UNDERSTANDING

ELECTRONICS

+V

R1 VR1
10K 220K IC1
RST

DIS
Vcc

R2
555 OP
THR 330R
IN1
GND

CV

TR
+

SW1 C1

N Humphrey
 UNDERSTANDING ELECTRONICS
Basic Electrical Principles

Objectives
What is Current?
After working through this chapter,
you should be able to do the following: When a battery is connected to a light
bulb, it lights up. The applied voltage
1. Define what voltage is, know the forces the electric current from the
symbol for voltage and the units battery, through the bulb and then back
used. to the battery. But there is a little bit
2. Understand the basic difference more to the story. What is actually
between AC and DC voltages. happening is electrons are moving
3. Define the meaning of an electric from the positive terminal of the
current, know the symbol for battery, through the bulb, and then
current and the units used. back to the negative terminal of the
4. Know what conductors and battery.
insulators are and be able to give
examples. Scientists assumed in the early days
5. Use the formula from Ohms law to that electrons move from positive to
calculate resistance, voltage or negative. They have since discovered
current. that in fact electrons move from
6. Know how voltages and currents negative to positive. However we
can be measured. accept what is known as convention,
7. Know what power dissipation is i.e. that electrons move from positive
and the unit for power. to negative. So current is the flow of
8. Be able to calculate power electrons through a closed circuit. The
dissipation. unit of current is the ampere,
sometimes written as amps. The
What is Electronics? symbol used is I.

When we talk about electronics we are AC and DC voltage

normally referring to low currents and
in many cases to low voltages as well.
There are two types of voltage,
But what are currents and voltages?
alternating current (ac) voltage and
direct current (dc) voltage. The
What is Voltage? voltage in a mains plug is 240v AC.
This means that the voltage changes
Voltage or electro motive force from +240v to –240v, and back to
(e.m.f), pushes or forces an electric 240v and so on. It changes from +v to
current through a closed circuit. It can –v fifty times a second. Anything that
be compared with the domestic water changes with time has a frequency. In
supply in a home. The pressure in the this case mains voltage has a frequency
pipe forces the water along, in of 50Hz.
electronics, voltage forces the electric DC voltage remains constant at a given
current along. The unit of voltage is voltage. For example our 9v battery
the Volt and the symbol used is V. would show a constant line at 9v if
plotted against time. In electronics our
circuits are supplied with a dc voltage.

7
 UNDERSTANDING ELECTRONICS
Resistance
Conversion of units
The final part of the story was
discovered by a scientist called Ohm. 1mA = 0.001A
Some materials allow the flow of 1uA = 0.000001A
electrical currents through them. They
are known as conductors. Examples
include gold, silver, copper and Example
aluminium. Although these material
are conductors they have some An e.m.f. (voltage) of 9v is applied to a
resistance to the flow of electrical light bulb of resistance 100R. What
currents. Other materials totally resist current is flowing in the circuit?
the flow of electrical currents. These
are known as insulators. Examples Using the formula V=IxR
include dry wood, paper, plastics and 9 = I x 100
air. Resistance is the property of a Therefore I = 9/100
material to restrict the flow of electric I = 0.09A
current. The unit of resistance is the
ohm. The symbol used is Ω. However This can also be written as 90mA.
we tend to use the letter R. (milliamps)

Exercise 1.1
Ohm’s law
1. A 9v battery is connected to a bulb
Ohm discovered that there was a rated at 60mA. What is the
relationship between an applied resistance of the bulb?
voltage, the current flowing through 2. An e.m.f. of 12v is applied to a
the wire, and the resistance of the bulb of resistance 250R. What
wire. His law states that” the current current is flowing in the circuit?
flowing in an electrical conductor is
proportional to the voltage across it at Measuring voltage
constant temperature”. From Ohm’s
law we can say that If we want to measure the voltage at a
given point in a circuit we use a
V (volts) = I (amps) x R (ohms)

There are also divisions of these units.

