the flight path along which, with one “engine inoperative and the other at MCT, the actual gradient of climb is the gross O Enroute Segment climb gradient available. Enroute segments the portion of the fl Path from 1500 feet above T/O surface till 1500 feet above the landing surface. Performance during the segment is considered with One engine 0% GRAD GROSS. ) FLT PATH inop. and other _O'AGRAD NET at MCT, aw (Available 14°) FLT PATH 1500" ABOVE 1/0 SURFACE —ENROUTE FLIGHT PATHS" y 19 &Q) Enroute Net Flight Path Itis the fight path along which, with one ‘engine inoperative and the other at MCT, the glimb gradient is 1.1% less than gross climb gradient available QQ The net flight path during the enroute segment must clear all obstructions within 5 NM of the track by : @) 1000 f. during climb (©) 1000 f. over plains and 2000 ft. over ‘mountainous regions during cruise. (©) 2000 ft. during descent O 411500 ft. above, the landing surface there should be a positive climb gradient. Route and Alternate Airport Limitations C1 the route should be such that at every point on the route there must be an adequate airport within one hour's flying fime at normal cruise speed with one engine inoperative, unless authorised otherwise. When flights are authorised with diversion timé more than one hour, the flight comes under Extended Range Operations. Q Wake off Alternate If the weather conditions at the take-off airport are below the Landing Minima, there should'be an alternate airport located within one hour's flying time in still air at normal cruise speed with one engine inoperative specified in the despatch and the weather conditions atthe specified alternate meet the minima requirements. Q Speed below 10,000" Noaircraft, unless authorised, may operate at more than 250 kt IAS below 10,000" > 20 ««ooo TAKE-OFF PERFORMANCE Q Maximum take-off Weight Factors affecting Field Length take-oll weight (MTOW) is. Limit Weight governed by (a) Structural Limit Weight QO) TODA and ASDA (b) Field Length Limit Weight (©) Clint Limit Weight ‘Max TOW increase with TODA & ASDA. A given TODA and ASDA gives one max TOW and an optimum V1/¥r that meets ‘0 istance and Acceleration-Stop distance requirements, (@) Obstacle Limit Weight (©) Tyre Speed Limit (©) Brake Energy Limit (a) Maximum Landing Weight + Burn off fuel weight +1 +QO) TORA ‘When there is a significant clearway the ‘TORR may exceed TORA. In such a case the Field Limit TOW is decided by TORA & ASDA. FAR FIELO LENGTH LIMITED TOW-1000Kg + M4Q V2/Vs Ratio (KVS) FAR FIELD LENSTH LIMITED TOW-1000K9 ‘The minimum value of V2Ns ratio is 1.2 by regulations. However, if higher V2Vs ratid is maintained Field Limit TOW reduces and V1/Vr ratio increases. 38041 (KVS'V,/ Ve RATION Wo} UKVS 242) 160-4 130 140 150160 1804 3 ToW-1000 Kg ud ar ky & 3 O Configuration For higher flap configuration, the stalling speed is less, Consequently V2 and Vralso reduce. Thus distance required to accelerate to these lower speeds reduces, (though the increase in drag reduces accelerati but toa lesser extent). The stopping distance also reduces due to increase in drag. Netresult is that Field Limit TOW is higher for higher flap configuration QO RW Slope ‘With 2 down hill slope, the components of gravity helps acceleration, reducing the acceleration distance, though it also opposes deceleration, increasing stopping distance slightly. The net effect is that ASDR as well as TODR. reduce in. down hill slope. Hence Fielé TOW. 35 hig down hill slope and lower in up hill slope vb OPTIMUM Y: 170 rr) Q Wind ‘A headwind component reduces the ground speed for any CAS. Hence, both acceleration distance and stopping distance reduce. Thus Field Limit TOW increases with more Head Wind Component.QO PA. and Temperature For given take-off speeds, an inerease in either P.A. or Temperature result in (a) decrease in thrust increasing acceleration distance (0) increase in ground speed, increasing acceleration distance (6) decrease in drag at various ground speeds during deceleration, thus increasing stopping distance. Hence, Field Limit TOW bis to reduce when either PA. or Temperature increase. Q Runway Condition When RAV is wet or contaminated, the Field Limit TOW reduces due to the following reasons (a) The resistance of water to the movement. of wheels reduces accel (b) Water splashing on the landing gear vwhee!s and aircraft surfaces inereases checked to get the 3190. 