Wireless Communication & Telecom Techcnologies

Chapter 1: Introduction to Wireless Communication

& Telecom Systems

1.1 Overview of Wireless Communication

Wireless communication refers to the transmission of information (voice,

data, and multimedia) without physical cables, using electromagnetic waves.

It enables mobility, flexibility, and global connectivity, forming the backbone

of modern telecommunications.

Key Components of Wireless Communication:

● Transmitter: Converts information into radio signals.

● Receiver: Decodes radio signals back into usable information.
● Channel: The medium (air, space) through which signals travel.
● Antennas: Transmit and receive electromagnetic waves.

1.2 Evolution of Mobile Radio Communications

The development of wireless communication has evolved through multiple

generations:

1G (1980s): Analog Cellular

● First-generation mobile networks (AMPS, NMT).

● Voice-only communication with poor security.

2G (1990s): Digital Cellular

● Introduced digital transmission (GSM, CDMA).

● Enabled SMS and basic data services (GPRS, EDGE).

3G (2000s): Mobile Broadband

● High-speed internet (UMTS, CDMA2000).

 ● Video calling and mobile web browsing.

4G (2010s): LTE & WiMAX

● All-IP networks with high-speed data (100 Mbps – 1 Gbps).

● Enabled HD video streaming and VoIP.

5G (2020s): Ultra-Reliable Low-Latency Communication

● Faster speeds (<1 ms latency, multi-Gbps data rates).

● Supports IoT, AI, and smart cities.

6G (2030s and Beyond): Terahertz & AI-Driven Networks

● Expected to integrate AI, advanced MIMO, and quantum communication.

1.3 The Telecom Industry: Past,

Present, and Emerging Trends

Past (Pre-2000s):

● Monopoly-based telecom operators (AT&T, BT).

● Circuit-switched networks (PSTN).

Present (2000s–2020s):

● Shift to IP-based networks (VoIP, 4G/5G).

● Rise of OTT services (WhatsApp, Zoom).
● Cloud computing and virtualization (NFV, SDN).

Emerging Trends (2020s and Beyond):

● 5G/6G: Ultra-fast, low-latency networks.

● IoT & Smart Cities: Connected devices and infrastructure.
● AI & Automation: Self-optimizing networks (SON).
● Open RAN (O-RAN): Vendor-neutral telecom infrastructure.

1.4 Mobile Radio Systems Around the World

Different regions have adopted various standards:

● North America: CDMA (Verizon, Sprint), GSM/LTE (AT&T, T-Mobile).

● Europe: GSM (dominant), LTE/5G (Ericsson, Nokia).
● Asia: Mixed (China: TD-SCDMA, India: GSM/LTE).
● Africa: GSM-based networks (MTN, Vodacom).

1.5 Wireless & Telecommunication Systems

Types of Wireless Networks:

● Cellular Networks (4G, 5G).

● Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11).
● Bluetooth & Zigbee (Short-range IoT).
● Satellite Communication (Starlink, GPS).

Telecom Systems:

● PSTN (Public Switched Telephone Network).

● VoIP (Voice over IP).
● Fiber-Optic Backbone Networks.

1.6 Standards and Regulations in Communication

Systems

Key Regulatory Bodies:

● ITU (International Telecommunication Union): Global spectrum

allocation.
● FCC (USA), Ofcom (UK), TRAI (India): National regulations.
● 3GPP: Develops cellular standards (GSM, LTE, 5G).

Key Wireless Standards:

● Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11 a/b/g/n/ac/ax).

● Bluetooth (IEEE 802.15.1).
● 5G NR (3GPP Release 15+).
1.7Applications and Considerations of Wireless
& Telecom Technologies

Applications:

● Consumer: Smartphones, smart homes, wearables.

● Enterprise: Remote work, cloud services.
● Industrial: IoT, automation, Industry 4.0.
● Emergency Services: Disaster recovery, military comms.

Key Considerations:

● Spectrum Efficiency: Optimizing limited bandwidth.

