Cambridge​ ​IGCSE​ ​Chemistry

Topic​ ​1:​ ​The​ ​particulate​ ​nature​ ​of

matter
Notes

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State​ ​the​ ​distinguishing​ ​properties​ ​of​ ​solids,​ ​liquids​ ​and​ ​gases

● The​ ​three​ ​states​ ​of​ ​matter​ ​are​ ​solid,​ ​liquid​ ​and​ ​gas
● Melting​ ​and​ ​freezing​ ​take​ ​place​ ​at​ ​the​ ​melting​ ​point
● Boiling​ ​and​ ​condensing​ ​take​ ​place​ ​at​ ​the​ ​boiling​ ​point

● They​ ​can​ ​be​ ​represented​ ​by​ ​the​ ​simple​ ​model​ ​above,​ ​particles​ ​are​ ​represented
by​ ​small​ ​solid​ ​spheres
● solids-​ ​particles​ ​have​ ​a​ ​regular​ ​arrangement​ ​and​ ​are​ ​close​ ​together
● liquids-​ ​particles​ ​have​ ​a​ ​random​ ​arrangement​ ​and​ ​are​ ​close​ ​together
● gases-​ ​particles​ ​have​ ​a​ ​random​ ​arrangement​ ​and​ ​are​ ​spread​ ​apart

Describe​ ​the​ ​structure​ ​of​ ​solids,​ ​liquids​ ​and​ ​gases​ ​in​ ​terms​ ​of​ ​particle
separation​ ​arrangement​ ​and​ ​types​ ​of​ ​motion

● Gas:​ ​particles​ ​have​ ​the​ ​most​ ​energy​ ​–​ ​shown​ ​by​ ​the​ ​diagram,​ ​as​ ​the​ ​particles​ ​are
the​ ​most​ ​spread​ ​apart,​ ​motion​ ​is​ ​more​ ​random​ ​and​ ​frequent
● Liquid:​ ​particles​ ​have​ ​more​ ​energy​ ​than​ ​those​ ​in​ ​a​ ​solid,​ ​but​ ​less​ ​than​ ​those​ ​in​ ​a
gas
● Solid​ ​has​ ​least​ ​energy​ ​–​ ​particles​ ​are​ ​not​ ​moving/are​ ​just​ ​vibrating

Describe​ ​changes​ ​of​ ​state​ ​in​ ​terms​ ​of​ ​melting,​ ​boiling,​ ​evaporation,​ ​freezing,
condensation​ ​and​ ​sublimation

● Physical​ ​changes​ ​–​ ​therefore​ ​involves​ ​the​ ​forces​ ​between​ ​the​ ​particles​ ​of​ ​the
substances,​ ​instead​ ​of​ ​these​ ​changes​ ​of​ ​state​ ​being​ ​chemical​ ​changes
o Evaporation​ ​=​ ​happens​ ​at​ ​the​ ​surface,​ ​molecules​ ​have​ ​enough​ ​energy​ ​to
evaporate​ ​–​ ​i.e.​ ​go​ ​from​ ​liquid​ ​to​ ​gas
o Freezing​ ​=​ ​liquid​ ​to​ ​solid
o Melting​ ​=​ ​solid​ ​to​ ​liquid
o Boiling​ ​=​ ​happens​ ​throughout​ ​the​ ​liquid,​ ​liquid​ ​to​ ​gas
o Condensation​ ​=​ ​gas​ ​to​ ​liquid
o Sublimation​ ​=​ ​solid​ ​to​ ​gas

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(Extended​ ​only)​ ​Explain​ ​changes​ ​of​ ​state​ ​in​ ​terms​ ​of​ ​the​ ​kinetic​ ​theory

