CE
CELLL AND CE
AN CELLL ORG
ORGAANELLES:
CH
CHEEMIS
MISTRY AND FU
AN NCTIONS
FUNC
NCT
All organisms are built from cells. All animal tissues
including human are also organised from collections of • It has a minimum of internal organisation and
cells. Thus cell is the fundamental unit of life. If cell smaller in size
dies, tissue dies and it cannot function. • It does not have any membrane bound organelles.
Modern cell theory can be divided into the following • Its genetic material is not enclosed by a nuclear
fundamental statements: membrane
• Cells make up all living matter • Its DNA is not complexed with histones. Histones
• All cells arise from other cells are not found in prokaryotic cells
• The genetic information required during the • Its respiratory system is closely associated with
maintenance of existing cells and the production its plasma membrane and
of new cells passes from one generation to the • Its sexual reproduction does not involve mitosis
other next generation or meiosis.
• The chemical reactions of an organism that is its
metabolism, both anabolism and catabolism, takes
place in the cells.
The eukaryotic cells (Greek: Eu-true and karyon-nucleus)
include the protists, fungi, plants and animals including
humans. Cells are larger in size (Fig. 1.1).
In general two types of cells exist in nature. They are:
1. Prokaryotic cells
2. Eukaryotic cells
• It has considerable degree of internal structure
with a large number of distinctive membrane
Typical prokaryotic cells (Greek: Pro-before and karyon- enclosed having specific functions
nucleus) include the bacteria and cyanobacteria. Most • Nucleus is the site for informational components
studied prokaryotic cell is Escherichia coli (E. coli). collectively called chromatin
SECTION ONE
• Sexual reproduction involves both mitosis and radiant energy to chemical energy is the highly
meiosis structural chloroplasts.
• The respiratory site is the mitochondria Essential differences of prokaryotic and
• In the plant cells, the site of the conversion of eukaryotic cells are given in Table 1.1.
µ µ
µ
SECTION ONE
2. Mitochondrion: Mitochondrion is the power house of
cell (Figs 1.2A and B).
Eukaryotic cells contain many membrane-bound
organelles that carryout specific cellular processes. Chief • Number: The number of mitochondria in a cell
organelles and their functions are as follows: varies dramatically. Some algae contain only one
mitochondrion, whereas the protozoan Chaos
1. Nucleus: The nucleus contains more than 95 per cent contain half a million. A mammalian liver cell
of the cell’s DNA and is the control centre of the contains from 800 to 2500 mitochondria.
eukaryotic cell. • Size: They vary greatly in size. A typical mam-
• Nuclear envelope: A double membrane structure
malian mitochondrion has a diameter of 0.2 to
called the nuclear envelope separates the nucleus
0.8 µ and a length of 0.5 to 1.0 µm.
from the cytosol.
• Shape: The shape of mitochondrion is not static.
• Nuclear pore complexes: These are embedded in
Mitochondria assume many different shapes
the nuclear envelope. These complex structures
control the movement of proteins and the nucleic under different metabolic conditions.
acid ribonucleic acids (RNAs) across the nuclear Structure and Functions
envelope. The mitochondrion is bounded by two concentric
• Chromatin: DNA in the nucleus is coiled into a membranes that have markedly different properties and
dense mass called chromatin, so named because biological functions.
it is stained darkly with certain dyes.
• Nucleolus: A second dense mass closely associated
with the inner nuclear envelope is called nucleolus.
• Nucleoplasm: Nucleoplasm of nucleus contain (a) Outer mitochondrial membrane: The outer mito-
various enzymes such as DNA polymerases, and chondrial membrane consists mostly of phospholipids
RNA polymerases, for m-RNA and t-RNA synthe- and contains a considerable amount of cholesterol. The
sis. outer membrane also contains many copies of the protein
Functions called Porin.
• DNA replication and RNA transcription of DNA Functions of Porin and other Proteins
occur in the nucleus. Transcription is the first step (i) These proteins form channels that permit sub-
in the expression of genetic information and is the stances with molecular weights of less than < 10,000
major metabolic activity of the nucleus.
to diffuse freely across the outer mitochondrial
• The nucleolus is nonmembranous and contains
membrane.
RNA polymerase, RNAase, ATPase and other
(ii) Other proteins in the outer membrane carry out
enzymes but no DNA polymerase. Nucleolus is
various reactions in fatty acid and phospholipid
the site of synthesis of ribosomal RNA (r-RNA).