● Security: Encryption, authentication (5G security).
● Interference Management: Avoiding signal collisions.
● Power Consumption: Battery efficiency in IoT devices.

Chapter 2: Fixed Digital Telecommunications

Definition of Telecommunication

Telecommunication refers to the exchange of information (voice, data, video)

over long distances using wired or wireless transmission systems.

Key Components:

● Transmitter: Encodes and sends signals

● Transmission Medium: Cable (fiber/copper) or wireless (radio waves)
● Receiver: Decodes and processes signals

Evolution of Telecom Technologies

Era Fixed Telecom Wireless Telecom

1800s Telegraph, landline phones –

1900s Digital switching, fiber 1G analog cellular
optics
2000s VoIP, FTTH 3G mobile
internet
2010s SDN/NFV virtualization 4G LTE, Wi-Fi 6

2020s 400G fiber networks 5G, LEO satellites

Key Telecom Concepts

A.Modulation Techniques

● Analog: AM, FM
● Digital: QPSK, QAM, OFDM

B.Multiplexing Methods

Type Principle Example Use

FDM (Frequency Different frequency AM/FM radio

Division) bands
TDM (Time Division) Time slots for each user Traditional
telephony
CDM (Code Division) Unique codes per user 3G CDMA

OFDMA (Orthogonal Subcarrier allocation 4G/5G

FDM)

C.Network Architectures

● Circuit Switching (PSTN) → Dedicated path per call

● Packet Switching (IP Networks) → Data split into packets

Fixed vs. Wireless Telecom Comparison

Feature Fixed Telecom Wireless Telecom

Medium Copper, fiber Radio waves

Mobility Limited Fully mobile

Speed Very high (100Gbps Moderate (1Gbps

fiber) 5G)
Latency Ultra-low (~1ms) Low (~5ms 5G)

Deployment High infrastructure Lower (no cables)

Cost

Modern Telecom Trends

A.Fixed Network Advances

✔ 400G/800G Fiber Optics

✔ Software-Defined Networking (SDN)

✔ 5G Fixed Wireless Access (FWA)

B.Wireless Innovations

✔ 5G mmWave & Network Slicing

✔ LEO Satellite Constellations (Starlink)

✔ Wi-Fi 6E (6GHz spectrum)

Importance of Telecommunications

● Economic Growth: Enables digital economy

● Social Connectivity: Global communication
● Emergency Services: Critical infrastructure
● Industry 4.0: Supports IoT, smart cities
Telecom technologies form the backbone of modern connectivity through

fixed (wired) and wireless systems. While fiber optics dominate high-

speed fixed networks, 5G and Wi-Fi 6 drive wireless innovation. Future

trends include terabit fiber, 6G, and satellite internet.

2.1 Introduction to Fixed Digital

Telecommunications

Fixed digital telecommunications refer to wired communication systems that

transmit voice, data, and multimedia over physical infrastructure (copper,

fiber optics). Unlike wireless networks, fixed telecom provides stable, high-

bandwidth connectivity for homes, businesses, and institutions.

Key Characteristics:

✔ Wired Infrastructure (copper, fiber, coaxial cables).

✔ High Reliability & Low Latency (compared to wireless).

✔ Supports Voice, Data, and Video (unified communication).

✔ Regulated by Telecom Authorities (e.g., ITU, FCC).

2.2 Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN)

The PSTN is the traditional circuit-switched telephone network that has been

in use since the late 1800s.

Key Components:

1. Local Loops – Copper wires connecting homes to exchanges.

2. Central Offices (COs) – Switches calls locally.
3. Trunk Lines – High-capacity links between exchanges.
4. Signaling System 7 (SS7) – Controls call setup & teardown.
 How PSTN Works:

1. Call Initiation: Dialing a number sends electrical pulses.

2. Circuit Switching: A dedicated path is established.
3. Voice Transmission: Analog (old) or digital (modern PCM).
4. Call Termination: Circuit is released after hanging up.

Limitations:

❌ Inefficient bandwidth usage (dedicated circuit per call).

❌ Limited to voice & slow data (56 Kbps modems).
❌ Being replaced by VoIP & fiber optics.