For example, we may have 1000R
which can be written as 1K, the K
representing kilo or a thousand. We
could have 10mA, which can be
written as 0.01A, the mA representing voltmeter. The symbol for a voltmeter
milliamps. is V.
When performing calculations, every
time you must ensure that your values If for example, we want to check the
are in the units of the formula given voltage of our 9v battery, we would
above. connect the red lead of the voltmeter
to the positive terminal of the battery.
The black lead of the voltmeter would
be connected to the negative terminal.

8
 UNDERSTANDING ELECTRONICS
Measuring current components in the circuit generate
heat. If you consider a bulb connected
To measure the current flowing in a to a battery. The bulb emits light, but
circuit we use an ammeter. The in doing so, it also generates heat. If
symbol is A. The ammeter has to be the bulb was to overheat it would be
part of the circuit, so for example, if destroyed. When we talk about this
we were trying to find the current generated heat, we call it the power
flowing in a bulb connected to a dissipated or power rating. The
battery, we would connect the red lead symbol for power is P and the unit is
of the ammeter to the positive the Watt.
terminal of the battery.
(1) P (watts) = V (volts) x I (amps)

(2) P (watts) = I² (amps) x R

(ohms)

Either formula can be used according

to the information available.

Example

A 6v bulb is rated at 0.06A. What is

the power rating of the bulb.
The black lead of the ammeter is
connected to one side of the bulb, the P=VxI
other side of the bulb is connected to P = 6 x 0.06
the negative terminal of the battery. P = 0.36W

In electronics workshops we tend to Exercise 1.2

use multimeters rather than separate
volt and ammeters. Multimeters can 1. A bulb has a voltage rating of
measure AC and DC voltages, current 240v, and a power rating of 60W.
and resistance. What current would flow once it is
connected to the voltage supply?
Power 2. A bulb has a resistance of 10R and
the current flowing through it is
When for example, you run, your body 0.5A. What is the power rating of
generates heat. When an electric the bulb?
current flows in a circuit, the

9
 UNDERSTANDING ELECTRONICS
Resistors
Objectives
Preferred values
After working through this chapter,
you should be able to do the following: With such a wide range of potential
values, it would be very expensive and
1. Define what a resistor is and uneconomic to manufacture every
recognise the circuit symbol. single value. To overcome this a range
2. Know what is meant by the term of preferred values has been created.
preferred values. The most common ranges are known
3. Know what is meant by the term as the E12 and E24, although others
tolerance. are available.
4. Be able to use the resistor colour
code to identify 4 colour band E12 range 10R, 12R, 15R, 18R,
resistors. 22R, 27R, 33R, 39R, 47R, 56R, 68R,
5. Be able to calculate the total 82R and their multiples.
resistance of resistors connected in
series. E24 range 10R, 11R, 12R, 13R,
6. Be able to calculate the total 15R, 16R, 18R, 20R, 24R, 27R, 30R,
resistance of resistors connected in 33R, 36R, 39R, 43R, 47R, 51R, 56R,
parallel. 62R, 68R, 75R, 82R, 91R and their
7. Be able to calculate power multiples.
dissipation.
8. Know what a variable resistor is When choosing a resistor we always
and recognise the circuit symbol. choose the preferred value that is
higher than that calculated. For
In electronic circuits there are many example if our calculated value for a
occasions where we want to be able to resistor was 50R, we would use a 56R
control or restrict the current flowing, resistor. (Based on the E12 range)
or to fix the voltage at a given point.
To achieve this we used a fixed Exercise 2.1
resistor.
Using the E12 range chose the nearest
resistor to the values below.

1. 30R
Fig 2.1 Symbol for a Resistor 2. 110R
3. 620R
Resistors are constructed from one of 4. 4K3
the following materials, carbon film, 5. 91K
metal film, metal oxide or are 6. 160K
wirewound. They come in a range of 7. 510K
values, typically from 4R7 to 1M,
although values as low as 0.47R and as
high as 10M are available. Resistors
also come in a range of power ratings,
typically from 0.25W up to 50W.
Again lower and higher power ratings
are available.