● Kinetic​ ​theory​ ​can​ ​help​ ​to​ ​explain​ ​melting,​ ​boiling,​ ​freezing​ ​and​ ​condensing…
o The​ ​amount​ ​of​ ​energy​ ​needed​ ​to​ ​change​ ​state​ ​from​ ​solid​ ​to​ ​liquid​ ​and
from​ ​liquid​ ​to​ ​gas​ ​depends​ ​on​ ​the​ ​strength​ ​of​ ​the​ ​forces​ ​between​ ​the
particles​ ​of​ ​the​ ​substance.
o The​ ​nature​ ​of​ ​the​ ​particles​ ​involved​ ​depends​ ​on​ ​the​ ​type​ ​of​ ​bonding​ ​and
the​ ​structure​ ​of​ ​the​ ​substance.
o The​ ​stronger​ ​the​ ​forces​ ​between​ ​the​ ​particles​ ​the​ ​higher​ ​the​ ​melting
point​ ​and​ ​boiling​ ​point​ ​of​ ​the​ ​substance.
o The​ ​more​ ​kinetic​ ​energy​ ​(from​ ​increased​ ​temperature)​ ​particles​ ​have,​ ​the
more​ ​movement,​ ​which​ ​causes​ ​a​ ​change​ ​of​ ​state​ ​from​ ​(s)​ ​to​ ​(l)​ ​to​ ​(g)

Describe​ ​qualitatively​ ​the​ ​pressure​ ​and​ ​temperature​ ​of​ ​a​ ​gas​ ​in​ ​terms​ ​of​ ​the
motion​ ​of​ ​its​ ​particles

● The​ ​higher​ ​the​ ​pressure​ ​=​ ​the​ ​more​ ​motion​ ​of​ ​a​ ​gas’​ ​particles
● The​ h​ igher​ ​the​ ​temperature​ ​=​ ​the​ ​more​ ​motion​ ​of​ ​a​ ​gas’​ ​particles

Show​ ​an​ ​understanding​ ​of​ ​the​ ​random​ ​motion​ ​of​ ​particles​ ​in​ ​a​ ​suspension
(sometimes​ ​known​ ​as​ ​Brownian​ ​motion)​ ​as​ ​evidence​ ​for​ ​the​ ​kinetic​ ​particle
(atoms,​ ​molecules​ ​or​ ​ions)​ ​model​ ​of​ ​matter

● Particles​ ​in​ ​liquids​ ​and​ ​gases​ ​(known​ ​as​ ​fluids)​ ​move​ ​randomly​ ​(this​ ​is​ ​called
Brownian​ ​motion)
● This​ ​happens​ ​because​ ​they​ ​collide​ ​with​ ​other​ ​moving​ ​particles​ ​in​ ​the​ ​fluid
● This​ ​is​ ​evidence​ ​for​ ​the​ ​kinetic​ ​particle​ ​model​ ​of​ ​matter-​ ​it​ ​shows​ ​that​ ​there​ ​are
individual​ ​particles​ ​which​ ​make​ ​up​ ​solids/liquids/gases

(Extended​ ​only)​ ​Describe​ ​and​ ​explain​ ​Brownian​ ​motion​ ​in​ ​terms​ ​of​ ​random
molecular​ ​bombardment

● Particles​ ​in​ ​liquids​ ​and​ ​gases​ ​move​ ​randomly​ ​because​ ​they​ ​are​ ​bombarded​ ​by
the​ ​other​ ​moving​ ​particles​ ​in​ ​the​ ​fluid.​ ​Larger​ ​particles​ ​can​ ​be​ ​moved​ ​by​ ​light,
fast-moving​ ​molecules

(Extended​ ​only)​ ​State​ ​evidence​ ​for​ ​Brownian​ ​motion

● Robert​ ​Brown​ ​observed​ ​the​ ​random​ ​movement​ ​of​ ​pollen​ ​grains​ ​within​ ​water,
which​ ​showed​ ​that​ ​there​ ​were​ ​separate​ ​particles​ ​within​ ​the​ ​water​ ​that​ ​were
moving​ ​randomly​ ​and​ ​caused​ ​the​ ​grain​ ​to​ ​move​ ​(kinetic​ ​theory)