2.3 Alcatel 1000 S10 Commutation Center

The Alcatel 1000 S10 was a digital switching system used in PSTN and ISDN
networks.

Features:

✔ Digital Switching – Converts analog voice to digital (PCM).

✔ Supports ISDN – Enables voice & data over the same line.

✔ Modular Architecture – Scalable for large networks.

✔ Used in 1990s–2000s – Deployed in Europe, Africa, and Asia.

Legacy:

● Paved the way for modern NGN (Next Generation Networks).

● Replaced by IP-based softswitches (VoIP).

2.4 Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN)

ISDN (1980s–2000s) was an early attempt to digitize telecom services over PSTN
lines.
Types of ISDN:

1. Basic Rate Interface (BRI)

○ 2B + 1D Channels (2×64 Kbps voice/data + 16 Kbps signaling).
○ Used by small businesses.
2. Primary Rate Interface (PRI)
○ 30B + 1D Channels (1.544 Mbps T1, 2.048 Mbps E1).
○ Used by enterprises & call centers.

Advantages over PSTN:

✔ Faster data transfer (up to 128 Kbps with BRI bonding).

✔ Simultaneous voice & data (no need for separate lines).

✔ Digital clarity (no analog noise).

Decline of ISDN:

❌ Replaced by DSL, VoIP, and fiber optics.

❌ Limited bandwidth compared to modern broadband.

2.5 Intelligent Telecommunication Networks

Intelligent Networks (IN) introduced software-based control over telecom

services, enabling advanced features like:

● Call Forwarding, Voicemail, Toll-Free Numbers.

● Prepaid Billing & Number Portability.

Key Components:

1. Service Control Point (SCP) – Database for call routing logic.

2. Service Switching Point (SSP) – Detects trigger conditions.
3. Intelligent Peripheral (IP) – Provides voice prompts (e.g., "Please
enter your PIN").
 Example: Toll-Free (1-800) Services

1. User dials 1-800-XXX-XXXX.

2. SSP queries SCP for routing instructions.
3. Call is connected to the destination without revealing the actual
number.

Evolution to Next-Gen Networks (NGN):

● Legacy IN → IP Multimedia Subsystem (IMS).

● Supports VoIP, 5G, and cloud-based telephony.

Technology Key Feature Status Today

PSTN Analog/digital Phasing out (replaced

by VoIP)
circuit switching
Alcatel 1000 Digital switching Obsolete (replaced by IP
S10 for ISDN/PSTN switches)

ISDN Digital voice + Mostly retired (replaced by

data integration broadband)

Intelligent Advanced call services via Evolved into IMS/VoLTE

Networks SCP/SSP

Chapter 3: Wireless Network

Definition of Wireless Communication

Wireless communication refers to the transmission of information (voice, data,

video) without physical cables, using electromagnetic waves (radio,

microwave, infrared).

Key Components:

1. Transmitter: Converts information into EM signals.

2. Channel: Medium for signal propagation (air, space).
3. Receiver: Decodes signals back into usable information.
Fundamental Principles:

● Frequency & Wavelength:

● c=fλ(c=3×108m/s)
● Modulation: Encoding data onto carrier waves (AM, FM, QAM).
● Multiplexing: Sharing bandwidth (FDMA, TDMA, CDMA).

1.2 Theories of Wireless Communication

A.Maxwell’s Equations (1860s)

● Foundation of EM wave theory.

● Predicts wave propagation through space.

B.Shannon’s Theorem (1948)

● Defines channel capacity (C) for error-free transmission:

● C=Blog2(1+SNR)
○ B = Bandwidth,
○ SNR = Signal-to-Noise Ratio.

