Fixed Networks

Types, Components, Technologies

Introduction

 Definition of Fixed Networks:

• A fixed network refers to a telecommunications network that uses
cable or fiber to connect devices to a stable and immovable
infrastructure.
 Importance and Relevance:
• Fixed networks are the backbone of modern communication systems,
providing reliable and high-speed connectivity for both residential and
business applications.
• They support a vast range of services, including internet access,
television broadcasting, and telephone services, ensuring continuous
and dependable communication.
 Historical Background

• Early Telephone Networks (1870s):

• The invention of the telephone by Alexander Graham Bell led to the development of the first
public switched telephone networks (PSTN).
• Initially, manual switchboards were used for connecting calls.
• Electromechanical Switching (1920s-1960s):
• Introduction of automated electromechanical switches improved call connection speeds and
reliability.
• This era saw the expansion of telephone networks globally.
• Digital Switching (1970s-1980s):
• Transition from analog to digital switching systems enhanced the capacity and quality of
telephone services.
• The Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) was introduced, allowing voice and data
transmission over the same line.
• Broadband and Internet (1990s-Present):
• Development of Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) technologies enabled high-speed internet access
over existing copper telephone lines.
• The advent of fiber optic technology revolutionized data transmission, offering unprecedented
bandwidth and speed.
 Public Switched Telephone Network
(PSTN)
 Definition: A traditional circuit-switched network used globally for voice communications.
 Components:
• Local Exchange: Connects subscribers in a local area.
• Trunk Lines: High-capacity lines connecting local exchanges.
• Central Office: Main switching centers that route calls.
 Key Features:
• Reliability: Established and dependable for voice communication.
• Analog and Digital: Originally analog, now mostly digital.
• Circuit-Switched: Dedicated path established for the duration of a call.
 Advantages:
• Wide coverage and accessibility.
• High voice quality and low latency.
• Supports emergency services.
 Challenges:
• Limited data transmission capabilities.
• High maintenance costs.
 Applications:
• Residential and business telephony.
• Emergency services communication.
 Integrated Services Digital Network
(ISDN)
 Definition: A set of standards for digital transmission of voice, video, data, and other network services over
traditional telephone lines.
 Components:
• Terminal Adapter (TA): Connects non-ISDN devices to ISDN lines.
• Network Termination (NT): Interface between the customer's equipment and the network.
• ISDN Switch: Facilitates the digital connections.
 Key Features:
• Digital Transmission: Clearer voice quality and faster data transfer.
• Multiple Channels: B-channels for data, D-channels for signaling.
• End-to-End Digital Connectivity: From user to user.
 Advantages:
• Higher data rates than PSTN.
• Simultaneous transmission of voice and data.
• Enhanced services like video conferencing and fast file transfer.
 Challenges:
• Higher costs compared to analog lines.
• Complex installation and configuration.
 Applications:
• Video conferencing.
• Internet access.
• Transmission of multimedia content.
Digital Subscriber Line (DSL)
 Definition: A family of technologies providing high-speed internet access over existing telephone
lines.
 Components:
• DSL Modem: Connects the user's device to the DSL line.
• DSLAM (Digital Subscriber Line Access Multiplexer): Aggregates multiple DSL connections into
a single high-capacity link.
 Key Features:
• High-Speed Internet: Higher speeds compared to dial-up.
• Uses Existing Infrastructure: Operates over standard telephone lines.
• Variants: ADSL (Asymmetric DSL) for higher download speeds, SDSL (Symmetric DSL) for equal
upload/download speeds.
 Advantages:
• Cost-effective broadband solution.
• Always-on connection.
• Can coexist with traditional voice services (POTS).
 Challenges:
• Distance limitations from the central office.
• Signal degradation over longer distances.
• Variable speeds based on line quality and distance.
 Applications:
• Broadband internet for homes and small businesses.
 Fiber Optic Networks
 Definition: A network that uses optical fibers for high-speed data transmission as light pulses.
 Components:
• Optical Fibers: Thin strands of glass or plastic transmitting data as light.
• Fiber Optic Cables: Bundles of optical fibers.
• Optical Splitters: Divide optical signals into multiple paths.
 Key Features:
• High Bandwidth: Capable of transmitting large amounts of data.
• Speed: Extremely fast data transfer rates.
• Distance: Less signal loss over long distances compared to copper.
 Advantages:
• Immune to electromagnetic interference.
• Higher capacity and speed.
• Future-proof technology.
 Challenges:
• High installation costs.
• Requires specialized equipment and expertise.
• Physical vulnerability to cuts and damage.
 Applications:
• High-speed internet (FTTH, FTTB, FTTC).
• Data centers and cloud services.
• Enterprise networks.
Components of Fixed Networks

