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A Caribbean Examinations Council® Study Guide
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Lawrie Ryan • Denise Hernandez • Victor Joseph

Bermadee McKenzie-Briscoe • Marsha Russell

A Caribbean Examinations Council® Study Guide

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Introduction 1 Section B: The home and the workplace

Section A: The organism and Unit 8 Temperature control and ventilation
its 8.1 How is energy transferred? 70
environment 8.2 How is energy transferred in 72
fluids?
Unit 1 The cell 8.3 Thermostats and thermometers 74
1.1 Cell structure 2 8.4 Evaporation and cooling 76
1.2 Diffusion and osmosis 4 8.5 Humidity and ventilation 78
Unit 2 Food and nutrition Unit 9 The terrestrial environment
2.1 Photochemical reactions 6 9.1 Soils 80
2.2 Factors affecting photosynthesis 8 9.2 The importance of soil 82
2.3 Food groups and nutrition 10 9.3 Crop production 84
2.4 The importance of a balanced 12 9.4 Food chains and food webs 86
diet
9.5 Natural cycles 88
2.5 Digestion 14
2.6 Teeth and digestion 16 9.6 Air masses 90
9.7 Air in motion 92
Unit 3 Respiration and air pollution 9.8 Tides and tidal waves 94
3.1 Respiratory surfaces 18 9.9 Volcanoes and earthquakes 96
3.2 Breathing and gaseous exchange 20
3.3 Respiration 22 Unit 10 Water and the aquatic environment
3.4 Air pollution 24 10.1 Water and life 100
3.5 Effects of smoke 26 10.2 Purifying water for drinking 102
10.3 Flotation 104
Unit 4 Transport systems
10.4 Moving through air and water 106
4.1 Transport systems in plants 28 10.5 Water pollution 108
4.2 The human circulatory system 30 10.6 Fishing 110
4.3 Blood groups 32 10.7 Navigation and safety on the 112
4.4 Immunity 34 water
4.5 High blood pressure and its 36
Unit 11 Pests, parasites and sanitation
effects
4.6 Drugs and sport 38 11.1 Microorganisms and
food preservation 114
Unit 5 Excretion 11.2 Pests and parasites 116
5.1 Excretion in humans 40 11.3 Keeping clean 118
5.2 Excretion in plants 42
Unit 12 Safety hazards
Unit 6 Sense organs and coordination
12.1 Safety first 120
6.1 The nervous system 44
12.2 Be prepared in an emergency 122
6.2 The endocrine system 46
6.3 Feedback mechanisms 48 Unit 13 Metals and non-metals
6.4 The eye 50 Metals and non-metals 124
13.1
6.5 The ear 52
13.2 Reactions of metals 126
Unit 7 Reproduction and growth 13.3 Care of metallic household 130
7.1 Reproduction 54 goods
13.4 Taking care of iron or steel 132
7.2 Sexual reproduction 56
7.3 Menstrual cycle, pregnancy and 58 Unit 14 Acids, bases and mixtures
birth
7.4 Birth control methods 60 14.1 Household chemicals 134
7.5 Pre- and post-natal care 62 14.2 Solutions, suspensions and 136
7.6 Sexually Transmitted Infections 64 colloids
(STIs) 14.3 Hard and soft water 138
14.4 Household cleaning products 140
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 Practice exam questions 142

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Contents

Section C: Energy Unit 18 Conservation of energy

Unit 15 Electricity and lighting 18.1 Energy 166
15.1 Electricity 144 18.2 Energy on the move and
15.2 Fuses and cables (flexes) 146 momentum 168
15.3 Energy consumption 148
15.4 Magnetic effects of an Unit 19 Forces
electric 150 19.1 Principles of forces 170
current 19.2 Gravity and stability 172
15.5 Lighting 152 19.3 Turning forces 174
15.6 Light 154 19.4 Circular motion and 176
satellites
Unit 16 Fossil fuels and alternative Practice exam questions 178
sources of energy
Glossary 180
16.1 Fossil fuels 156
16.2 Alternative sources of energy 158 Index 183
16.3 Solar energy 160
Acknowledgements 188
Unit 17 Machines and movement
17.1 Simple machines 162
17.2 Using machines 164

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PDF Compressor Pro Introduction