C.Nyquist Theorem

● Minimum sampling rate for analog-to-digital conversion:

● fs≥2fmax

1.3 Wireless Applications

Application Example Technologies Use Case

Cellular 5G, LTE Mobile phones, IoT

Networks

Wi-Fi 802.11ax (Wi-Fi 6) Home/office internet

Satellite Comm.Starlink, GPS Global

internet, navigation
Bluetooth BLE (Bluetooth Low Energy) Wearables,
 audio devices
Radar/Sensing Automotive radar, Collision avoidance
mmWave
imaging

1.4 Wireless Networks

A.Network Types

Overview of Wireless Network Types

1.Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN)

● Range: <10 meters.

● Technologies:
○ Bluetooth (headphones, smartwatches).
○ UWB (Ultra-Wideband) – High-precision tracking.
○ Zigbee – Smart home sensors.

2.Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)

● Range: ~100 meters.

● Technologies:
○ Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11 a/b/g/n/ac/ax).
○ MANET (Mobile Ad-hoc Network) – No fixed infrastructure.

3.Wireless Metropolitan Area Network (WMAN)

● Range: ~50 km.

● Technologies:
○ WiMAX (IEEE 802.16).
○ LMDS (Local Multipoint Distribution Service).

4.Wireless Wide Area Network (WWAN)

● Range: Global.
 ● Technologies:
○ Cellular networks (4G, 5G).
○ Satellite communication (Starlink, GPS).

B.Cellular Architecture

● Cells: Hexagonal coverage areas with base stations.

● Frequency Reuse: Same frequency in non-adjacent cells.
● Handoff: Seamless switching between cells.

1.5 Wireless Communication and Law Enforcement

A.Surveillance & Forensics

● Stingray Devices: Mimic cell towers to track suspects.

● Wi-Fi Tracking: Monitoring public hotspots.

B.Legal Frameworks

1. U.S. Laws:
○ CALEA (1994): Requires telecoms to assist in surveillance.
○ ECPA (1986): Governs digital interception.
2. EU Laws:
○ GDPR (2018): Protects user data privacy.

C.Ethical Concerns

● Mass Surveillance (e.g., NSA leaks).

● Facial Recognition Bias.
● Encryption Backdoors (govt. vs. privacy debate).

Chapter Summary

Key Takeaways:

✔ Wireless systems use EM waves for cable-free communication.

✔ Shannon’s theorem defines maximum data rates.

✔ Applications range from 5G to satellite networks.

✔ Law enforcement uses wireless tech for surveillance, raising privacy

debates.

Overview of cellular and basic concepts

Cellular networks divide a geographic area into small cells, each served by a

base station (BS), to enable efficient frequency reuse and support millions

of users. This concept revolutionized wireless communication by improving

coverage, capacity, and spectral efficiency.

Key Benefits of Cellular Systems:

✔ Frequency Reuse → Same frequencies reused in non-adjacent cells.

✔ Scalability → More users per unit area.

✔ Handoff Support → Seamless mobility between cells.

1 Frequency Characteristics, Spectrum, and Bands

A.Frequency Spectrum in Cellular Networks

● Low Frequency (LF, <1 GHz) → Better coverage (e.g., 700 MHz for 4G
LTE).
● High Frequency (HF, >3 GHz) → Higher bandwidth but shorter
range (e.g., 5G mmWave).

B.Cellular Frequency Bands

Generatio Frequency Bands Applications

n
2G (GSM) 900 MHz, 1800 MHz Voice & SMS

3G 850 MHz, 2100 MHz Mobile internet

(UMTS)
4G (LTE) 700 MHz, 2.5 GHz HD streaming, VoIP

5G (NR) Sub-6 GHz, mmWave (24–100 IoT, AR/VR, autonomous

GHz) cars

C.Frequency Applications

● Lower Bands (e.g., 600–900 MHz) → Rural coverage.

● Mid Bands (e.g., 1.8–3.5 GHz) → Urban/suburban networks.
● mmWave (e.g., 28 GHz, 39 GHz) → Ultra-high-speed 5G hotspots.

2 Frequency Reuse

● Concept: The same frequency is reused in different cells to maximize

efficiency.

Cell Clustering & Reuse Distance (D)

Trade-offs:

● Small N → Higher capacity but more interference.

● Large N → Lower interference but reduced capacity.