 Central Office (CO):

• Definition: A facility that houses telecommunications equipment, including
switches, to route and manage calls and data traffic.
• Functions:
• Routes calls and data between different parts of the network.
• Interfaces with the core and access networks.
 Distribution Network:
• Definition: The intermediate network segment that connects the central office
to local exchanges or customer premises.
• Components:
• Distribution Points: Nodes where the network branches out to serve multiple
customers.
• Cabling: Includes copper, fiber optic, or coaxial cables depending on the network type.
Components of Fixed Networks
 Customer Premises Equipment (CPE):
• Definition: Devices located at the end-user’s location to access the network.
• Examples:
• Modems and Routers: Connect to the internet and manage local networks.
• Telephones and Set-Top Boxes: Interface with voice and video services.
 Network Interface Device (NID):
• Definition: A device that serves as the demarcation point between the provider's network and
the customer's internal wiring.
• Functions:
• Provides a point for network troubleshooting and testing.
• Protects the provider’s network from faults in the customer’s equipment.
 Key Features and Functions:
• Reliable Connectivity: Ensures stable and continuous service.
• Scalability: Supports the addition of new customers and services.
• Maintenance and Troubleshooting: Facilitates easy identification and resolution of network
issues.
Copper Wire Technologies (e.g.,
DSL)
 Digital Subscriber Line (DSL):
• Definition: A technology for high-speed internet access over existing
telephone lines.
• Types:
• ADSL (Asymmetric DSL): Higher download speeds compared to upload speeds.
• SDSL (Symmetric DSL): Equal upload and download speeds.
• Advantages:
• Utilizes existing telephone infrastructure.
• Cost-effective broadband solution.
• Challenges:
• Performance degrades with distance from the central office.
• Limited bandwidth compared to fiber optic technologies.
 Fiber Optic Technologies
 Fiber to the Home (FTTH):
• Definition: A fiber optic network where the fiber extends directly to individual homes.
• Advantages:
• Extremely high bandwidth.
• Future-proof technology.
• Challenges:
• High installation and maintenance costs.
• Requires specialized equipment and expertise.
 Fiber to the Building (FTTB) and Fiber to the Curb (FTTC):
• Definition: Fiber optic network where fiber extends to a building or curb, with the final
connection to the user made via existing copper or coaxial cables.
• Advantages:
• High-speed internet access.
• Cost-effective deployment in multi-tenant buildings.
• Challenges:
• Requires integration with existing infrastructure.
• Limited by the performance of the final copper or coaxial segment.
Coaxial Cable Technologies (e.g.,
DOCSIS)

 Data Over Cable Service Interface Specification (DOCSIS):

• Definition: An international telecommunications standard that allows
the addition of high-bandwidth data transfer to an existing cable TV
(CATV) system.
• Advantages:
• Utilizes existing cable TV infrastructure.
• High-speed internet access.
• Challenges:
• Shared bandwidth among users in the same neighborhood.
• Signal interference and degradation over long distances.
Fixed Network Topologies

 1. Point-to-Point Topology
• Definition:
• A direct connection between two network nodes.
• Components:
• Nodes: Devices or end-points connected directly.
• Links: Dedicated communication paths.
• Advantages:
• High data transfer rates due to dedicated connections.
• Simple design and easy to manage.
• Challenges:
• Limited scalability; adding more nodes requires additional connections.
• Single point of failure can affect the entire connection.
Fixed Network Topologies