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Describe​ ​and​ ​explain​ ​diffusion

● Movement​ ​of​ ​particles​ ​from​ ​an​ ​area​ ​of​ ​high​ ​concentration​ ​to​ ​an​ ​area​ ​of​ ​low
concentration
● For​ ​this​ ​to​ ​work,​ ​particles​ ​must​ ​be​ ​able​ ​to​ ​move
o Therefore,​ ​diffusion​ ​does​ ​not​ ​occur​ ​in​ ​solids,​ ​since​ ​the​ ​particles​ ​cannot
move​ ​from​ ​place​ ​to​ ​place​ ​(only​ ​vibrate)
o A​ ​smell​ ​does​ ​not​ ​travel​ ​very​ ​fast,​ ​because​ ​the​ ​particles​ ​collide​ ​with
particles​ ​of​ ​air,​ ​changing​ ​direction​ ​randomly​ ​when​ ​they​ ​collide,​ ​taking
much​ ​longer​ ​to​ ​travel​ ​from​ ​place​ ​to​ ​place

(Extended​ ​only)​ ​Describe​ ​and​ ​explain​ ​dependence​ ​of​ ​rate​ ​of​ ​diffusion​ ​on
molecular​ ​mass

● The​ ​smaller​ ​the​ ​molecular​ ​mass,​ ​the​ ​greater​ ​the​ ​average​ ​speed​ ​of​ ​the​ ​molecules
(but​ ​all​ ​gases​ ​have​ ​the​ ​same​ ​average​ ​kinetic​ ​energy​ ​at​ ​the​ ​same​ ​temperature)
o Therefore,​ ​the​ ​smaller​ ​the​ ​molecular​ ​mass,​ ​the​ ​faster​ ​the​ ​gas​ ​diffuses

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1 Kinetic theory explains the properties of matter in terms of the arrangement and movement of
particles.

(a) Nitrogen is a gas at room temperature. Nitrogen molecules, N2, are spread far apart and
move in a random manner at high speed.

(i) Draw the electronic structure of a nitrogen molecule.

Show only the outer electron shells.

[2]

(ii) Compare the movement and arrangement of the molecules in solid nitrogen to those in
nitrogen gas.

[3]

(b) A sealed container contains nitrogen gas. The pressure of the gas is due to the molecules of
the gas hitting the walls of the container.
Use the kinetic theory to explain why the pressure inside the container increases when the
temperature is increased.

[2]

PhysicsAndMathsTutor.com
 The following apparatus can be used to measure the rate of diffusion of a gas.

constant
pressure
applied metal foil,
gas escapes
gas syringe gas through small
hole in foil

The following results were obtained.

temperature rate of diffusion

gas
/ °C in cm3 / min

nitrogen
it 1.00

chlorine
hl 0.63

nitrogen
it 1.05

(c)
c) Explain why nitrogen gas diffuses faster than chlorine gas.

[2]

(ii) Explain why the nitrogen gas diffuses faster at the higher temperature.

[1]

[Total: 10]

PhysicsAndMathsTutor.com
2 Concentrated ammonia solution gives off ammonia gas. Concentrated hydrochloric acid gives off
hydrogen chloride gas. Ammonia, NH3, and hydrogen chloride, HCl, are both colourless gases.
Ammonia reacts with hydrogen chloride to make the white solid ammonium chloride.

Apparatus is set up as shown.

cotton wool cotton wool

soaked in concentrated soaked in concentrated
hydrochloric acid ammonia solution
A B C D

glass tube

After ten minutes a white solid forms in the tube where the gases meet.

(a) (i) Write the chemical equation for the reaction of ammonia with hydrogen chloride.

....................................................................................................................................... [1]

(ii) Name the process by which the ammonia and hydrogen chloride gases move in the tube.

....................................................................................................................................... [1]

(iii) At which point, A, B, C or D, does the white solid form? Explain why the white solid forms
at that point.

the solid forms at ..............

explanation .........................................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................................................
[3]

(iv) The experiment was repeated at a higher temperature.