This Study Guide has been developed t On Your Marks activities provide sample
exclusively with the Caribbean Examinations examination-style short answer and essay
Council (CXC®) type questions, with example candidate
to be used as an additional resource by answers and feedback from an examiner
candidates, both in and out of school, to show where answers could be
following the Caribbean Secondary Education improved. These activities will
Certificate (CSEC®) programme. build your understanding, skill level and
confidence in answering examination
It has been prepared by a team with questions.
expertise in the CSEC® syllabus, teaching
t Test Yourself activities are specifically
and examination. The contents are
designed to provide experience of multiple-
designed to support learning by providing
choice examination questions and helpful
tools to help you achieve your best in
feedback will refer you to sections inside
Integrated Science and the features included
the Study Guide so that you can revise
make it easier for you to master the key
problem areas.
concepts and
requirements of the syllabus. Do remember to This unique combination of focused syllabus
refer to your syllabus for full guidance on the course content and interactive examination practice
requirements and examination format! will provide you with invaluable support to
help you reach your full potential in CSEC®
Inside this Study Guide is an interactive CD Integrated Science.
which includes electronic activities to assist
you in developing good examination
techniques:

1
 1 The cell
1.1
Cell structure

LEARNING OUTCOMES All living things are made up of cells. Cells enable all the
processes
t List the parts that make up an animal of life
cell and and that
those so are essential
make for all cell.
up a plant living things on
Earth. Cells are too small to see with the
t Draw a labelled diagram of a typical unspecialised animal cell and plant cell. naked eye.
t Describe the functions of the main
Youparts
needofaa cell.
microscope to study the structure of cells.

Animal cells
There are many different types of cells in the human body
but they have certain features in common.
Look at the diagram of a typical animal cell below.

RibOsOmes

Cell membrane

CytOplasm

MitOchOndria Nucleus

Figure 1.1.1A simplified typical animal cell

Functions of the cell parts

Each part of a cell has its own particular functions. The parts
all coordinate to ensure a cell works properly.
Nucleus – This is the ‘control centre’ of the cell. It
controls all the activities in the cell and contains the
genetic material that
controls how the cell develops.This genetic information is carried on
chromosomes, which contain DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid).
Cell membrane – This is the outer part of the cell. It forms a
barrier around the cell. It allows simple substances to
pass in or out of the cell.
Cytoplasm – This is the jelly-like liquid inside the cell. Most
of the chemical reactions we need to keep us alive happen
in solution. For example, our cells get the energy they need
from respiration taking place here.
Mitochondria – These are found in the cytoplasm and are
the sites where respiration takes place.

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Ribosomes – Proteins are made here.

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Plant cells Nucleus CellulOse cell yall

Cell membrane
Plant cells have all the components of animal cells but also ChlOrOplasts
contain more features.
Look at the diagram of a typical plant cell Rermanent xacuO
MitOchOndria
opposite: Every plant cell has a cell wall.
Cell walls – surround the cell contents (together with the CytOplasm
cell membrane) with a more rigid boundary made of
cellulose. This gives the cell support and shape.
Many plants cells also have:
Chloroplasts – These are the green parts (or organelles) in
RibOsOmes
plant cells where photosynthesis takes place. A pigment
called chlorophyll gives chloroplasts their green colour. This
absorbs light energy when plants make their own food Figure 1.1.2 A simplified typical plant
during photosynthesis. cel
l
A vacuole – The large central part of the plant cell that is
full of cell sap (liquid). This helps to support the plant.

KEY POINTS
A typical unspecialised animal cell contains a nucleus, cell membrane, cytoplasm, and mitochondria
A typical unspecialised plant cell also contains a cell wall, a vacuole and chloroplasts in green parts
Each component of a cell has functions that are interlinked so the cells work properly.
Chromosomes carry genetic information in the form of DNA.

C
DC
F

SUMMARY QUESTIONS

Draw a labelled diagram of an unspecialised animal cell and plant cell.

What are the differences between a typical plant cell and animal cell?
What is the function of:
a the nucleus b chloroplasts c mitochondria
the cell membrane Figure 1.1.3Cheek cells
chromosomes?
4 Look at the photos of a cheek cells and b onion cells and identify the labels.

C
C

Figure 1.1.4Onion cells

4
1.2Diffusion and osmosis

LEARNING OUTCOMES To function properly, cells need to move certain substances

into
t Explain the processes of diffusion andand out of the cell. Examples of these substances are
osmosis.
glucose,
t Illustrate the movement of particles water and
(molecules oxygen.
or ions) out ofand
Diffusion
in and osmosis are two
cells.
t State that the cell membrane is processes by which this
partially permeable takes place.
in osmosis.