10
 UNDERSTANDING ELECTRONICS
Tolerance first colour which was orange. Orange
represents the number 3. The 2nd
Resistors also come in a range of colour is also orange, so we have
tolerances. Tolerance means how another 3. The third band is the most
accurate or close the measured important. It tells us how many zero’s
resistance would be to the stated value to add. So our third brown means that
of the resistor. Typical tolerances are we need to add a zero.
5%, 2% and 1%
So our resistor Orange Orange Brown
Colour coding gold is 330 Ohms with a 5% tolerance.

Due to the small physical size of a 2. This time we need to identify the
resistor, a unique colour coding colours of a 1K resistor to ensure that
system has been devised. The table on the one we have taken out of the tray is
the next page shows the colour code the correct value.
for a four band resistor. Firstly convert 1K to ohms

1K = 1000R (kilo = 1000)

Colour 1st 2nd 3rd Band Now we cans start to work out the
Band Band colours. Our first digit is 1, so from the
Black O 0 - table the colour of the first band is
Brown 1 1 0 brown. The 2nd digit is 0, so the colour
Red 2 2 00 is black. The remaining digits
Orange 3 3 000 represent the third band, which is the
Yellow 4 4 0000 number of zero’s. For this resistor we
Green 5 5 00000 need two zero’s so the colour is red.
Blue 6 6 000000
Violet 7 7 0000000 Exercise 2.2
Grey 8 8
White 9 9 Using the above examples to guide
you, work out the value of the
following resistors.
To read the colour code, begin by
identifying the 4th band on the resistor 1. Brown, black, orange, gold?
which is coloured Gold. This indicates 2. Yellow, violet, black, gold?
the tolerance of the resistor. Most of 3. Red, red, red, gold?
the resistors used in schools are 5%. 4. Green, blue, yellow, gold?
Once you have done this, keep the 4th 5. Blue, grey, brown, gold?
band to your right. You can now start
on the left hand side with the 1st band From the stated value, work out the
and begin to identify the resistor. correct colour code for each resistor.
Remember to convert each value into
Example ohms first.

1. A resistor is coded orange, orange, 6. 100R

brown and gold. What value is this 7. 2k2
resistor? 8. 33k
Having identified the 4th band as the 9. 180k
tolerance band, we will start with the 10. 1M

11
 UNDERSTANDING ELECTRONICS

Resistors in series Resistors in parallel

Fig 2.2 Resistors in Series

When you start to look at circuits, you

will often see resistors connected Fig 2.3 Resistors in Parallel
together one after another as if they
were in a continuous chain. We say When two or more resistors lay side by
they are connected in series. side with their ends connected
together, we say they are connected in
When resistors are connected in this parallel.
way, the overall resistance can be
found by When resistors are connected in this
way, the overall resistance can be
R total= R1 + R2 +R3 and so on. found by
All you have to do is simply add all the R total = R1 x R2 / (R1 + R2)
resistances together. Note that the use
of R1, R2 etc refers to the Or
identification of each resistor, it is not
a value. 1/R total = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3
Example Example

What is the overall resistance of a 1. Two resistors are connected together

circuit if R1 is 22R and R2 is 56R? in parallel. R1 is 8R and R2 is 8R.
What is the total resistance?
R = R1 + R2
R = 22 + 56 R total = R1 x R2 / (R1 +R2)
R = 78R R total = 8 x 8 / (8 + 8)
R total = 64 / 16
You may be wondering why we R total = 4R
connect resistors in series. One reason
is that sometimes we require a resistor 2. Two resistors are connected together
value that is not manufactured or in parallel. R1 is 8R and R2 is 6R.
within the preferred range. By What is the total resistance?
combining resistors, we can often
obtain the required value. Another use R total = R1 x R2 / (R1 +R2)
is to drop or reduce voltages in a R total = 8 x 6 / (8 + 6)
circuit. R total = 48 / 14
R total = 3.43R

This can also be written as 3R43. This

way is normally used so as to save any
confusion with decimal points.