3 Propagation in Cellular Systems

Signal dissemination from source to destination, reflection, diffraction, scattering

A.Path Loss Models

Propagation path models are mathematical frameworks used to predict

how radio waves travel from a transmitter to a receiver in different

environments. These models help engineers:

● Estimate signal strength at a given distance.

● Design cell coverage areas for cellular networks.
● Optimize antenna placement and transmit power.
● Analyze multipath effects (reflections, diffractions, scattering).
B.Fading & Multipath Effects
 ● Shadowing → Large-scale signal variation.
● Rayleigh Fading → Small-scale multipath fading.

4 Multiplexing & Modulation in Cellular Systems

A.Multiplexing Techniques

Techniqu Description Example

e
FDMA Divides spectrum into channels 1G (AMPS)

TDMA Assigns time slots to users 2G (GSM)

CDMA Uses unique codes for users 3G (CDMA2000)

OFDMA Divides bandwidth into 4G/5G (LTE, NR)

subcarriers

B.Modulation Schemes

● QPSK → Robust but slow (used in 3G).

● 16-QAM/64-QAM → Higher data rates (4G/5G).
● 256-QAM → Used in 5G mmWave.

5 Antenna Systems in Cellular Networks

A.Types of Antennas

● Omnidirectional → Covers 360° (macro cells).

● Directional (Sectorized) → Focused beams (microcells).
● MIMO (Multiple Input Multiple Output) → Improves capacity (4G/5G).

B.Beamforming (5G)

● Adaptive Antennas → Focus signals toward users.

● Massive MIMO → Uses dozens of antennas (e.g., 64T64R in 5G).

6 Handoff Strategies
Transfer communication during movement

A.Types of Handoffs

1. Hard Handoff → "Break before make" (used in GSM).

2. Soft Handoff → "Make before break" (used in CDMA).
3. Softer Handoff → Between sectors of the same cell.

B.Handoff Decision Parameters

● Signal Strength (RSSI)

● Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR)
● Distance from Base Station

7 Interference & System Capacity

A.Types of Interference

1. Co-Channel Interference (CCI) → Same frequency in nearby cells.

2. Adjacent-Channel Interference (ACI) → Leakage from neighboring
frequencies.

B.Capacity Enhancement Techniques

● Cell Splitting → Smaller cells → More users.

● Sectorization → Directional antennas → Less interference.
● Power Control → Adjusts transmit power dynamically.

8 Trunking & Grade of Service (GOS)

A.Trunking Theory

● Concept: Shared channels among multiple users.

B.Grade of Service (GOS)

● Definition: Probability of call blocking (e.g., 2% GOS = 2% calls blocked).

● Typical Target: <5% for voice networks.
 9 Improving Coverage & Capacity

A.Coverage Enhancement

● Repeaters → Extend signal range.

● Small Cells → Femtocells, picocells.

B.Capacity Enhancement

● Carrier Aggregation (CA) → Combines multiple frequency bands.

● Network Densification → More base stations per area.

Chapter Summary

Concept Key Takeaway

Frequency Reuse Enables efficient spectrum utilization.

Handoff Ensures seamless mobility (hard/soft handoffs).

Strategies
Interference Sectorization, power control, and MIMO help reduce
Mitigation interference.

Trunking & GOS Determines call-blocking probability.

Chapter 4: Cellular Network

Wireless communication systems enable data and voice transmission without

physical cables, using radio waves, microwaves, and infrared signals.

These systems have evolved from 1G (analog voice) to 5G (ultra-fast

internet & IoT), with various network types (WPAN, WLAN, WMAN, WWAN)

serving different coverage needs.

This chapter covers:

✔ Evolution of cellular networks (1G → 5G)

✔ Key wireless standards (GSM, CDMA, LTE, 5G NR)

✔ Types of wireless networks (WPAN, WLAN, WMAN, WWAN)

1 First Generation (1G) Cellular Networks (1980s)

Key Features:

● Analog transmission (Frequency Modulation – FM).

● Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) – Each call used
a separate frequency.
● Limited to voice calls (no data).