Diffusion
All substances are made of particles. In gases and in
liquids these particles move around randomly. Diffusion
takes place when particles (molecules or charged particles
called ions) are not distributed evenly. The random
motion of the particles means that eventually the
particles will be evenly spread. Overall, the particles
move from where they are in a high concentration to
where they are in a low concentration. Look at Figure
1.2.1 below.

At the mOmentAs the particlesAs the particlesEventually, the when the bluemO
at all.spreading randOmly.

Figure 1.2.1The process of diffusion

In the process of diffusion we say that the particles

move along a concentration gradient. They move from
an area of high
concentration to an area of low concentration. For example,
dissolved glucose molecules will move across cells
membranes from your gut (where there will be a high
concentration of glucose in solution
after a meal) into your blood (where the concentration of
glucose is lower).
The bigger the difference in concentration between two
regions, the steeper the concentration gradient. We find
that diffusion takes place more quickly when there is a
steeper concentration gradient.

Osmosis
Osmosis is a special case of diffusion. Osmosis involves the
movement of water through a partially permeable
membrane such as the cell membrane. ‘Partially
permeable’ means that only certain substances can pass
through the membrane. Small molecules, such as the

5
 solvent water, can pass through but large molecules
cannot.

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But which way do the water molecules move in

osmosis? The direction is determined by the
concentration of water on either side of the partially
permeable membrane. We can think of a dilute
solution as having a ‘high concentration of water’.
Then, we can think of water molecules moving from
a region where their concentration is high (in a dilute
solution) to where their concentration is low (to a more
concentrated solution). Look at Figure 1.2.2 below.
KEY POINTS
Rartially permeable membrane
Diffusion and osmosis are vital proce
transport of substances into and out
COncentrated glucOse sOlutiOn Filute glucOse sOlutiOn
Diffusion and osmosis involve the tran
ROre in membrane concentration gradient.
Diffusion is the movement of particle
IlucOse mOlecule Osmosis is the movement of water m
Yater mOlecule
concentration of water, into a concen
There are hgygt water mOlecules On this sideThere
Of theare
membrane andmOlecules
oqtg water therefOreOn
hgygt
this water mOlecules
side Of pass f
the membrane
left tO right

Figure 1.2.2 Osmosis – the movement of water across a partially

permeable membrane

We can study osmosis in experiments using partially

permeable bags as model cells.

IlucOse mOlecules Yater mOves into

Yater particles *mOlecules+ the bag by OsmOsis
Ilass tubes
Knitial level Hinal level

Yater
SUMMARY QUESTIONS
Rartially permeable membrane bags
Define the terms a diffusion, and b os
Using the substances glucose and wa
COncentrated Dghqtg ChvgtNess cOncentrated Draw a labelled diagram of an osmos
glucOse sOlutiOn glucOse sOlutiOn
Figure 1.2.3Osmosis experiment

In this experiment you start with a concentrated glucose

solution inside the sealed partially permeable bag. The
bag is put in a beaker of water. If left, the bag will swell up.
This happens because water moves across the partially
permeable membrane into the concentrated glucose
solution. Remember that water moves from a region
where it is in high concentration (in this case pure water)
to where water is at a lower concentration (in the
concentrated glucose solution).

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 2 Food and nutrition
2.1Photochemical
reactions

LEARNING OUTCOMES Some chemical reactions are affected by light. These are
called photochemical reactions. ‘Photo’ refers to light;
t Describe the process of photosynthesis.
chemical reaction refers to a change in which new
t List the conditions needed for photosynthesis.
substances
t Write a word equation and a chemical are produced.
equation Forwhat
to represent example, in black
happens and white
in photosynthesis.
photographs, the film contains silver
t Compare photosynthesis with the photochemical reactions in photography. salts, such as silver
chloride, which decompose in light.
In this reaction small grains of grey silver metal are
formed on the film. You can see this reaction by making a
precipitate (an insoluble solid) of white silver chloride
using two test tubes. One test tube is put in a dark
cupboard and one is left on a light window sill. The one in
the light turns a darker colour whereas the one in the
cupboard stays white. This shows that light energy is needed
to break down the silver salt.
light energy
silver chloride  silver + chlorine
The most important of all photochemical reactions is
photosynthesis. This is the process used by plants to make
their own food.