12
 UNDERSTANDING ELECTRONICS
Variable Resistors
Looking at the two examples you may
have noticed a couple of patterns. You have already come across
Firstly with example 1, if both resistors variable resistors in your home
are of equal value then the total without knowing it. The volume
resistance will always be exactly half control on your Hi-Fi is a variable
the value of one of the resistors. resistor as are the tone controls or
graphic equaliser. A variable resistor
In example two where we had two can be adjusted from 0R to its stated
resistors of different values, the total value.
resistance will always be less than the
lowest value resistor.

If you apply these two rules when

looking at your answer you should
never miscalculate the total resistance.

Exercise 2.3

Calculate the total resistance of the

following resistors connected in series.

1. When R1 is 100R and R2 is 220R? Fig 2.4 Symbols for variable resistors
2. When R1 is 1K and R2 is 680R?
3. When R1 is 10K and R2 is 330R? On circuit boards a smaller variable
resistor called a pre-set is used. These
Calculate the total resistance of the are variable resistors which once
following resistors connected in adjusted usually do not need to be
parallel. adjusted again.

4 When R1 is 16R and R2 is 16R?

5 When R1 is 1K and R2 is 1K?
6 When R1 is 100R and R2 is 47R?
7 When R1 is 27R and R2 is 22R?

Power Dissipation

In chapter 1 you came across the term

Power dissipated or Power rating. In
restricting the flow of electric current,
resistors generate heat. All resistors
have a power rating the most common
is 0.25W. If you are unsure how to
calculate power dissipation, look back
at chapter 1.

13
 UNDERSTANDING ELECTRONICS
Potential (Voltage) divider For example if R1 is 5R, R2 is 10R
and the supply voltage Vs is 9V find
Very often in circuits you will see two the output voltage.
resistors connected together as shown
below. Vout = Vs x R2/ (R1 + R2)

Vout = 9 x 10 / (5 + 10)

Vout= 6V

Exercise 2.4

Find the output voltage Vout if

1. Vs = 9V, R1 = 100R, R2 = 75R

2. Vs = 9V, R1 = 50R, R2 = 75R
3. Vs = 9V, R1 = 25R, R2 = 25R
4. Vs = 9V, R1 = 40R, R2 = 30R

Although we have considered two

fixed resistors for our potential divider
they could be any two resistive
components. For example one of the
Fig 2.5 Potential divider two resistors could be a preset and the
other could be a light or heat sensor.
Each of the resistors has the same You will meet the potential divider
value of current flowing through it. For again in the chapter on sensors.
example if there is 10mA flowing
through R1 then there will be 10mA
flowing through R2.

However a portion of the supply

voltage is dropped across each resistor.
For example if each resistor is 100R
and the supply voltage Vs is 9V then
because each resistor is of the same
value they will each drop half the
supply voltage i.e. 4.5V. Indeed if you
measured the voltage across either of
the resistors you would find it was half
the supply voltage. But what happens
when the two resistors are of different
values.

The current through each resistor is the

same but to find the voltage at Vout the
formula below is used.

Vout = Vsupply x R2 / (R1 + R2)

14
 UNDERSTANDING ELECTRONICS
Capacitors

Objectives The symbol in fig 3.1 is used to

indicate a non-polarised capacitor.
1. Know what a capacitor is. This means that it can be connected
2. Know the symbol used and the either way round. The symbol in fig
units of capacitance. 3.2 is used to indicate a polarised
3. Understand what is mean by the capacitor. This means that the + lead
term polarised and non-polarised. has to be connected to the + side of the
4. Know what capacitors are used for. circuit. This type of capacitor is
5. Be able to calculate the time normally an electrolytic type and is
constant of a simple circuit. very common in electronic circuits.