Predict how the results of the experiment would be different. Explain your answer.

.............................................................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................... [3]

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 (b) Some of the white solid is removed from the tube and dissolved in water.

Describe how the white solid could be tested to show it contains,

(i) ammonium ions,

test ......................................................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................................................

result ...................................................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................................................
[3]

(ii) chloride ions.

test ......................................................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................................................

result ...................................................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................................................
[3]

(c) The diagram shows the electron arrangement in a molecule of ammonia, showing only outer
shell electrons.

N H

(i) State the type of bonding in ammonia.

....................................................................................................................................... [1]

PhysicsAndMathsTutor.com
 (ii) Hydrazine, N2H4, is another compound of nitrogen and hydrogen.

Complete the diagram to show the electron arrangement in a molecule of hydrazine,

showing only outer shell electrons.

H H

N N

H H
[3]

(d) Nylon and proteins are both polymers containing nitrogen.

(i) Name the linkages found in the polymers of nylon and protein.

....................................................................................................................................... [1]

(ii) Describe one difference in the structures of nylon and protein.

....................................................................................................................................... [1]

(iii) What is the general name given to the products of hydrolysis of proteins?

....................................................................................................................................... [1]

PhysicsAndMathsTutor.com
 (e) Suggest the structure of the monomer used to make the polymer shown.

H O

N C
n

[1]

[Total: 22]

PhysicsAndMathsTutor.com
3 Compound X is a colourless liquid at room temperature.

(a) A sample of pure X was slowly heated from –5.0 °C, which is below its melting point, to 90 °C,
which is above its boiling point. Its temperature is measured every minute and the results are
represented on the graph.

F
90 °C
D
E

temperature

B
t °C C

A
–5 °C
time

(i) Complete the equation for the equilibrium present in the region BC.

X(s) .................... [1]

(ii) What is the significance of temperature t °C?

....................................................................................................................................... [1]

(iii) What is the physical state of compound X in the region EF?

....................................................................................................................................... [1]

(iv) What would be the difference in the region BC if an impure sample of X had been used?

....................................................................................................................................... [1]

(b) Compound X is a hydrocarbon. It contains 85.7% of carbon. The mass of one mole of X is 84 g.

(i) What is the percentage of hydrogen in the compound ?

....................................................................................................................................... [1]

(ii) Calculate the empirical formula of X. Show your working.

empirical formula = ................................ [3]

(iii) What is the molecular formula of compound X?

....................................................................................................................................... [1]

PhysicsAndMathsTutor.com [Total: 9]
4 (a) Different gases diffuse at different speeds.

(i) What is meant by the term diffusion?

.............................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................... [1]

(ii) What property of a gas molecule affects the speed at which it diffuses?

....................................................................................................................................... [1]

(b) Helium is a gas used to fill balloons. It is present in the air in very small quantities. Diffusion can
be used to separate it from the air.

Air at 1000 °C is on one side of a porous barrier. The air which passes through the barrier has
a larger amount of helium in it.

(i) Why does the air on the other side of the barrier contain more helium?

....................................................................................................................................... [1]

(ii) Why is it an advantage to have the air at a high temperature?

.............................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................... [1]

(c) Most helium is obtained from natural gas found in the USA. Natural gas contains methane and
7% helium. One possible way to obtain the helium would be to burn the methane.

(i) Write an equation for the complete combustion of methane.

....................................................................................................................................... [1]

(ii) Suggest why this would not be a suitable method to obtain the helium.

.............................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................... [1]

(iii) Suggest another method, other than diffusion, by which helium could be separated from
the mixture of gases in natural gas.

....................................................................................................................................... [1]

[Total: 7]

PhysicsAndMathsTutor.com
5 Explain each of the following in terms of the kinetic particle theory.

(a) The rate of most reactions increases at higher temperatures.