Photosynthesis
Plants use carbon dioxide from the air and water from
Uunlight
the ground in photosynthesis. The starting materials,
carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O) are called the
substrates. In a series of reactions in the plant, the
substrates are turned into glucose (C 6H12O6) and oxygen
CQ4
(O2) gas.
Q4 IlucOse
Chlorophyll, the green substance in chloroplasts inside
plant cells, is needed for photosynthesis to take place. The
chlorophyll absorbs light energy from the Sun. This is
J4Q converted into chemical energy in the products of
photosynthesis.
We can summarise photosynthesis by these equations:
photosynthes
Figure 2.1.1Summary of chlorophyll
is carbon dioxide + water  glucose +
oxygen
to ‘trap’ light
energy
6CO + 6H O  C H O + 6O
2 2 6 12 6 2

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The glucose made is used in the process of respiration to

release energy that the plant can use. It is also used to
make new substances in the plant. Much of the chemical
energy in the glucose made from photosynthesis is stored
in the plant as starch. Many glucose molecules bond
together to make the long-chain molecules of starch.

etc. etc.
Utarch mOlecule
IlucOse*thOusands Of glucOse mOlecules
mOleculesjOin tO make lOng starch mOlecules+
Figure 2.1.2 Glucose units link together to form starch molecules
to store chemical energy

Figure 2.1.3 Plants in tropical forests get plenty of sunshine and rain, SUMMARY QUESTIONS
although those in the shade of the tree canopy need large
leaves to collect the sunlight needed for photosynthesis
a Write a word equation to summaris
b Now write a balanced chemical equ
KEY POINTS Describe the role of chlorophyll in ph
During photosynthesis, chlorophyll absorbs light energy whichCompare
is converted into chemical
the type energy inr
of photochemical
Photosynthesis can be summarised as: they similar and how do they differ?
carbon dioxide + water  glucose + oxygen
The glucose made can be turned into starch which stores chemical energy in the plant.

9
2.2Factors affecting
photosynthesis

LEARNING OUTCOMES Testing for starch

t Describe the test for starch.
Scientists can use the presence of starch in plants as
t List the factors that are essential for photosynthesis.
evidence that photosynthesis has taken place.
t Explain experiments to test conditions needed for
photosynthesis to take place. Fortunately there is a quick and easy test for starch.
Iodine solution turns from brown to dark blue/black when
starch is present.
Most of the photosynthesis in a plant takes place in its
leaves. However, the green colour tends to mask the
colour change in the iodine test. So the first thing to do
when testing a leaf is to remove its chlorophyll (the
green colouring in chloroplasts). We do this by boiling
the leaf in ethanol (alcohol).
The chlorophyll dissolves in the ethanol. This makes the leaf
white. It is then rinsed in hot water to soften it, making it
easier to flatten out. Then the test with iodine solution can
be carried out and the results can be seen clearly. Look at
the diagram below.

Figure 2.2.1 Iodine solution turns Leaf in ethanOl (alcOhOl) tO extract the chlOrOphyll
dark blue/black in starch.
Suggest a reason why it
is advantageous to be DrOpper
able to test for starch. IOdine EvapOrating dishsOlutiOn
HOt water Or white tile

COld water

Bunsen burner Off Leaf rinsed in water tO remOve

IOdine test
the alcOhOl and sOfte

Figure 2.2.2Testing a leaf for starch

Safety: Ethanol is a flammable liquid. It ignites very

easily so it can be boiled by putting boiling water
from a kettle in the larger
beaker. Iodine solution stains skin and clothes. Students
should use disposable gloves and lab coats should be

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Testing the conditions needed for photosynthesis

Is chlorophyll needed?
Some leaves are variegated. They have areas which are paler
in colour or even white.
The white parts have no chlorophyll in the leaf cells. So when
we test a variegated leaf for starch (as in previous
experiment), we find that only the green parts of the leaf
contain starch.
Chlorophyll is essential for photosynthesis.