The scientist who discovered what we

What is a Capacitor? call capacitors was Michael Farraday.
The unit of capacitance is named after
A capacitor consists of two conducting him and is called the Farrad. The
surfaces (plates) separated by a thin symbol is F.
layer of insulation called a dielectric.
This layer of insulation can be ceramic, The Farrad is a very large unit so we
polystyrene, polyester, polycarbonate, tend to use the sub divisions µF, nF
mica, air, paper or electrolyte. and pF.

How does it work? The smallest capacitors are usually

ceramic plate or disc types with their
When a battery is connected to a value measured in pF. Electrolytic
capacitor the voltage does not reach capacitors are the largest in terms of
the plates straight away. To achieve their value which is measured in µF.
this difference in potential between the Polyester capacitors can be in nf or µF
plates of the capacitor, electrons have and fall between ceramic types and
to be supplied to the more negative electrolytic types.
plate and removed from the more
positive one. This takes time, the time What are capacitors used for?
is dependent on the size of the current
carrying the electrons. A capacitor As you have already discovered a
stores an electrical charge. capacitor takes time to achieve a
difference in potential between the
Symbols plates. So a capacitor can be used to
create a time delay. But capacitors can
be used for other applications.

Another feature of a capacitor is that it

allows AC voltage to pass through it
but stops DC voltage from doing so.
Fig 3.1 Fig 3.2 You will find capacitors used
Capacitor symbol Electrolytic extensively in circuits because of this
especially in audio equipment and in
The circuit symbol for a capacitor is power supplies.
shown above.

15
 UNDERSTANDING ELECTRONICS
Capacitors are also used in filters to get
rid of unwanted signals or frequencies. Exercise 3.1
An example of this is in tone controls
or graphic equalisers. 1. If R1 is 47K and C1 is 470µF what
is the time constant?
Time Delay 2. If R1 is 1M and C1 is 10µF what is
the time constant?
A circuit showing a resistor and 3. If the time constant is 20 seconds
capacitor connected together to create and C1 is 100µF what value of
a time delay is shown below. resistor is required?

You will find out more about time

constants in the chapter on timers.
R1
Capacitors in series and
Parallel
+

C1

Capacitors can be connected in series

0V and parallel just like resistors.
However connecting two capacitors in
Fig 3.3
series is like connecting resistors in
parallel.
TC = C x R x 1.1
For capacitors in series
As the last part of the formula 1.1
makes very little difference we tend to
C = C1 x C2 / (C1 +C2)
ignore it so the formula becomes
For capacitors in parallel
TC = C x R
C = C1 + C2
The units are seconds for time, Farrads
for capacitance and Ohms for
We rarely need to use these formulas.
resistance.

Example

If R1 is 100K and C1 is 100µF what is

the time constant of the circuit?

T=CxR
T = 100µF x 100K
T = 0.000100 x 100 000
T = 10 seconds

What this actually means is that the

capacitor will take 10 seconds to
become charged.

16
 UNDERSTANDING ELECTRONICS
Transistors

Objectives

1. Know the symbols for an NPN and

PNP transistor
2. Be able to label the connections. N P N
3. To be able to say what the arrow
on the symbol indicate. Fig 4.1
4. To be able to state what a transistor
is used for. Fig 4.1 shows the construction of an
5. To know what the “switch on” NPN transistor. Imagine it is like a
voltage is. hamburger. A piece of N type material
6. To understand the term Threshold. (top of the bun) joined to a thin piece
7. To understand why a resistor is of P type material (the burger), then
connected to the base of a joined to a piece of N type of material
transistor. (bottom part of the bun). The PNP type
8. To know the symbol and can be seen in the same way with the N
connections for a FET type material being the burger.