• Nucleolus is also the major site where ribosome biosynthesis and are responsible for some oxidation
subunits are assembled. reactions.
SECTION ONE
(b) Inner mitochondrial membrane: The inner mitochond- Functions
rial membrane is very rich in proteins and the ratio of • Many enzymes associated with carbohydrates, fatty
lipid to proteins is only 0.27:1 by weight. It contains high acids and nitrogen metabolism are located within the
proportion of the phospholipid cardiolipin. In contrast mitochondrion. Enzymes of electron transport and
to outer membrane, the inner membrane is virtually oxidative phosphorylation are also located in different
impermeable to polar and ionic substances. These sub- areas of this cell organelle.
stances enter the mitochondrion only through the Table 1.2 gives the names of some of the important
mediation of specific transport proteins. enzymes and their location.
• Cristae: The inner mitochondrial membrane is highly • The mitochondrion is specialised for the rapid
folded. The tightly packed inward folds are called oxidation of NADH (reduced NAD) and FAD. H2
“cristae”. (reduced FAD) produced in the reactions of glycolysis,
Functional changes: It is now known that mitochondria the citric acid cycle and the oxidation of fatty acids.
undergo dramatic changes when they switch over from The energy produced is trapped and stored as ATP,
resting state to a respiring state. In the respiring state, for future use of energy in the body.
the inner membrane is not folded into cristae, rather it
seems to shrink leaving a much more voluminous inter
membrane space.
(c) Intermembrane space: The space between the outer
and inner membranes is known as the intermembrane
space. Since the outer membrane is freely permeable to
small molecules, the intermembrane space has about the
same ionic composition as the cytosol.
3. Endoplasmic reticulum (ER): Eukaryotic cells are
(d) Mitochondrial matrix: The region enclosed by the characterised by several membrane complexes that are
inner membrane is known as the mitochondrial matrix. interconnected by separate organelles. These organelles
Composition of matrix: The enzymes responsible for are involved in protein synthesis, transport, modification,
citric acid cycle and fatty acid oxidation are located in storage and secretion.
the matrix. The matrix also contains several strands of Varying in shape, size and amount, the endoplasmic
circular DNA, ribosomes and enzymes required for the reticulum (ER) extends from the cell membrane, coats
biosynthesis of the proteins coded in the mitochondrial the nucleus, surrounds the mitochondria and appears
genome. The mitochondrion is not, however, genetically to connect directly to the Golgi apparatus. These memb-
autonomous, and the genes encoding most mitochondrial ranes and the aqueous channels they enclose are called
proteins are present in nuclear DNA. cisternae.
β
SECTION ONE
Types: There are two kinds of endoplasmic reticulum (iii) On the distal or trans side they release proteins
(ER): via modified membranes called secretory vesicles.
(i) Rough surfaced ER, also known as ergastoplasm. These secretory vesicles move to and fuse with the
They are coated with ribosomes. Near the nucleus, plasma membrane where the contents may be
this type of ER merges with the outer membrane expelled by a process called exocytosis.
of the nuclear envelope. 5. Lysosomes: Lysosomes are cell organelles found in cells
(ii) Smooth surfaced ER: They do not have attached which contain packet of enzymes. Lysosome word
ribosomes. derived from Greek word Gree, meaning lysis (loosening).
Functions Discovered and described for the first time as a new
(a) Function of rough ER: Rough ER synthesises memb- organelle by the Belgian Biochemist de Duve in 1955.
rane lipids, and secretory proteins. These proteins are • Size: Mean diameter is approximately 0.4 µ (varies in
inserted through the ER membrane into the lumen of between that of microsomes and mitochondria). They
the cisternae where they are modified and transported are surrounded by a lipoprotein membrane.
through the cell. • Lysosomes are found in all animal cells, except
(b) Function of smooth ER: Smooth endoplasmic erythrocytes, in varying numbers and types.
reticulum is involved: • pH: pH inside the lysosomes is lower than that of
(i) In lipid synthesis and cytosol. The lysosomal enzymes have an optimal pH
(ii) Modification and transport of proteins synthesised around 5. Acid phosphatase is used as a marker
in the rough ER enzyme for this organelle.