Is carbon dioxide needed? Uealed plastic bag COntrOl leaf tO b

We can de-starch a plant by leaving it inside a dark
cupboard for 24 hours. As there is no light, the plant cannot
make glucose so it uses up its store of starch for the
energy it needs. We can then do our photosynthesis
experiment to see if carbon dioxide is needed.
If we start an experiment with a leaf without starch, we
UOda lime
can then give a leaf the conditions needed for
photosynthesis, except carbon dioxide. If the starch test is
negative, it shows that carbon dioxide must be essential
for photosynthesis.
Soda lime is a substance that absorbs carbon dioxide
Figure 2.2.3 A leaf deprived of carbon
from air. We can use it to test a leaf which has had no dioxide and a control
carbon dioxide. Look at the diagram opposite: leaf – both are tested
with iodine solution
The leaf with no carbon dioxide has a negative starch test.
(The control leaf tests positive for starch in the iodine
test.)
Carbon dioxide is essential for photosynthesis.
We cannot really test whether water is essential for
photosynthesis using this method. Depriving the plant of
water would affect so many aspects of a plant’s vital
processes that it could not provide reliable evidence.

KEY POINTS
Iodine solution turns from brown to dark blue/black in the presence of starch.
We can carry out experiments to test the conditions needed for plants to photosynthesise. These

1
1
2.3Food groups and
nutrition

There is a saying, ‘You are what you eat’. It is important that

LEARNING OUTCOMES we are aware of the health implications of our diet. In order
to stay healthy
t State the major Caribbean food groups and list we
theneed to eat
nutrients a balanced
they contain.diet. A balanced
diet contains all the essential food nutrients we need, in
t Describe the results of food tests.
the correct
t Explain the difference between balanced andamounts.
unbalanced diets.
Look at the poster from the Pan American Health
Organisation in Figure 2.3.1. It shows how typical Caribbean
foods can be classified. It also gives the recommended
proportions of each needed for a balanced diet.
We can also classify foods according to the nutrition they
provide. In this case we would have the following
nutrients.
Carbohydrates
These are sugars and starch. They provide the energy our
cells need for all the essential processes of life. Sweet
foods are rich in sugar and we get starch from rice, pasta,
bread, yams and cassava.
Proteins
These are needed for growth and the repair of cells. Meat, fish,
eggs, milk, nuts and beans are good sources of protein.
Fats/oils
These are stores of energy and help to keep your body
warm. Fats and oils are used to fry foods. They are
contained in margarine, butter, and anything made using
these, such as cakes, pastries and biscuits.
Vitamins
There are 13 types of vitamin which help the body perform
Figure 2.3.1 The six Caribbean vital functions. They regulate the body’s metabolism.
food groups Although we only need small amounts of the different
types, without them the body will start to suffer. For
example, vitamin D helps the body to absorb calcium ions.
These are needed for healthy teeth and bones. Without
vitamin D children develop a deficiency disease called rickets
where the legs become ‘bowed’ outwards.
Fruit and green vegetables are rich in vitamins. For
example, citrus fruit supplies us with vitamin C. Without
vitamin C we would get the deficiency disease scurvy.
Minerals
Like vitamins, minerals help the body build essential
materials and help vital chemical reactions take place.
They are absorbed in the body as ions. Ions are charged
particles, such as the calcium ions for teeth and bones
just mentioned. We need about 15 different minerals to
stay healthy.
Other essential nutrients in a balanced diet are:
Water
About two-thirds of your body is water. Most of the
reactions in your body happen in solutions made with

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water. It also
helps to cool
your body when
you sweat.

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Fibre
This isn’t really a nutrient as it is not absorbed into
the body. However, it does play an important role in
moving solid waste through and out of your body.

Food tests
Most foods contain mixtures of different nutrients but some
are well- known sources of one particular type. For
example, rice, bread and pasta are good sources of
carbohydrates in the form of starch. Boiled rice contains
about 23% carbohydrate but also has a little protein
(2.2%) and only 0.1% fat.
We can identify the major nutrients in food using some
simple food tests. You have already met one of these when
testing for starch with iodine solution.

Reducing sugars
Sugars, such as glucose, are also carbohydrates. Sucrose is
the sugar you put in tea and coffee. We can test for the Figure 2.3.2 Biuret solution turns
from blue to violet in
sugars called reducing sugars, of which glucose is one, using
the presence of a
Benedict’s solution. This is a blue solution. When we heat a soluble protein
solution containing a reducing sugar, the solution turns
orange or red. You get a positive test with glucose and
SUMMARY QUESTIONS
fructose (but not with sucrose unless it is broken down by
acid first).
Choose from the following foods, to a
limeglucose drink chickenmargarine
Proteins
Which is a good source of
If a food contains protein it will turn blue Biuret solution protein
violet. Look at Figure 2.3.2. vitamin C
carbohydrate
Fats and oils fat?
Add the food to a little ethanol in a test tube and shake Why are the following nutrients need
it. Pour the liquid off into a second test tube, leaving any protein
solid behind. Add the same amount of water to the liquid carbohydrate
in the test tube and shake again. A white suspension in fat
the liquid shows the presence of fat. Alternatively, place 3 Which of the Caribbean food groups
the food on a piece of brown paper and see if it leaves a protein
translucent mark. starch
vitamins
protein for vegetarians?