Introduction Symbols

The transistor was invented in

December 1947 by William Shockley,
John Bardeen and Walter Brattain at
Bells laboratory in New Jersey. The
transistor has revolutionised
electronics leading to the invention on Fig 4.2 Fig 4.3
integrated circuits and the NPN PNP
microprocessor. Transistors come in
different sizes either in a metal There are three connections on a
package or a plastic package. They can transistor. Collector, Base and
cost from a few pence to as much as Emitter. With an NPN transistor the
£50 for specialist devices. Collector is connected to the +v part
of the circuit. The Base is connected to
Bi-polar transistors the input of the circuit and the Emitter
is connected to 0v. With a PNP
The first transistors were manufactured transistor, the Collector is still
from geranium (types beginning with connected to the more positive part of
AC in their part number), now the circuit which is 0v. The Base is
transistors are manufactured from connected to the input and the Emitter
silicon. There are two types of is connected to -V
transistor, NPN and PNP. These refer
to the type of construction of the The arrow on the transistor symbol
transistor. indicates the direction of current
flow.

17
 UNDERSTANDING ELECTRONICS
What is a transistors used for? Field Effect Transistors (FET)

A transistor has two uses:

1. As an electronic switch.
2. As an amplifier.

How do transistors work?

In this chapter we are only going to

consider the transistor as an electronic
switch.
The transistor will “switch on” when
the difference in voltage between the
Fig 4.4
Base and the Emitter is 0.65V. In
other words if we connected the red
lead of a voltmeter to the Base leg, and
A field effect transistor (FET) has two
the black lead to the Emitter leg, the
layers of semiconductor material, one
voltage would have to be a minimum
on top of the other. Current flows
of 0.65V. This voltage can be up to
through one of the layers which is
approximately 3 to 4 volts. If it is any
called the channel. A voltage is
greater than this the transistor can be
connected to the other layer, called the
damaged. When a transistor has
gate which interferes with the current
switched on it is said to have reached
flowing in the channel. The voltage
Threshold.
connected to the gate controls the
current in the channel.
When the transistor has reached
Threshold almost all of the current
There are two types of FET. The
will flow through the transistor from
Junction Field Effect Transistor (JFET)
the collector to the emitter. A very
and the Metal Oxide Semiconductor
small amount will be present at the
Field Effect Transistor (MOSFET)
base.
In summing up the difference between
Current limiting a Bi polar transistor and a FET is that a
Bi polar transistor is current controlled
If too much current flows through the whilst a FET is voltage controlled.
Base of a transistor, the transistor will
be damaged. To prevent this from
happening, a resistor is connected in
series with the Base of the transistor.

Fig 4.4
Current limiting resistor

A typical value for the current

limiting resistor is 1K

18
 UNDERSTANDING ELECTRONICS
Timers
Objectives Input/timing/process/output
1. Know what is meant by the term R1 and SW1 are the input components
Monostable. of the circuit. VR1 and C1 are the
2. Know how a Monostable timer timing components. The process
works. component is the IC and the output
3. Be able to divide the circuit into components are R2 and IN1.
Input, timing, Process, Output.
4. Know what is meant by the term
How does it work?
Astable.
5. Know how an astable timer works. When switch SW1 is pressed the
voltage at pin 2 of IC1 becomes 0V.
Tme This then triggers the IC into life and
C1 is discharged, the output becomes
All around us we are surrounded by high or on. C1 then starts to charge
products which rely on or use time in through VR1. When the voltage across
their operation. Examples of products the capacitor reaches 2/3 of the supply
that use time include microwaves, voltage the IC then changes the output
videos and security lights. All of these to low or off.
products operate for a period of time
and then switch off. If SW1 is pressed once the timer has
been activated the time period is not
Monostable timer affected.

A timer that switches on for a period of Timing

time and then switches off again
remaining off until it is reset is called a In the chapter on capacitors you found
monostable timer. Monostable means out how to calculate the time constant.
single state. A circuit using a 555 timer To alter the time period all you need to
IC in monostable mode is shown do is change the value of either VR1 or
below. C1, or both components. If you
increase the values of these
+V
components you lengthen the time
period. The formula is given below
R1 VR1
10K 220K IC1

T=CxR
RST

DIS
Vcc

R2
555 OP
THR 330R
IN1
GND

Where time is in seconds, capacitance

CV

TR
+

SW1 C1

is in Farrads and resistance is in Ohms.

