PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT

Behavioral theories in personality development focus on behaviors and

the ways in which these behaviors are learned. These theories generally
emphasize the role of environmental influences and conditioning in
shaping personality. Here are the key concepts and contributors in this
area:

1. Classical Conditioning

 Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning: Ivan Pavlov discovered that

behaviors can be conditioned through association. In his famous
experiments with dogs, Pavlov showed that a neutral stimulus (like
a bell) paired with an unconditioned stimulus (like food) could
eventually trigger a conditioned response (salivation) in response
to the neutral stimulus alone. In terms of personality, this suggests
that emotional responses and behaviors can be learned through
associations.
2. Operant Conditioning

 Skinner’s Operant Conditioning: B.F. Skinner extended the

ideas of classical conditioning by focusing on how behaviors are
shaped by their consequences. According to Skinner, behaviors
that are reinforced (positively or negatively) are more likely to be
repeated, while behaviors that are punished are less likely to occur.
This theory highlights how personality traits and behaviors can be
developed through reinforcement and punishment.

PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORIES

Psychodynamic theories of personality, rooted in the work of Sigmund

Freud and his followers, focus on the influence of early childhood
experiences and internal conflicts on personality development. Here are
some key psychodynamic theories:

1. Freudian psychodynamic theories:

 Id, Ego, and Superego: Freud proposed that personality consists

of three interacting systems:
o Id: The primal, unconscious part of personality driven by
basic instincts and desires (pleasure principle).
o Ego: The rational, conscious part that mediates between the
id’s desires and the constraints of reality (reality principle).
o Superego: The moral component that incorporates societal
values and norms, striving for perfection and judging actions
(moral principle).
o

 Psychosexual Stages: Freud suggested that personality develops

through a series of stages during childhood.
o Oral Stage (0-18 months): Focus on oral activities (sucking,
biting).
o Anal Stage (18 months-3 years): Focus on toilet training and
control.
o Phallic Stage (3-6 years): Focus on the genitals and
Oedipus/Electra complex.
 o Latency Stage (6-puberty): Period of relative calm and focus
on social and intellectual development.
o Genital Stage (puberty onwards): Focus on mature sexual
relationships and personal identity.

ERIK ERIKSON'S THEORY OF PSYCHOSOCIAL

Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development outlines eight stages

that span from infancy to old age, each characterized by a specific
conflict or challenge that contributes to personality development.
Successfully resolving these conflicts leads to a healthier personality and
greater psychological well-being. Here’s a brief overview of each stage:

1. Infancy (0-1 year)

 Conflict: Trust vs. Mistrust

 Description: In this stage, infants learn to trust their caregivers and
the world around them based on the consistency and quality of care
they receive. A successful resolution leads to a sense of security
and trust, while failure may result in fear and suspicion.

2. Early Childhood (1-3 years)

 Conflict: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

 Description: As toddlers begin to assert their independence and
develop motor and cognitive skills, they face the challenge of
 gaining a sense of autonomy. Supportive caregivers who allow for
safe exploration help foster a sense of self-confidence and
autonomy, while overly critical or controlling caregivers may lead
to feelings of shame and doubt.

3. Preschool (3-6 years)

 Conflict: Initiative vs. Guilt

 Description: Preschoolers start to initiate activities and assert
control over their environment. They develop a sense of initiative
and leadership. If their attempts are met with criticism or excessive
control, they may experience guilt and a lack of initiative.

4. School Age (6-12 years)

 Conflict: Industry vs. Inferiority

 Description: During this stage, children are focused on
developing competence and skills through school and social
interactions. Success leads to a sense of industry and
achievement, while failure can result in feelings of inferiority and a
lack of self-esteem.

5. Adolescence (12-18 years)

 Conflict: Identity vs. Role Confusion

  Description: Adolescents explore their personal identity and
values, seeking to establish a coherent sense of self. Successful
resolution leads to a stable identity and a clear sense of direction.
Failure can result in confusion about one’s role and identity.

6. Young Adulthood (18-40 years)

 Conflict: Intimacy vs. Isolation

 Description: Young adults focus on forming deep, meaningful
relationships and connections with others. Successful resolution
leads to strong, intimate relationships and a sense of belonging.
Failure may result in isolation and loneliness.

7. Middle Adulthood (40-65 years)

 Conflict: Generativity vs. Stagnation

 Description: During this stage, adults strive to contribute to
society and support the next generation, whether through
parenting, work, or other forms of productivity. Successful
resolution leads to feelings of accomplishment and generativity,
while failure can result in stagnation and a sense of unfulfillment.