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 KEY POINTS
There are six Caribbean food groups: staples; legumes; foods from animals; fruits; vegetables; fa
The nutrients we get from food are: carbohydrates; proteins; fats/oils; vitamins; minerals. Water a
A balanced diet has all the essential nutrients, in the correct amounts.
Positive food tests include: Benedict’s solution turns orange/ red when heated with a reducing sug

1
2.4The importance of a
balanced diet

LEARNING OUTCOMES People who eat an ‘unbalanced’ diet over a significant

time will diet.
t Discuss issues caused by an unbalanced become malnourished. There are various types of
t Explain why energy requirements malnutrition, frompeople.
differ between the deficiency diseases mentioned in 2.3
t Discuss food additives and their to obesity
effect (excess energy intake) and Protein Energy
on health.
Malnutrition (insufficient protein and energy intake).

Obesity
There is some concern in the Caribbean (and in many
other parts of the world) about the modern-day diet. A
growing number of people are becoming obese (very
overweight, with a Body Mass Index of over 30).
Nutritionists and dieticians advise us what we should eat and
in what quantities. Too much fried food is not good for you
and should be avoided. Your body stores fat under your skin
and around the organs of your body. Fatty deposits can
line the inside of your arteries, increasing the risk of:
t type 2 diabetes
t heart disease
t high blood pressure.
All of these are potentially life-threatening conditions if left
untreated. Eating too much saturated animal fat is the main
cause of these conditions. On one Caribbean island, figures
show that half of the islanders will suffer from
hypertension, high blood pressure, by the age of 45 years.

How much energy do we need?

In order to lose weight, people must transfer more energy
from their cells than is taken in when they eat. But how
much energy a person needs each day varies. It depends on
your age, whether you are male or female and how much
physical activity you do. Look at the table below.

Person Energy requirements

each day (kJ/day)
Pregnant woman 10 000
Teenage boy 12 500
Man doing manual work 15 000
Young girl 8500
Inactive man over 50 years old 8500
Inactive woman over 50 years old 6750

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People require less energy as they get older because their

metabolic rate slows down and they tend to be less active.
Young people need more energy for the reactions in their
body to make new proteins for growth. They usually
transfer lots of energy as they play. However, there is
concern that video and computer games result in young
people doing less physical activity in their spare time than in
the past. This and over-eating mean that childhood obesity
is becoming more common.

Protein Energy Malnutrition (PEM)

Starvation causes PEM. Lack of food will result in
conditions known as kwashiorkor and marasmus. Children
suffering from kwashiorkor have a swollen abdomen, with
retarded growth and muscle wastage. Without enough
energy being taken in, the body starts to break down
Figure 2.4.1 This label from Dunn’s
protein for energy. Marasmus is similar but children look River Coconut milk
very drawn around the face and do not have the shows some of the
distended abdomen. additives used routinely
in some parts of the
food industry
Food additives
Many foods have substances added to improve:
t appearance e.g.
colourings t shelf life e.g.
preservatives t texture
e.g. emulsifiers
t taste e.g. flavourings and flavour enhancers.
You can see these food additives listed on the contents
label on cans and packaging.
Some people are worried about the effects of adding
artificial chemicals to our food. However, all additives are KEY POINTS
tested for safety before use with consumers. Over-eating and under- eating cause
Over-eating high-energy foods such a
The energy needed by different peop
Starvation results in PEM.
Food additives can improve the colou

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SUMMARY QUESTIONS

What are the health problems caused by obesity?