When choosing values for C1 and VR1

we tend to use the highest value of
resistance and lowest value of
capacitance. There are a number of
Fig 5.1 Monostable timer circuit
reasons for this. A resistor of 10R is
the same physical size as one of 1M
and all values cost the same. With

19
 UNDERSTANDING ELECTRONICS
capacitors as the value increases so
does the physical size. As size R1, R2 and C1 are the timing
increases so does the cost. components.

Connecting the output How does it work?

There are two ways of connecting the When the circuit is connected to a
output. In the circuit shown the output power source it triggers itself and free
is connected from pin 3 of the IC to the runs as a multivibrator. The capacitor
0V supply via R2 and IN1. In this case C1 charges through R1 and R2 and
the output is said to be connected to discharges through R2 only. The duty
sink. There is no output voltage present cycle may be precisely set by the ratio
until SW1 is pressed so IN1 will be of these resistors.
off.
C1 charges and discharges between 1/3
If the output is connected from the +V Vcc and 2/3 Vcc (If Vcc is 9V then the
supply to pin 3 of the IC via R2 and two values are 3V and 6V)
IN1, there will be a voltage difference
between these connections and IN1 The charge time (output High (on)
will be on. When SW1 is pressed the state) is given by:
voltage at pin 3 is high so there will be
no voltage difference and IN1 will be t1 (seconds) = 0.693 x (R1 + R2) x
off. IN1 will be on again once the time C1 (farads)
period has elapsed. If the output is
arranged in this way it is said to be The discharge time (Output Low (off)
connected to source. state) is given by:

Astable timer t2 (seconds) = 0.693 x (R2) x C1

(farads)
A timer that is not in one state or
another is called an astable. Simply an Thus the total period T is given by:
astable circuit switches pin 3 high (on)
then low (off), then high again and so T = t1 + t2 = 0.693 x (R1 x 2R2) x C1
on. It keeps on doing this until it is
stopped. A circuit is shown below. The frequency of oscillation is then:

F = 1/T = 1.44/ ((R1 +2R2) x C1)

+V

R1
Although it would appear that there is
a lot of maths involved in a nutshell
RST

DIS
Vcc

R3
555 OP
you can vary the time that the circuit is
high and the time that the circuit is
R2 THR
IN1
GND

CV

TR

IC1
low. This involves the values of R1,
+

C1
R2 and C1.

This comparison between the on

period and the off period is called the
mark to space ratio or mark space
ratio.
Fig 5.2 Astable timer circuit

20
 UNDERSTANDING ELECTRONICS

Operational Amplifier

An operational amplifier is an IC that Op Amp as a comparator

performs complex mathematical operations

The symbol for a Operational amplifier is

shown below TH1 R1 IN1
+V

10K

IC1
-
+ IN2
R3
VR1 R2 1K
10k 10K

0V

As you can see the Operational Amplifier Operational Amplifier as a Comparator

-V

or Op amp for short has two inputs marked

+ and -. The + input is called the non- If you look at the input to the op amp you
inverting input and the – input the inverting will see that there are two potential
input. dividers. The first potential divider is
formed by R1 and R2. As the values are
This can appear confusing at first. identical the voltage at the non-inverting
input will be half the supply voltage.
The op amp has a number of features. Assuming you are using a PP3 battery then
Firstly it has a very high gain (Ao) up to the voltage will be 4.5V.
100 000. However the output voltage
cannot be higher than the supply voltage The second potential divider is formed by
and in practice as a maximum 2 volts less the Thermistor TH1 and by the varaible
than the supply voltage. resistor VR1. The thermistor has a value of
4K7
The op amp depending on the device used
and the application will require a dual A Thermistor is a resistor whose resistance
power supply. This is a +V, -V and 0V. To changes when the temperature increases. So
achieve this two batteries will have to be as the resistance changes the voltage at the
used. junction of TH1 and VR1 also changes.

The obvious use of an op amp is as an When the batteries are connected the green
amplifier but it also can be used as a LED lights. The voltage at pin 3 is 4.33V.
comparator. The voltage at pin 2 is 4.6V. When the
thermistor detects an increase in
temperature the red LED now lights. The
voltage now at pin 3 is 4.44V.