....................................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................................................. [3]

(b) A liquid has a fixed volume but takes up the shape of the container. A gas takes up the shape
of the container but it does not have a fixed volume.

liquid gas

....................................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................................................. [3]

[Total: 6]

PhysicsAndMathsTutor.com
6 The diagram shows a heating curve for a sample of compound X.

D
80 E

temperature / °C

B
15 C
A
time

(a) Is X a solid, a liquid or a gas at room temperature, 20 °C?

..................................................................................................................................... [1]

(b) Write an equation for the equilibrium which exists in region BC.

..................................................................................................................................... [2]

(c) Name the change of state which occurs in region DE.

..................................................................................................................................... [1]

(d) Explain how the curve shows that a pure sample of compound X was used.

...........................................................................................................................................

..................................................................................................................................... [2]

[Total: 6]

PhysicsAndMathsTutor.com
1 (a (i) 6e between two nitrogen atoms; note: can be any combination of dots or crosses [1]
1 lone pair on each nitrogen atom; [1]

(ii) solid gas

pattern: regular / lattice random / irregular / no pattern; [1]

distance: close far apart / spread out; [1]

movement: vibrate / fixed position moving; [1]

note: comparison must be made

(b) particles have more energy / move faster; [1]

collide harder / collide more frequently / more collisions / collide with more force; [1]
allow: molecules instead of particles

(c) (i) nitrogen has smaller Mr; [1

nitrogen (molecules) move faster (than chlorine molecules) / ora; [1]
note: comparison must be made

(ii) (at higher temperature) molecules move faster / have more energy [1]

PhysicsAndMathsTutor.com
 Question Answer Marks

2(a)(i) NH3 + HCl → NH4Cl ; 1

2(a)(ii) di 1
2(a)(iii) 3
solid forms at: A; 1
explanation: ammonia molecules / particles have a smaller mass; (and so) move / diffuse faster; 2
2(a)(iv) 3
M1 solid forms in less time / faster / quicker; 1
M2 particles / molecules have more energy; 1
M3 (and so) move faster / diffuse faster; 1
2(b)(i) 3
test: add sodium hydroxide (solution and warm); 1
result: test gas / ammonia with (red) litmus / Universal Indicator / pH paper; indicator turns blue / ammonia produced; 2
2(b)(ii) 3
test: add silver nitrate (solution); 1
result: add (dilute) nitric acid; white precipitate; 2

PhysicsAndMathsTutor.com
 Question Answer Marks

2(c)(i)
(c)(i) cov 1
2(c)(ii) 3
M1 one shared pair of electrons between each N and H; 1
M2 one shared pair of electrons between the N atoms; 1
M3 one lone pair on each N and no additional electrons anywhere; 1
(d)(i)
d)(i 1
2(d)(ii) proteins are made from more than two monomers; 1
OR
nylon is made from 1 or 2 monomers (only);
2(d)(iii)
(d)(ii acids; 1
2(e) 1

PhysicsAndMathsTutor.com
 3 (a (i) (X(s) ↔) X(l) [1]

(ii) melting point/freezing point (of X) [1]

(iii) gas/gaseous or vapour [1]

(iv) not horizontal or line slopes or line is lower [1]

(b) (i) 14.3 [1]

(ii) 85.7 ÷ 12 and 14.3 ÷ 1 or 7.14 and 14.3 [1]

ratio 1:2 [1]
CH2 [1]
note: Award all 3 marks for correct answer
allow: alternative working e.g.
85.7 × 84 ÷ 100 and 14.3 × 84 ÷ 100 or 71.988/72 and 12/12.012 [1]
6:12 or ratio 1:2 [1]
CH2 [1]

(iii) C6H12 [1]

[Total: 9]

PhysicsAndMathsTutor.com
 4 (a (i) (particles) spread to fill total available volume / move from high concentration
to low concentration / moves down a concentration gradient (1) [1]

(ii) mass or Mr (1) [1]