Put the following in order of daily energy requirements, starting with most energy:
a bed-ridden 70-year-old; a sprinter in training; a 9-year-old girl; a pregnant woman.
Name two conditions caused by PEM.
a Why does the food industry use additives in products?
Make a list of 10 food additives from the labels of some common processed foods.
Draw a table of the advantages and disadvantages of using food additives. Use the internet to fin

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2.5Digestion

LEARNING OUTCOMES We need to digest our food to make use of its essential
nutrients.and
t State the difference between mechanical In many foodsdigestion.
chemical the nutrients are present as
t Describe the role of enzymes in large, insoluble
chemical molecules. These include starch, protein
digestion.
and
t Identify the parts of the digestive fats. In
system and explain the
digestion large,
their insoluble molecules are
functions.
converted into
t Explain the words absorption, assimilation andsmall, soluble molecules. The small molecules
egestion.
can then pass through the gut wall into the blood to be
transported around your body.
Figure 2.5.1 shows the digestive system.

Mechanical digestion
This is the physical process of breaking up pieces of food into
smaller bits. There are no chemical reactions involved so no
new substances are made. The molecules remain intact. This
process starts with your teeth cutting and grinding food into
small bits as you bite and then chew it. It continues as the
food is squeezed by muscles behind it as it passes down
Salivary gland the tube (oesophagus) that leads from your mouth to your
Ball Of fOOd passing alOng the OesOphagus
stomach. tO the stOmach
Gall bladder MOuth
Liver The process of muscular contractions that passes food
Small intestine through the digestive system is called peristalsis.
0esOphagus StOmach
Pancreas Chemical digestion
Chemical digestion is the process that actually breaks down
the large molecules into smaller ones. Enzymes in our
digestive juices carry out this function. Enzymes are
soluble proteins that act as biological catalysts. Different
enzymes are needed to break down different types of food
molecules.
Large intestine
enzyme
SUBSTRATE  PRODUCTS
carbohydrases
Appendix Rectum
carbohydrates  sugars
Anus proteases
proteins  amino acids
lipases
fats/oils  fatty acids + glycerol
Pepsin – prOtease Trypsin – prOtease frOm frOm the stOmach the small intestine
Varying pH in the digestive system
Enzymes work best in particular pH ranges. The digestive
system is adapted to create the best pH for the different
Enzyme

Figure 2.5.1The digestive system

enzymes in different parts of the system. For example, in
your mouth, saliva has a pH between 6.5 and 7.5 to suit the
02 46 810 enzyme called salivary amylase. It breaks down starch (a
pH carbohydrate) into maltose (a sugar).
Figure 2.5.2 Enzymes operate best at Further down the digestive system we have food arriving
their optimum pH (and at the stomach that has a pH of about 2.0. Our gastric
their optimum
juices contain hydrochloric acid in which pepsin (a
temperature)
protease) starts the breakdown of protein molecules into

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smaller chain
molecules (called
peptides).

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Then in the small intestine the pH is increased by bile and Structure Of small intest
Villus
juices from the pancreas and intestines. The bile, which is
Rich blOOd
made by the liver, emulsifies (physically splits up) globules supply prOduces a
of fats and oils into tiny droplets. The lipases can break steep cOncentratiOn gradient fOr
down the fats into glycerol and fatty acids. In this higher efficient diffusiOn
pH, different proteases help to break down proteins and
peptides into amino acids.

Absorption and assimilation

The smaller, soluble molecules produced by digestion
Large surface
then pass through the walls of the small intestine by
area fOr diffusiOn
diffusion or
active transport. Active transport can move molecules
Thin wall (Only One cell thick) sO there i
against a concentration gradient. distance acrOss which
To make absorption easier, the surface area of the small diffusiOn takes place
intestine is very large. Its surface is folded, and covered in
villi (see Figure 2.5.3). These are like tiny fingers sticking
out from the surface. They have capillaries (thin blood
vessels) that carry the absorbed food molecules away to the
bloodstream.
These molecules arrive at cells where they cross the cell
membrane and are assimilated (changed) into substances Lymph system
needed by the body. For example, amino acids are
assimilated into proteins to build muscle. Figure 2.5.3 Villi line the surface of
the intestine to
Egestion absorb the soluble
molecules produced
The remaining material is passed out of the small intestine in digestion
into the large intestine (or colon). There, much of the water
from the digestive juices is reabsorbed. Otherwise the body
would end up dehydrated. The solid waste is called faeces. It
passes from the large intestine into the rectum before it
leaves the body (is egested) from the anus.