135 -40 |) maximum TOW. General KVSer v2/vs guide is = The Climb Limit TOW increases with V2 (@) Lower Flap for long declared til bes LD is achive Climb Limit TOW, but decrease Field Limit TOW. For longer runways generally Citmb Lima 1OW can be OG Conjiguraiion For a given V2/¥s ratio, the factor CUCD increased by a lower flap, reduces at higher configuration, Hence climb gradient reduces. To achieve the (b) Higher Flap for short declared required gradient, the Climb Limit TOW distances. For short runways generally Fis foireine, Field Limit TOW is less than Climb Limit TOW and the Field Limit TOW OPA and Temperature an be increased by selecting a higher lap. With increase in either P.A.or temperaturea TOW-1000 Kg Improved Climb When Climb Limit TOW is less than Field Limit TOW, for the lower weight, the ‘TODRVASDR willbe less than TODNASDA. Now, by increasing V2/¥s ratio above 1.2 and thus utilising the suxplus field length available, the Climb Limit TOW and hence ‘TOW can be improved. ‘Thus Max TOW conditions. In such a case the improvement in Climb Limit TOW has 10 be restricted by Tyre Speed Limit, Thus, the factors limiting the improvement in Climb Limit TOW are:- (a) Field Length (b) .Best L/D Ratio (©) Tyre Speed Limit Q Obstacle Limit Weight ‘The Field Limit TOW and Climb Limit TOW ensure adequacy of field length and second segment climb gradient. However, with the same climb gradient, the net T/O fight path may not clear the obstacles on HO path by 35" In such case, the obstacle can only Me dy 12 1-25 3 135 tte ee EM ame KVS oF V2/VS Jor inceeasing clinb ae gradient capability. can be increased by improving V2Ns ratio This is achieved by decreasing TOW and/ till the consequent TODRYASDR equal the TODA/ASDA or L/D reaches maximum value. Due to non-availability of data this technique of improved climb is not used for wet/contaminated runways. The increase in V2 may result in Viol exceeding the Tyre Speed Limit especially for T/O in Low Flaps Configuration, with Tail Wind andat high PA. under higher temperature or increasing V1. ‘Thus we arrive at obstacle limit weight, ‘Though the climb gradient by definitions is not affected by ‘wind, the flight path angle incteases with headwind, resulting in better obstacte clearance. Thus, with headwind, the obstacle ‘limit weight increases.Q1 When obstacte limit weight is tess than Field Limit TOW, it can be improved climb on the lines explained for improved climb in Page 26. FT| JOF REF ZeRo| DUE TO OBSTACLE REF REF [ zen Zeho u TODA — Q Brake Energy Limit Q Bre Speed Limitation Generally, so long as V2/%s catio is kept at 1.2, itis ensured that Vlof does not exceed ‘Tyre Speed Limit. But whenever V2N6 ratio is increased for improved climb ete, the Vlof corresponding to the resulting V2, ‘may exceed the tyre speed limit and hence the improvement will have to be limited by tyre speed. thus 1UW may de restricted by tyre speed limits, especially in low flap configuration coupled with down hill slope and/or tailwind conditions Q The tyre Speed Limit depends on the ground speed of the aircraft, which is higher for a given CAS, when density is less, Hence, the tyre speed limit is reached ata lower Vlof, athigher PA. /OAT and in tail wind. Thus, the tyre speed limit weight ‘teduces with increase in PA r OAT or tail wind, For a given ASDA, a higher V1 calls for more braking action, consequently heating the wheel brakes more. Thus increase in Vibeyond avalue (Vmbe)'may exceed the Brake Energy Limit, in which case V1 has to be restricted to Vmbe, and TOW has to be reduced correspondingly. the braking action is related to Aircraft and g Hence the brake energy limit is reached at a lower CAS, when OAT, PA, tailwind ponent a Thus Ymbe reduces with increase in these. Similarly downhill slope calls for a lower value of Vbe, since the component of acceleration due to gravity has tw be Compensated by additional braking action at a given ground speed. A higher flap configuration provides increased drag which helps braking action and thus increases Vmbe. d speed of aircraft - 7 4QO) Maximum Landing Weight and Burn. off fuel Landing weight is the TOW.minus the weight of burrvoff fuel. If this exceeds the maximum landing weight permissible at the destination aerodrome, the TOW has tobe reduced, though itis well within the other limits for T/0 described above. Q Reduced Thrust Take-off mTow [TOTHRUST , } ry ATOW “| REDUCED To THRUS 1 ! | | 1 1 1 | 1 | 1 || arc TREF OAT On occasions, the actual take-off weight is less than the maximum permissible TOW. In consequence, itis possible to comply with Field Length, Climb gradient and other (0 requirements with alower thrust ASSUMED TEMPERATURE REDUCED THRUST TAKE OFF than the normal 1/0.theust, This helps ia reducing the thermal stress on engine hot ‘components and thereby prolonging their life and saving on periodic maintenance This also reduces the chances of engine failures in flight thereby enhancing flight safety, In