(b)
b) helium atoms / molecules are lighter than molecules in air or N2 and O2
or helium is less dense than air or N2 and O2.
or helium diffuses (through the porous barrier) faster than air or N2 and
O2. (1) [1]

(ii) faster rate of diffusion / molecules move faster (at high temperatures). (1) [1]

(c) (i) CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O (1) [1]

(ii) would get a mixture of helium and carbon dioxide

or would get a mixture of gases
or waste of methane / natural gas / fossil fuel (1) [1]

(iii) fractional distillation (1) [1]

[Total: 7]

PhysicsAndMathsTutor.com
 5 (a any three from:
particles have more energy (1)
move faster (1)
collide more frequently (1)
more particles have energy greater than Ea [3]
guidance: more colliding molecules have enough energy to react is worth (2)

(b) particles move in all directions / randomly in both liquids and gases (1)

no bonds / very weak forces between particles in gases (1)

molecules can move apart / separate (to fill entire volume) (1)
OR
bonds / forces / IMF between particles in liquids (1)
molecules cannot move apart / separate (so fixed volume in liquids) (1) [3]

[Total: 6]

PhysicsAndMathsTutor.com
6 (a liquid; [1]

(b) (l) and (s); [1]

reversible sign; [1]
accept: X in equation
ignore: any compounds just look for state symbols
must be the same compound on both sides of equation

(c) boiling / condensation; [1]

accept: evaporation or vaporisation

(d) (in region BC) solid melts / liquid boils (in region DE); [1]
at one / fixed / sharp / single / specific temperature; [1]

[Total: 6]

PhysicsAndMathsTutor.com
1 (a) A small amount of liquid bromine is added to a container which is then sealed.

Br2(l) → Br2(g)

Use the ideas of the Kinetic Theory to explain why, after about an hour, the bromine
molecules have spread uniformly to occupy the whole container.

...........................................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................................

..................................................................................................................................... [3]

(b) The diagrams below show simple experiments on the speed of diffusion of gases.

porous pot
allows gas hydrogen
air
molecules porous pot
to diffuse
air air

higher level

large
same level
beaker

coloured
liquid

diagram 1 diagram 2

higher
level
air

carbon dioxide

large beaker

diagram 3

PhysicsAndMathsTutor.com
 Complete the following explanations. Diagram 1 has been done for you.

Diagram 1

There is air inside and outside the porous pot so the rate of diffusion of air into the pot is
the same as the rate of diffusion of air out of the pot. The pressure inside and outside the
pot is the same so the coloured liquid is at the same level on each side of the tube.

Diagram 2

...........................................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................................

..................................................................................................................................... [3]

Diagram 3

...........................................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................................

..................................................................................................................................... [3]

[Total: 9]

PhysicsAndMathsTutor.com
2 Cobalt is an element in Period 4 of the Periodic Table.

(a) Use your copy of the Periodic Table to help you complete the table below.

number of number of number of

particle
protons neutrons electrons

Co
Co2+

[2]

60
(b) Co is a cobalt isotope.

(i) Explain the term isotope.

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................................. [2]

(ii) Explain why two isotopes of the same element have identical chemical properties.

.............................................................................................................................. [1]

(iii) State one industrial use and one medical use of radioactive isotopes.

industrial use ....................................................................................................... [1]

medical use ......................................................................................................... [1]

[Total: 7]

PhysicsAndMathsTutor.com
3 The following table gives information about six substances.

melting point boiling point electrical conductivity electrical conductivity

substance
/ °C / °C as a solid as a liquid

A 839 1484 good good

B –210 –196 poor poor
C 776 1497 poor good
D –117 78 poor poor
E 1607 2227 poor poor
F –5 102 poor good

(a) Which substance could have a macromolecular structure, similar to that of silicon(IV)
oxide?

..................................................................................................................................... [1]

(b) Which substances are solids at room temperature?

..................................................................................................................................... [1]

(c) Which substance could be a metal?

..................................................................................................................................... [1]

(d) Which substance could be aqueous sodium chloride?