KEY POINTS
digest?
i proteins ii
carbohydrates iii fats
4 Explain the difference
between digestion and
egestion.
SUMMARY QUESTIONS

1 Draw a flow chart showing the parts of the digestive

system. Include a key that explains the function of
each part.
2 Why are the villi important in the process of
absorption?
3 a What are the products formed when the
following food types are digested?
i proteins ii carbohydrates iii fats
b What is the general name given to enzymes that

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1 Large, insoluble food molecules are broken
down during digestion into small soluble
molecules.
2 Mechanical digestion breaks pieces of food
physically into smaller bits.
3 The smaller bits of food can be more easily
chemically digested by enzymes.
4 The enzymes break the molecules into
smaller ones that can pass into the
bloodstream via villi in the small intestine.
5 Waste material is then egested at the end of
the process.

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2.6Teeth and digestion

LEARNING OUTCOMES As you saw in 2.5, the teeth start off the process of
t Describe the general structure ofmechanical
a tooth. digestion of food. They can cut, tear and grind
up food
t List the different types of teeth and into
relate small enough pieces for us to swallow. This
their
structure to their function. physical breakdown of the food also helps the work of
t Explain the effect of fluoridation enzymes
on teeth.in chemical digestion. That’s because the enzymes
have a larger surface area to attack and break down the
large food molecules.
Figure 2.6.1 below shows the parts that make up a tooth.

Enamel
Dentine

CrOwn Pulp cavity

Cement
SOcket

Fibres cOnnecting cement tO

Jaw bOne
ROOt
Gum

Upper jaw Nerve and blOOd vessels

Canine MOlar
Figure 2.6.1The general structure of a tooth

PremOlar To do their job well, humans have different types of teeth.

Their teeth have evolved to cope with eating both plants
and animals as food.
BOny sOcket
Children usually have 20 baby teeth that are replaced by
IncisOr
28 to 32 permanent teeth. (Your back four molars may not
erupt through your gums.) Look at Figure 2.6.2 opposite to
see the types and location of the different types of teeth in
your mouth.
We can use a dental formula to represent the number and
Figure 2.6.2The different types of teeth
types of teeth found in one half of the jaw upper and
lower.
In a child: I 2/2 C 1/1 PM 2/2 = 10 teeth, where I = incisors,
C = canines, PM (or P) = premolars and M = molars. The
numbers show the number of teeth in the upper
quarter/lower quarter. Thus doubling the total in the
dental formula gives us the number of teeth in the mouth

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of a child i.e. 20.

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In an adult: I 2/2 C 1/1 PM 2/2 M 3/3 =16. Thus doubling it

gives the number of teeth in the mouth of an adult i.e. 32
(which includes the wisdom teeth).
The dental formula can also be used to show the teeth in
other animals e.g. a cat, I 3/3 C 1/1 PM 3/2 M 1/1.
Each of the four types of tooth is shaped to carry out its
particular function.

Type of tooth Shape Its function

Incisor Biting and cutting food Figure 2.6.3 Fluoride helps to
prevent tooth decay by
strengthening the enamel
that coats your teeth
BrOad,
flat, chisel
shaped
Canine Tearing food KEY POINTS
Adults can have 32 teeth. These are
The shapes of the different types of t
Fluoride helps to prevent tooth decay
POinte
d
Premolar Tearing and grinding food

BrOad flat
crOwn with ridges,
twO rOOts
Molar Grinding and crushing
food

SUMMARY QUESTIONS
BrOad flat crOwn
with ridges, three
rOOts Draw a labelled diagram to show the
Why are teeth contributors to mecha
Fluoridation Sketch the shape of the visible parts
Most toothpastes contain fluoride. It is added to protect its function in mechanical digestion.
your teeth from decay. The fluoride makes the enamel in Draw a table to show two advantages
your teeth harder and more resistant to attack from the disadvantages of fluoridation of wate
acid made by bacteria on your teeth. Sugary foods
encourage these bacteria to multiply. Fluoride has been
shown to reduce the need for fillings and extractions.
Some places also have fluoride added to their water
supply. In these places, if you drink tap water you get a
small dose of fluoride, whether you want it or not. Some
people argue that it is ethically wrong to give people
treatments that they have not consented to.
They think people should have a right to choose. Others
worry about the long-term effects that fluoride might have
on our health.
Those arguing for the fluoridation of water supplies say
that it is needed for people who do not have good dental
hygiene habits and who don’t visit their dentist regularly.

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for CSEC ®

A Caribbean Examinations Council® Study Guide

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