Technologies:

● AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone System) – Used in North America.

● NMT (Nordic Mobile Telephone) – Used in Europe.

Limitations:

❌ No encryption (calls were easily intercepted).

❌ Poor battery life & call quality.
❌ Incompatible across regions.

2 Second Generation (2G) Cellular Networks

(1990s)

Key Improvements:

✔ Digital transmission (better voice quality & security).

✔ SMS (Short Message Service) introduced.

✔ Basic data services (9.6 Kbps).

2.1 GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications)

 ● Most widely used 2G standard.
● Used SIM cards for user identification.
● TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access) – Divided frequency into time
slots.

2.2 2.5G (GPRS & EDGE)

Technolog Speed Use Case

y
GPRS 56–114 Kbps Basic internet (WAP,
email)
EDGE Up to 384 Kbps Faster mobile browsing

Limitations:

❌ Still too slow for video streaming.

3 Third Generation (3G) Wireless Networks

(2000s)

Key Features:

✔ Mobile broadband (2 Mbps peak speed).

✔ Video calling & internet access.

Technologies:

● UMTS (WCDMA) – Used in Europe.

● CDMA2000 – Used in North America.

Applications:

● Skype, mobile YouTube, GPS navigation.

Limitations:

❌ High latency (~100 ms).

4 Fourth Generation (4G) Wireless Networks
(2010s)

Key Features:

✔ All-IP network (VoLTE – Voice over LTE).

✔ 100 Mbps – 1 Gbps speeds.

✔ Low latency (~30 ms).

Technologies:

● LTE (Long-Term Evolution) – Most widely adopted.

● WiMAX (IEEE 802.16) – Alternative for rural areas.

Applications:

● HD video streaming (Netflix, Zoom).

● Online gaming & cloud services.

5 Fifth Generation (5G) Wireless Networks (2020s)

Key Features:

✔ Ultra-fast speeds (1–10 Gbps).

✔ Ultra-low latency (<1 ms).

✔ Massive IoT connectivity (1M devices/km²).

Technologies:

● mmWave (24–100 GHz) – Extreme speeds but short range.

● Sub-6 GHz (1–6 GHz) – Balanced speed & coverage.

Applications:

● Autonomous vehicles.
 ● Augmented Reality (AR) & Virtual Reality (VR).

2.1 Introduction to Mobile Computing

Mobile computing refers to the use of portable computing devices to

access and process data while on the move. It enables users to

interact with information systems without being tied to a fixed

physical location.

Key Characteristics:

✔ Mobility: Devices can move freely within networks

✔ Portability: Small, lightweight form factors

✔ Wireless Connectivity: Relies on cellular/Wi-Fi/Bluetooth

✔ Location Awareness: GPS-enabled services

✔ Ubiquitous Access: Information available anytime, anywhere

2 Evolution of Mobile Computing

GeneratioKey Developments Example Devices

n
1980s Portable computers Luggables (Osborne 1)

1990s PDAs, earlyPalm Pilot,

smartphones Nokia
Communicator
2000s Feature phones, 3G BlackBerry, early iPhone

2010s Smartphone revolutionAndroid/iOS devices

2020s 5G, wearables, IoT Foldables, smartwatches

3 Mobile Computing Architecture

Three-Tier Architecture:
 1. Presentation Tier: Mobile device interface
2. Application Tier: Middleware and business logic
3. Data Tier: Cloud/enterprise databases

Key Components:

● Mobile Devices: Smartphones, tablets, wearables

● Wireless Networks: 4G/5G, Wi-Fi, Bluetooth
● Cloud Infrastructure: Storage and processing backend
● Middleware: Connects devices to enterprise systems

4 Mobile Operating Systems

OS Market Key Features

Share
Android ~70% Open-source, Google ecosystem

iOS ~28% Closed ecosystem, premium UX

Others <2% HarmonyOS, KaiOS

5 Mobile Applications

Types of Mobile Apps:

1. Native Apps: Platform-specific (Swift for iOS, Kotlin for Android)

2. Web Apps: Browser-based (HTML5, JavaScript)
3. Hybrid Apps: Combine native and web technologies (React
Native, Flutter)