..................................................................................................................................... [1]

(e) Which substance is an ionic compound?

..................................................................................................................................... [1]

(f) Which substances are liquids at room temperature?

..................................................................................................................................... [1]

[Total: 6]

PhysicsAndMathsTutor.com
4 The Kinetic Theory explains the properties of matter in terms of the arrangement and
movement of particles.

(a) Nitrogen is a gas at room temperature. Nitrogen molecules, N2, which are spread far
apart move in a random manner at high speed.

(i) Draw a diagram showing the arrangement of the valency electrons in a nitrogen
molecule.
Use × to represent an electron from a nitrogen atom.

[2]

(ii) How does the movement and arrangement of the molecules in a crystal of nitrogen
differ from those in gaseous nitrogen?

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

............................................................................................................................... [3]

(b) Use the ideas of the Kinetic Theory to explain the following.

(i) A sealed container contains nitrogen gas. The pressure of a gas is due to the
molecules of the gas hitting the walls of the container.
Explain why the pressure inside the container increases when the temperature is
increased.

....................................................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................................. [2]

PhysicsAndMathsTutor.com
 (ii) The following apparatus can be used to measure the rate of diffusion of a gas.

constant
pressure
applied metal foil
gas escapes
gas syringe gas through small
hole in foil

The following results were obtained.

temperature rate of diffusion

gas
/ °C in cm3 / min

nitrogen 25 1.00
chlorine 25 0.63
nitrogen 50 1.05

Explain why nitrogen diffuses faster than chlorine.

....................................................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................................. [2]

Explain why the nitrogen diffuses faster at the higher temperature.

.............................................................................................................................. [1]

[Total: 10]

PhysicsAndMathsTutor.com
5 Three of the halogens in Group VII are:
chlorine
bromine
iodine

(a)
a) How does their colour change down the Group?

[1]

(ii) How does their physical state (solid, liquid or gas) change down the Group?

[1]

(iii) Predict the colour and physical state of fluorine.

colour

physical state [2]

(b) Describe how you could distinguish between aqueous potassium bromide and aqueous
potassium iodide.

test

result with bromide

result with iodide [3]

(c) 0.015 moles of iodine react with 0.045 moles of chlorine to form 0.030 moles of a single
product. Complete the equation.

I2 + Cl2 [2]

(d) Traces of chlorine can be separated from bromine vapour by diffusion.

Which gas would diffuse the faster and why?

[2]

PhysicsAndMathsTutor.com
6 Strontium and sul ut they have
different properties.

property strontium chloride sulphur chloride

appearance white crystalline solid red liquid

melting point / oC 87 -8

particles present ions molecules

electrical conductivity of solid poor poor

electrical conductivity of liquid good poor

(a) The formulae of the chlorides are similar because both elements have a valency of 2.
Explain why Group II and Group VI elements both have a valency of 2.

[2]

(b) Draw a diagram showing the arrangement of the valency electrons in one covalent
molecule of sulphur chloride.
Use x to represent an electron from a sulphur atom.
Use o to represent an electron from a chlorine atom.

[3]

(c) Explain the difference in electrical conductivity between the following.

(i) solid and liquid strontium chloride

[1]

(ii) liquid strontium chloride and liquid sulphur chloride

[1]

PhysicsAndMathsTutor.com
1 (a explanation of evaporation e.g. particles (or molecules) with a lot of energy leave the
liquid / bromine particles break free from each other / forces or bonds between
bromine molecules broken / molecules (in liquid) have weak forces holding them
together / weak intermolecular forces / Van der Waals forces between molecules
(don’t have to be stated as weak) / (weak intermolecular forces alone scores this
mark);
allow: particles (or molecules) of bromine escape from liquid [1]

diffusion / diffuse / movement of particles; [1]

explanation of diffusion involving qualified movement of molecules / particles

i.e. random movement of molecules / particles move in all direction
i. [1]