The voltage at pin 3 is compared with the

voltage at pin 2 hence the op amp is used as
a comparator.

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 UNDERSTANDING ELECTRONICS

Logic Gates

Objectives

1. Know what is meant by High and Low

states.
2. Know the numbers that represent each A B OUT
state. 0 0 0
3. To be able to recognise the symbols for 0 1 0
the different logic gates. 1 0 0
4. To be able to construct the truth tables 1 1 1
for each logic gate.
5. To be able to design simple logic gate If you look at the above truth table you can
circuits to solve problems. see that the only time the output is High,
both inputs have to be High. This gate
Digital Electronics could be represented by two switches
connected in series as shown below in fig
Digital electronics could be described as 7.1. The circuit is only complete when both
the switching on or off of an output from an switches are closed.
input pulse. An output that is on is said to
be high. An output that is off is said to be
low. An output can only be in one state or
the other. A high state is represented by
the number 1, a low state by 0.
Fig 7.1
Logic Gates
OR Gate
There are a range of Logic Gates where the
output will only go High once the input
criteria is fulfilled. One of the popular
series of Logic Gates is the 4000 series.
Most are available as 14pin integrated
circuits. Logic gates can have 2, 3 or 4
inputs. To find out which combination of A B OUT
inputs are needed to produce an output a 0 0 0
truth table is constructed. In this chapter we 0 1 1
are only going to consider 2 input gates. To 1 0 1
know how many possible input 1 1 1
combinations are possible the expression 2n
is used, where 2 represents the number of With this truth table as long as either of the
possible states (high or low). n refers to the inputs is High, then the output will be High.
number of inputs. This gate could be represented by two
switches connected in parallel as shown in
AND Gate fig 7.2. As long as one of the gates is closed
the circuit is completed.

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 UNDERSTANDING ELECTRONICS
NOR Gate

Fig 7.2

NOT Gate A B OUT

0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0

The NOT-OR or NOR gate is an OR gate

with an inverter.
A Out
0 1
1 0 XOR Gate

The NOT gate is often referred to as an

inverter. The symbol is easily recognisable
from the circle on the output. The output is
the opposite to the input.
A B OUT
NAND Gate 0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

With the XOR (exclusive OR) gate the

A B OUT output is only high when either of the
0 0 1 inputs is High. If both inputs are High the
0 1 1 output is Low.
1 0 1
1 1 0 XNOR Gate

The Not-And or NAND gate is an AND

gate with an inverter on the output. It is one
of the more popular gates and can be used
to construct some of the other logic gates.

A B OUT
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

With the XNOR (Exclusive NOR) gate the

output is only high when both inputs are
Low or both inputs are High.

23
 UNDERSTANDING ELECTRONICS
Delay propagation The solution to the problem is to use 2
input OR gates as shown below.
When designing circuits using logic gates it
is worth considering the time it takes for
the output of a logic gate to change from a
Low state to a High state. Although the
time taken may only be nano seconds, you
have to add up the number of logic gates Fig 7.3
from the original input to the final output to
obtain the overall propagation delay. Ex 7.1

Very often when using a circuit simulation Using 2 input logic gates design a circuit
program this delay will not be highlighted. for a plant watering system that will water
It is only when a circuit is built on plants when
breadboard or on a PCB and it does not
quite work as planned that this A. It is dark and
propagation delay comes to light. B. When the plant is dry or
c. When the override is operated
Designing Logic gate circuits

Logic gates can be used to solve problems

in electronics. For example, design a circuit
using two input logic gates when either
A. The pressure mat is stepped on
B. The PIR detects movement
C. The window contact is broken

The first stage is to draw a truth table. As

there are 3 inputs with each input having a
high or low state then there are a total of 23
or 8 possible combinations.

A B C OUT
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 1
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 1
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1

From the truth table it can be seen that

output is High when any of the inputs is
also High.

24