Note: A number of important enzymes are associated Enzyme Groups Present in Lysosomes
with the endoplasmic reticulum of mammalian liver Essentially the enzymes about 30 to 40, are hydrolytic in
cells. These include the enzymes responsible for the nature. They can be grouped as follows:
synthesis of sterol, triacylglycerol (TG), Phospholipids
(PL) and the enzymes involved in detoxification of
drugs. Cytochrome P 450 which participates in drug
hydroxylation reside in the ER.
4. Golgi complexes (or Golgi apparatus): They are also
called Dictyosomes. Each eukaryotic cell contains a
unique stack of smooth surfaced compartments or
cisternae that make up the Golgi complex. The ER is
usually closely associated with the Golgi complexes,
which contain flattened, fluid filled golgi sacs. α
The Golgi complex has a Proximal or Cis compart- β
ment, a medial compartment and a distal or trans
compartment.
Recent evidence suggests strongly that the complex
serves as a unique sorting device that receives newly
synthesized proteins, all containing signal or transit
peptides from the ER. It is interesting to note that those • As long as the lysosomal membrane is intact, the
encapsulated enzymes can act only locally. But when
proteins with no signal or transit peptides regions are
the membrane is ruptured, the enzymes are released
rejected by the Golgi apparatus without processing it
into the cytoplasm and can hydrolyse external
further and remain as cytoplasmic protein.
substrates (biopolymers).
Functions
(i) On the proximal or cis side, the Golgi complexes
receive the newly synthesised proteins by ER via
transfer vesicles.
(ii) The post-translational modifications take place in
the golgi lumen (median part) where the carbo
hydrates and lipid precursors are added to proteins
to form glycoproteins and lipoproteins respec-
tively.
SECTION ONE
6. Peroxisomes: Peroxisomes are small organelles also
called Microbodies, present in eukaryotic cell. The parti-
cles are approximately 0.5 µ in diameter. These subcellular
respiratory organelles have no energy-coupled electron
transport systems and are probably formed by budding
from smooth endoplasmic reticulum (ER).
Functions
(i) They carryout oxidation reactions in which toxic
hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) is produced, which is
destroyed by the enzyme catalase.
(ii) Recently it has been shown that liver peroxisomes
have an unusually active β -oxidative system
capable of oxidising long chain fatty acids (C 16 to
18 or > C 18)
The β-oxidation enzymes of peroxisomes are rather
unique in that the first step of the oxidation is catalysed
by a flavoprotein, an “acyl Co-A oxidase”
Acyl-CoA + O2 → α, β unsaturated
acyl-CoA + H2O2
H2O2 produced is destroyed by catalase.
Peroxisomes may be absent in inherited disorder
Zellweger’s syndrome (Refer to Chapter on fatty acid
oxidation).
7. Cytoskeleton: For many years, biochemists have
considered the cytosol a compartment containing soluble
enzymes, metabolites and salts in an aqueous but gel like
environment.
Studies now support the idea that this compartment
contains actually a complex network of fine structures
called (a) microtubules, (b) microfilaments and
(c) microtrabeculae.
(a) Microtubules: They are long unbranched slender
cylindrical structures with an average diameter of about
25 nm. The structures are made primarily by the self-
↓ assembly of the heterodimer, tubulin having molecular
weight 50,000.
↓ Functions
• An important function of microtubules is their role
in the assembly and disassembly of the spindle
↓
structures during mitosis.
SECTION ONE
• They also provide internal structure to the cell and chemical state of cytosol is poorly understood. A major
helps in maintenance of shape of the eukaryotic cell. role of cytosol is to support synthesis of proteins on the
• As they seem to associate with the inner face of plasma rough endoplasmic reticulum by supplying cofactors and
membrane, they may be involved in transmembrane energy.
signals. Cytosol also contains free ribosomes often in the
(b) Microfilaments: They are more slender cylinder like polysome form. They contain many different types of
structures made up of the contractile protein actin. They proteins and ribosomal RNA or r-RNA. They exist as 2
are linked to the inner face of the plasma membrane. subunits and act as the site of protein synthesis.
Function
These structures may be involved in the generation of
forces for internal cell motion.
(c) Microtrabeculae: They appear to be very fragile tubes
that form a transient network in the cytosol.
Function
It is not yet clearly understood and established fully
β
whether or not soluble enzymes are associated or
clustered with these structures to form unstable multi-
enzyme complexes.
This is the simplest structure of the cell. Organelles free
sap is called as cytosol. Many metabolic reactions take
place in cytosol where substrates and cofactors interact
with various enzymes. There is no specific structure for
cytosol. It has a high protein contents. The actual physio-