8. Late Adulthood (65 years and beyond)

 Conflict: Integrity vs. Despair

  Description: In late adulthood, individuals reflect on their life and
its meaning. A sense of integrity arises from feeling satisfied with
one's life and accomplishments. Conversely, despair may result
from regrets, a sense of unfulfilled potential, and dissatisfaction
with one’s life.

COGNITIVE THEORIES

Jean Piaget was born in Switzerland on August 9, 1896.Jean Piaget

explored how cognitive functioning develop in children. Also described
how children's ways of thinking developed as they interacted with the
world around them.
Stages of Piaget cognitive development
1) Sensory motor (Birth to 2 years)
2) Pre-operational (2 to 6 years)
3) Concrete operations (6 to 12 years)
4) Formal operations (12 to 15 years)
He believed that a person must complete each stage of development
before he or she can progress to the next stage.

1) Sensory motor (Birth to 2 years)

 In this stage, the children are just beginning to learn.
 The major tasks occurring during this period involve children
figuring out how to make use of their bodies.
  They do this by experiencing everything with their five senses,
hence "sensory," and by learning to crawl and then walk, point and
then grasp, hence, "motor."
 Pre-operational (2 to 6 years)
 During the preoperational stage, children start to use symbols to
interact with the world, and they begin to learn language and to
engage in pretend play.

1. Pre conceptual phase (2-4yrs)

The symbolic sub stage is when children are able to understand,
remember objects/person in their mind without having the object in front
of them. Think in images and symbols.

Egocentrism:
 Inability to accurately assume or understand any perspective other
than one’s own.
 For e.g. if someone breaks child toy, the child would not forgive the
other and child would not be able to understand that the person who
broke the toy did not intend to break it

Animism
Animism is the belief that inanimate objects are capable of actions and
have lifelike qualities. E.g. that the stars twinkle in the sky because they
are happy.

2. Intuitive thought (4-7yrs)

 Piaget called it the intuitive sub stage because children realize they
have a vast amount of knowledge but they are unaware of how they
know it.
 Intuitive thought sub stage is when children tend to propose the
questions of why and how.
 This stage is when children want the knowledge of knowing
everything.

3. Concrete operational

 In concrete operational stage children gain the ability to think

logically to solve problems and to organize information they learn.
 At this stage the capability for abstract thought isn’t well developed
yet
 Develops understanding of reasoning and reversibility. (Capacity to
understand that hot water becomes cold and can be warmed again)
4. Formal operations (12 to 15 years)

 Completely develops logical thinking.

 Child acquires the ability to view things from another individual's
perspective
 achieves cognitive maturity and is able to find solution to
problems.
 Abstract thinking capacity develops during this stage.

MORAL THEORIES

 American psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg developed one of the

best-known moral theories in personality development.
 Kohlberg extended Piaget's theory, proposing that moral development
is a continual process that occurs throughout the lifespan.
 Moral development is the process by which people develop the
distinction between right and wrong (morality) and engage in
reasoning between the two (moral reasoning)

Level 1. Preconventional Morality

 Preconventional morality is the earliest period of moral development.

 It lasts until around the age of 9.

 At this age, children's decisions are primarily shaped by the
expectations of adults and the consequences of breaking the rules.
There are two stages within this level:

Stage 1 (Obedience and Punishment):

 common in young children.

 According to Kohlberg, people at this stage see rules as fixed.
 Obeying the rules is important because it is a way to avoid
punishment.

Stage 2 (instrumental hedonism):

 A person in the second stage conforms to rules for personal gain.

 There is a hint of understanding the ruler's perspective, although,
the main objective is to gain the benefit in return.

Level 2. Conventional Morality

The next period of moral development is marked by the acceptance of

social rules regarding what is good and moral. During this time,
individual internalize the moral standards they have learned from
their role models and from society.
This period also focuses on the acceptance of authority and conforming
to the norms of the group. There are two stages at this level of morality:

Stage 3 (Developing Good Interpersonal Relationships):

 Often referred to as the "good boy-good girl" orientation,

 this stage of the interpersonal relationship of moral development is
focused on living up to social expectations and roles.

Stage 4 (Maintaining Social Order):

 The focus is on maintaining law and order by following the rules,

doing one’s duty, and respecting authority.

Level 3. Postconventional Morality

At this level of moral development, people develop an understanding of

principles of morality. The two stages at this level are:

Stage 5 (Social Contract and Individual Rights):

 Rules of law are important for maintaining a society, but members of

the society should agree upon these standards.

Stage 6 (Universal Principles):

 Kohlberg’s final level of moral reasoning is based on universal ethical

principles and reasoning.
 At this stage, people follow these internalized principles of justice,
even if they conflict with laws and rule.