addition the pilot's confidence in the capability of aircraft improves. Marginal fuel saving is also achieved Q Assumed Temperature (or Flexible Temperature) | Method ‘The theust required foe lower TOW is | than the TO thrust aval: able at a given tempera- ture. As can be seen from the figure this thrust required corre- spdnds to the thrust available at higher tem perature called the “Flex temperature” or ‘Assumed Temperature” Thus instead of taking off atthe thrust set- ting corresponding to the prevailing tem- perature, when TOW is below the max TOW, the 70 canbe carried out ata thrust ‘corresponding to the higher assumed tm perature, without compromising the regu- lations. rewe | > 28.4O Limitations on Thrust ‘0 decide to continue take-off and land 5 back if necessary, rather than over react Reduction toa minor emergency indication’and cause damage to aircraft through rejection of The advantage in ters of reduction in take-off epecially at speeds close to VL thermal stress on engine components reduces with percentage of thrust reduction. No gainis achieved by reducing thrust beyond. 21 to 25% of the thrust, Significant advantage is only upto about 10% reduction in thrust. Further, the reduction is also restricted due to limits on the Assumed Temperature which can not be below the actual temperature nor below TREF, the Reference Temperature for lat rated thrust. Q) Decision to reject Take-off Decision to continue or reject take off is possible in the event of an engine failure recognition at V1. Before V1, the Take-off has to be‘abandoned and after V1, the ‘Take-off must be continued, Occasionally, occurrence of emergencies other than engine failure, also call for a reject take- off. However, statistics show that offen the wke-oifs rejected count of indications/alarms implying malfunction/ failure of some systeriis were found to be uncalled for, and tie rejected take-offs caused damage to aircraft in most such cases. Some modem aircraft designs are incorporating «facility to suppress indications of failure, etc. during ake-off, except those which may need rejection of take-off. Hence other than for engine failure, or for serious emengencies such as eiugine fire, on sudden loss of engine thrust etc,, when in doubt, itis preferable + 29 &Othe maximum landing weight at an aiifield has to meet the following requirements, (@) During the landing, from a height of 50! above threshold at a speed of 1.3 Vso (Vref), it should be possible to land and bring the airplane to a complete stop within 60% of the LDA, (b) If required to go round alter touch eeeeLANDING PERFORMANCE down (Balked landing) with the 1/0 ‘Thrust available On bothi the engines (after 8 secs of advancement of throttle levers to T/0 position), and aircraft remaining in Landing configuration with landing gear extended, it should be possible to achieve a climb gradiént of 3.2% without speed exceeding 1.3 Vso.(©) Wsequited to go round during the Q) Factors affecting Vref approach for landing, with oneengine inoperative and the other at 1/0 thrust and the aircraft in approach configuration corresponding to the Janding configuration (ie., the Vs in approach configuration selected with 1G up should not exceed 110% Vs in Janding configuration withl/G up), it should be possible to achieve a gradient of climb of 2.1% without speed exceeding 1.5 Vso (the stalling speed in corresponding landing config., but with L/G up). 2 For fight despatch purposes, the LDR for dry runway is to be increased by 15% in case the destination RWY is expected to be wet. Hence, in such a case, the max landing weight should be so restricted as, to ensure that 1.15 times LDR for dry runway does not exceed LDA. O Factors affecting Max banding Weight (MLW) Max landing weight is the least of (a) Structure limit landing weight (b) Field Limit landing weight (©) Climb limit landing weight ‘The factors affecting Climb Limit Landing ‘Weight are same as ii the case of take-off Field Limit Landing Weight depends on LDA, PA, Temperature, RWY condition and Configuration. Since Vref is 1.3 times Vs, only weight, configuration and CG Position affect Vref Thus Vrefis higher for more weight, lower configuration and forward CG position. O Approach Speed( Vapp) A factor of HWC + Gust (total not exceeding 20 Kt) is added to Vrefto obtain the Approach Speed Vapp. This speed is maintained on approach and gradually reduced to Vref+ Gust by 50! above the threshold, to avoid the chances of undershooting or sudden high rate of sink. * 31+2 Doring the Enroute segment, ic., from 1500' above take-off surface till 1500! above the landing surface, the net flight path must clear all obsteuctions within 5 rum of track vertically