Development Considerations:

● Screen size variations

● Battery/power optimization
● Security requirements
● Offline functionality

6 Mobile Cloud Computing

Key Concepts:

● Offloading: Moving processing to cloud servers

● Elastic Resources: Scalable compute/storage
● Mobile Backend as a Service (MBaaS): Pre-built cloud services

Benefits:

✔ Extends device capabilities

✔ Enables data synchronization

✔ Reduces local storage needs

7 Challenges in Mobile Computing

1. Power Consumption: Battery life limitations

2. Security Vulnerabilities: Data leakage, malware
3. Heterogeneous Networks: Seamless handoffs between
Wi-Fi/cellular
4. Small Interfaces: Limited input/output capabilities
5. Connectivity Issues: Dead zones, bandwidth fluctuations

8 Emerging Trends

1. 5G Networks: Ultra-low latency applications

2. Edge Computing: Processing data closer to source
3. Foldable Devices: New form factors
4. AI Integration: On-device machine learning
5. AR/VR Applications: Mobile-powered immersive experiences

9 Mobile Computing in Industry

Enterprise Applications:

● Field service management

● Sales force automation
● Inventory tracking
Consumer Applications:

● Mobile banking
● Ride-sharing apps
● Social media platforms

Healthcare Applications:

● Remote patient monitoring

● Telemedicine consultations
● Wearable health trackers

Chapter Summary

GeneratioSpeed Key Tech Use Case

n
1G 2.4 Kbps Analog (AMPS) Voice calls

2G 9.6–384 Kbps GSM, CDMA SMS, basic internet

3G 2 Mbps UMTS, CDMA2000 Video calls, mobile web

4G 100 Mbps–1 LTE, WiMAX HD streaming, VoIP

Gbps

5G 1–10 Gbps mmWave, Sub- IoT, AR/VR, autonomous

6 GHz cars

Key Takeaways:

✔ Mobile computing enables ubiquitous access to information

✔ Relies on portable devices and wireless networks

✔ Faces unique challenges around power and connectivity

✔ Continues to evolve with 5G and edge computing

Chapter 5: Mobile Radio Propagation

1. Large-Scale Path Loss

1.1 Introduction to Radio Wave Propagation

Radio wave propagation refers to how electromagnetic waves travel from a

transmitter to receiver through different environments.

Mobile radio propagation models are essential for network planning, coverage

optimization, and interference mitigation. Future trends include AI-driven

propagation prediction and real-time ray tracing for 6G. The next chapter covers

modulation and coding techniques.

Key concepts:

● Large-scale effects: Average signal power over large distances (km)

● Small-scale effects: Rapid fluctuations over short distances (m)

● Frequency dependence: Higher frequencies attenuate faster

● Environment impact: Urban, suburban, rural, indoor scenarios

1.2 Free Space Propagation Model

Predicts signal attenuation in unobstructed environments:

Free Space Path Loss (FSPL) Equation:

PL(dB) = 20log₁₀(d) + 20log₁₀(f) + 20log₁₀(4π/c)

= 32.44 + 20log₁₀(d_km) + 20log₁₀(f_MHz)

Example: 1 GHz signal at 1 km → 92.44 dB path loss

Limitations:

● Only valid for line-of-sight (LoS) conditions

● Doesn't account for reflections/diffractions

1.3 The Three Basic Propagation Mechanisms

1. Reflection:

○ Occurs at smooth surfaces (buildings, ground)

○ Fresnel reflection coefficients determine reflection magnitude

2. Diffraction:

○ Wave bending around obstacles (knife-edge effect)

○ Enables signal reception in shadowed regions

3. Scattering:

○ Caused by rough surfaces (foliage, signs)

○ Rayleigh criterion determines surface roughness effect

1.4 Outdoor Propagation Models

Empirical Models:

● Log-Distance Path Loss:

● PL(d) = PL₀ + 10n·log₁₀(d/d₀) + Xσ

○ n = path loss exponent (2-6)