 2. Point-to-Multipoint Topology
• Definition:
• A central node (hub) connects to multiple peripheral nodes (spokes).
• Components:
• Central Node (Hub): The main point of communication.
• Peripheral Nodes (Spokes): Connected to the central node.
• Advantages:
• Efficient for distributing data to multiple locations from a central point.
• Simplifies network management with a central hub.
• Challenges:
• Central node is a potential bottleneck and single point of failure.
• Performance may degrade as the number of connected nodes increases.
Fixed Network Topologies

 3. Ring Topology
• Definition:
• Each node is connected to exactly two other nodes, forming a circular network.
• Components:
• Nodes: Form a closed loop.
• Links: Connect each node to two others.
• Advantages:
• Data travels in a predictable manner; easy to troubleshoot.
• Data collision is reduced due to the unidirectional flow (in some cases).
• Challenges:
• A break in the ring can disrupt the entire network.
• Requires more complex management and maintenance.
Fixed Network Topologies

 4. Star Topology
• Definition:
• All nodes are connected to a central hub or switch.
• Components:
• Central Hub/Switch: The central point of connection.
• Peripheral Nodes: Connected to the hub.
• Advantages:
• Easy to add or remove nodes without affecting the rest of the network.
• Centralized management and troubleshooting.
• Challenges:
• The central hub is a single point of failure.
• Requires more cabling and hardware compared to other topologies.
Fixed Network Topologies

• Point-to-Point Topology: Nodes are typically individual devices or endpoints

directly connected to each other. For example, this could be two computers or
two network devices communicating directly.
• Point-to-Multipoint Topology: Nodes include the central hub and the multiple
peripheral devices connected to it. The central hub could be a router or switch,
and the peripheral nodes are devices like computers, printers, or other networked
equipment.
• Ring Topology: Nodes are the devices or endpoints connected in a circular
manner. Each device communicates with its two neighboring devices, forming a
ring. These could be computers, network switches, or other types of network
equipment.
• Star Topology: Nodes are the end-user devices or endpoints connected to a
central hub or switch. The central hub could be a network switch, and the end-
user devices are computers, printers, and other networked devices connected to
this hub.
Network Architecture

 1. Core Network
• Definition:
• The central part of a telecommunications network that provides a high-speed backbone for data
transmission and routing.
• Components:
• Core Routers: Direct and manage high-capacity traffic between different network segments.
• Switches: Facilitate data transfer and manage traffic within the core network.
• Backbone Links: High-speed connections between core network nodes.
• Functions:
• Provides connectivity between various regional and local networks.
• Ensures high availability and reliability of services.
• Characteristics:
• High bandwidth and low latency.
• Redundant paths to ensure reliability.
Network Architecture

 2. Access Network
• Definition:
• The network segment that connects end-users to the core network.
• Components:
• Access Points: Locations where users connect to the network, such as network cabinets or
distribution points.
• Customer Premises Equipment (CPE): Devices at the end-user’s location, such as modems or
routers.
• Distribution Cables: Copper, fiber, or coaxial cables connecting the access points to end-users.
• Functions:
• Provides the final connectivity from the core network to individual users.
• Handles lower-speed, higher-volume traffic.
• Characteristics:
• Varies in technology depending on user needs (e.g., DSL, fiber, coaxial).
• Often involves a mix of wired and wireless connections.
Network Architecture

 3. Distribution Network
• Definition:
• The intermediate network segment that links the core network with the access network.
• Components:
• Distribution Nodes: Points where the network branches out to connect with local access
networks.
• Fiber or Copper Lines: High-capacity links that distribute traffic from the core network.
• Network Switches: Manage and direct traffic through the distribution network.
• Functions:
• Routes traffic from the core network to various local access points.
• Balances traffic loads and optimizes performance.
• Characteristics:
• Provides scalable solutions for growing networks.
• Ensures efficient distribution of bandwidth.
Network Architecture
Advantages of Fixed Networks