by (@) 1000' uring’ climb (b) 1000! during cruise over plains (©) 2000! during cruise over mountainous terrain (@) 2000' during descent ENROUTE PERFORMANCE Drift Down 2 while cruising ata Flight Level, in the event of an engine failure, itmay, not be possible to maintain altitude, even with the live ehgine at MCT. In such a cast the aircraft has to loose height till it reaches a lower flight level; where cruise on single engine is possible. If the shallowest descent path is (6 be followed, ie, covering, maximum > 32 +distance for a loss of height; the aircraft has to maintain the best'l/D Speed: Such a profile is termed. “Drift Down Profile” and the speed is called “Drift Down Speed” Q Gross Level Off Altitude Gross Level Off Altitude is the PA,, where the thrust available with one engine inoperative, just equals the drag of the aircraft, when ying lat best 1D ratio. It depends primarily on weight of aircraft and temperature, because the drag at best 1D angle of attack depends on weight, ‘while the thrust available at MCT at a PA. depends on temperature, Qi Drift Down Speed In fixed enroute config.(normally, clean config.), the CAS for best I/D angle of attack depends only on weight. So, Drift Down Speed isa function of instantaneous weight of aircraft CRUISE feo Sees FLESPEED ne ENG oN FAIRE % POINT aE (MCT ON LIVE ENG) sa Engine Failure during Enroute CQ In the event of an engine failure during cruise, the loss of height is arrested by reducing the speed to Drift, Down Speed and increasing the thrust on live engine to MCT. Thus aircraft maintains altitude for a while before it starts loosing height and follows the DD Profile to the level off altitude Itis not mandatory to follow Drift Down Profile asa rule, So longas the prescribed vertical clearance from enroute obstacles is ensured, an aircraft may descend to a convenient level, But, when the obstacle clearance requirements are critical, a Drift Down Profile must be followed, QQ Following an engine failure, itis advisable to proceed to a suitable airfield nearby and land at the earliest. It should be aimed to minimise Hight duration on single engine, since any further emergency would adversely affect safety of operations. This, should not be compromised by advantages to be gained hy continuing to destination ‘or returning to base. ROSS LVL OFF ALT (GRAD AVAILABLE 07%) NET (Mt OF ALT. (GRAD AVAILABLE 11°) 1500" ABOVE 1/0 SURFACE + 334{2 Buffeting occurs at pre-stall, in the low speed range and at the onset of shock wave, in the high speed range. The regulations require that in normal fights, there may be no buffeting conditions, severe enough to cause excessive fatigue tothe crew. Although, stall warning buffet within these limits is permitted by regulations, considering passengers’ comfort and adequate margin from buffet, MANOEUVRE MARGINS the speeds haye to he maintained within the buffet limits including the buffet. all warning Further, at any recommiended cruise altitude, a manoeuvre capability corresponding to a load factor of atleast 13 gis required to be assured » 34 +Q Low-Altitude Q Pre-stall Buffet The speed at which the pre-stall buffet occurs is closely'related to stalling speed, which increases with:- (@) Weight (b) Reduction in configuration (©) Angle of bank (or load factor which is equal to LifyWeight = Secant of Bank angle) (@) CofG in more forward position. (c) Pressure Altitude (when speeds are ‘expressed in Mach Numbers), Q Shock-wave Induced Buffet Buflet due to on set of shock wave occurs at a specific Mach No. related to Merit. Allowing fora safety margin, a lower Mach No. is chosen as the upper manoeuvre limit. This upper limit Mach no. marginally reduces with increase in altitude arid increase in Bank angle, Manoeuvre Margins At low altitudes, ic. during 10, citeling ‘ach for landing, the speeds are low and hence upper limit Mach No.is never enicountered. At these altitudes, the stick shaker speeds associated with various Flaps/Slats configuration and landing gear have to be considered taking into account the maximum bank requirements for obstacle avoidance and for following the approach procedures, O High Altitude Manoeuvre Margins Athigh altitudes, aircraft are flown in lean config, and at high speeds (in terms Mach Numbers). At the altitude selected for cruise, there should be adequate manoeuvre margin, catering for a bank angle comesponding to a load factor of atleast 13g, On the other hand, fora given altitude it is essential to know the following limits. (a) The range of speeds within which no buffet occurs at the bank required for ‘normal maneuvers. (b) The max bank at.which flight can be continued without occurrence of butfer. » 35 4