○ Xσ = shadow fading (log-normal)

● Hata-Okumura Model:

○ Frequency: 150-1500 MHz

○ Accounts for urban/suburban/rural differences

● COST-231 Extension:

○ Extends Hata to 2 GHz for urban microcells

 Deterministic Models:

● Longley-Rice: Terrain-aware model

● ITU-R P.1546: Point-to-area predictions

1.5 Indoor Propagation Models

Key Characteristics:

● Waveguide effects in corridors

● Floor/wall penetration losses

● Dense multipath environment

Common Models:

● Log-Distance Path Loss (n=1.6-6)

● ITU Indoor Model (includes floor loss)

● Motley-Keenan: Wall attenuation factor model

1.6 Signal Penetration into Buildings

Penetration Loss by Material:

Material Loss (dB) Frequency

Drywall 2-4 2.4 GHz

Concrete 10-20 5 GHz

Glass 3-6 3.5 GHz

Frequency Dependence:

● Lower frequencies (sub-1GHz) penetrate better

● mmWave (24+ GHz) severely attenuated

1.7 Ray Tracing and Site-Specific Modeling

Ray Tracing Approaches:

1. Geometric Optics (GO): Simple reflection/diffraction

2. Shooting-and-Bouncing Rays (SBR): High accuracy

Implementation:

● Requires 3D building databases

● Accounts for:

○ Material properties

○ Antenna patterns

○ Polarization effects

Applications:

● 5G mmWave planning

● Indoor Wi-Fi optimization

2. Small-Scale Fading and Multipath

2.1 Small-Scale Multipath Propagation

Characteristics:

● Caused by constructive/destructive interference

● Rapid signal fluctuations over λ/2 distances

● Time dispersion (delay spread)

● Frequency dispersion (Doppler spread)

2.2 Impulse Response Model

Channel Impulse Response:

h(τ,t) = Σa (t)e^(-jθ (t))δ(τ-τ (t))

● a◻ = amplitude

● θ◻ = phase

● τ◻ = time delay

2.2.1 Small-Scale Measurements

● Direct RF Pulse: Simple but low resolution

● Spread Spectrum Correlator: Better multipath resolution

● Frequency Domain: Channel sounders

2.2.2 Multipath Channel Parameters

1. Time Dispersion:

○ Mean excess delay

○ RMS delay spread

○ Coherence bandwidth

2. Frequency Dispersion:

○ Doppler spread

○ Coherence time

2.2.3 Types of Small-Scale Fading

Fading Type Condition Effect

Flat Bw < Coherence All frequencies fade equally

Bw
Frequency Selective Bw > Coherence Different frequencies fade
Bw differently
Fast T◻ > Channel changes within
Coherence symbol period
Time
Slow T◻ < Channel constant over
Coherence symbol period
Time

2.2.4 Rayleigh and Ricean Distributions

● Rayleigh: No dominant LoS component

● f(r) = (r/σ²)exp(-r²/2σ²)

● Ricean: Dominant LoS plus scatterers

● f(r) = (r/σ²)exp(-(r²+A²)/2σ²)I₀(rA/σ²)

○ K = A²/2σ² (Rice factor)

2.2.5 Statistical Fading Models

1. Clarke's Model: 2D isotropic scattering

2. Jakes' Simulator: Efficient implementation

3. 3GPP/ITU Models: Standardized for system testing

2.2.6 Multipath Shape Factors Theory

Characterizes fading channels using:

● Angular spread

● Directional spread

● Azimuthal distribution

Applications:

● MIMO system design

● Spatial channel modeling

Chapter Summary

Key Concepts:

● Large-scale models predict average signal strength over distance

● Small-scale models characterize rapid signal fluctuations

● Propagation mechanisms include reflection, diffraction, scattering

● Modern planning uses ray tracing and 3D modeling

Practical Implications:

● Cell planning requires appropriate path loss models

● System design must account for fading characteristics

● Material properties significantly impact indoor coverage

● mmWave systems need site-specific modeling