 1. High Reliability
• Definition: Fixed networks provide consistent and stable connectivity with minimal
interruptions.
• Reasons:
• Dedicated Lines: Fixed networks often use dedicated physical connections, reducing the
likelihood of network congestion.
• Infrastructure Stability: Physical components such as cables and switches are less prone to
interference compared to wireless systems.
 2. High Bandwidth and Speed
• Definition: Fixed networks offer higher data transfer rates compared to wireless
networks.
• Reasons:
• Fiber Optics: Fiber optic networks provide extremely high bandwidth and low latency.
• Less Interference: Wired connections are less affected by environmental factors and
interference.
Advantages of Fixed Networks

 3. Consistent Quality
• Definition: Fixed networks generally provide a uniform level of service quality.
• Reasons:
• Controlled Environment: Network performance is less affected by external conditions such
as weather or physical obstructions.
• Quality of Service (QoS): Fixed networks can implement QoS protocols to ensure reliable and
predictable performance.
 4. Enhanced Security
• Definition: Fixed networks typically offer better security compared to wireless networks.
• Reasons:
• Physical Access Control: Network access is limited to physical connections, reducing the risk
of unauthorized access.
• Advanced Security Protocols: Easier to implement and manage security measures such as
firewalls and encryption.
Advantages of Fixed Networks

 5. Lower Latency
• Definition: Fixed networks often exhibit lower latency, providing faster response
times.
• Reasons:
• Direct Connections: Data travels along direct paths with minimal delay.
• Reduced Signal Processing: Fewer layers of signal processing compared to wireless
networks.
 6. Scalability and Upgradability
• Definition: Fixed networks can be scaled and upgraded to meet growing demands.
• Reasons:
• Modular Infrastructure: Easy to expand with additional equipment and connections.
• Technology Upgrades: Capability to incorporate new technologies like advanced fiber
optics or higher-capacity switches.
 Challenges and Limitations of Fixed
Networks
 1. High Initial Costs
• Definition: The initial setup and deployment of fixed networks can be expensive.
• Reasons:
• Infrastructure Installation: Costs for laying cables, setting up switches, and installing other hardware.
• Equipment Costs: High-quality network equipment can be costly.
• Impact:
• High capital expenditure required for deployment.
• Financial barriers for expanding network coverage in underserved areas.
 2. Physical Limitations
• Definition: Fixed networks are constrained by physical factors.
• Reasons:
• Infrastructure Constraints: Physical cables and equipment require space and can be difficult to install
in certain environments.
• Maintenance: Physical damage to cables (e.g., from digging or weather) can disrupt service.
• Impact:
• Limited flexibility in rapidly changing environments.
• Higher maintenance requirements and potential for service disruptions.
Challenges and Limitations of Fixed
Networks
 3. Limited Reach
• Definition: Fixed networks may not reach all geographic areas.
• Reasons:
• Distance Constraints: Signal degradation over long distances, especially with copper cables.
• Accessibility: Difficulty in reaching remote or densely populated areas.
• Impact:
• Incomplete network coverage, especially in rural or remote locations.
• Potential service gaps and lower adoption rates.
 4. Scalability Issues
• Definition: Scaling fixed networks can be complex and costly.
• Reasons:
• Infrastructure Expansion: Adding more connections requires significant changes to physical
infrastructure.
• Capacity Limits: Existing infrastructure may have limited capacity before upgrades are needed.
• Impact:
• Potential for bottlenecks as the network grows.
• Higher costs and longer deployment times for scaling up.
 Challenges and Limitations of Fixed
Networks
 5. Upgradability Challenges
• Definition: Upgrading fixed network infrastructure can be challenging.
• Reasons:
• Legacy Systems: Existing infrastructure may be outdated and incompatible with new technologies.
• Disruption: Upgrades may require significant downtime or service interruptions.
• Impact:
• Difficulties in adopting new technologies without major overhauls.
• Potential disruptions during the upgrade process.
 6. Limited Flexibility
• Definition: Fixed networks have less flexibility compared to wireless networks.
• Reasons:
• Physical Infrastructure: Changes to network layout require physical adjustments.
• Adaptability: Less ability to quickly adapt to changing needs or conditions.
• Impact:
• Slower response to changes in user demand or technological advancements.
• Higher costs associated with reconfiguration or expansion.