(b) air more dense / heavier / higher Mr than hydrogen; [1]

hydrogen diffuses faster (than air diffuses out); [1]
accept: diffusion in is faster than out (without naming gases)
pressure inside pot is greater (than outside); [1]
air less dense / lighter / lower Mr than carbon dioxide; [1]

air diffuses / moves faster (than carbon dioxide); [1]

accept: diffusion out is faster than in (without naming gases)

pressure inside pot less (than outside); [1]

ORA in both parts

[Total: 9]

PhysicsAndMathsTutor.com
2 (a 27p 32n 27e [1]
27p 32n 25e [1]

(b) (i) same proton number / same number of protons / same atomic number [1]
different nucleon number / different number of neutrons / different mass number [1]

(ii) same electron distribution [1]

allow: same proton number and same number of electrons
not: same number of electrons / same number of shells

(iii) industrial detection of leaks / thickness of paper etc. / nuclear fuel for generating
electricity / nuclear weapons / radiographs of welds / measuring wear / sterilising food [1]
not: carbon dating

medical treatment of cancer, radiotherapy, treatment of thyroid gland, X rays, tracer

studies in body, sterilising equipment, locating tumours
accept: X-rays only once [1]

PhysicsAndMathsTutor.com
3 (a E [1]

(b) A C E need all three [1]

(c) A [1]

(d) F [1]

(e) C [1]

(f) D F need both but not more [1]

[Total: 6]

PhysicsAndMathsTutor.com
4 (a) (i) 6e between two nitrogen atoms (can be any combination of dots or crosses) [1]
1 lone pair on each nitrogen atom [1]

(ii) SOLID GAS

PATTERN regular / lattice (not fixed) random / irregular / no pattern [1]

DISTANCE close far apart / spread out [1]

MOVEMENT vibrate / fixed / no motion moving / translational [1]

(b) (i) particles/molecules have more energy / move faster [1]

collide harder / collide more frequently / more collisions / collide with more force (with the
walls) [1]

(ii) (1) nitrogen has smaller Mr / lighter molecules / lower density [1]
nitrogen molecules / particles move faster (than chlorine molecules) [1]

(2) at higher temperature nitrogen molecules or particles (not atoms) move faster /
have more energy [1]

[Total: 10]

PhysicsAndMathsTutor.com
5 (a (i) darker or actual colours [1]
chlorine yellow, yellow/green
bromine orange, brown, brownish red
iodine black grey, purple

(ii) gas, liquid, solid [1]

all three needed

(iii) colourless or (pale) yellow [1]

gas [1]

(b) Must have a correct reagent otherwise wc = 0

add chlorine water or bubble in chlorine gas [1]

yellow or orange or brown [1]
dark brown or grey crystals
(Accept colour that is darker than for bromide) [1]

OR add (acidified) silver nitrate(aq) [1]

off white or pale yellow or cream precipitate or soluble in aqueous ammonia [1]
yellow precipitate insoluble in aqueous ammonia [1]
precipitate essential then either colour or solubility in aqueous ammonia

OR add lead nitrate(aq) [1]

pale yellow or off white or cream precipitate [1]
yellow precipitate insoluble in aqueous ammonia [1]

Accept any test that could work – electrolysis, iron(III) salt

bromine, potassium dichromate, potassium manganate(VII) etc.

(c) I2 + 3Cl2 = 2ICl3 [2]

For having either reactants or products correct ONLY [1]

(d) chlorine [1]

COND lower Mr or lower density or lighter molecules or molecules move faster [2]

OR lighter or based on Ar MAX [1]

smaller with no additional comment or sieve idea [0]
N.B. a total of [3] not [2]
TOTAL = 12

PhysicsAndMathsTutor.com
 6 (a) Group II metals will lose 2e [1]
Group VI elements will gain 2e [1]

(b) SCl2 [1]

COND 8e around both chlorine atoms [1]
8e around sulphur with 2nbp and 2bp [1]
If x and o reversed ignore if this is the only error

(c)
c) Ions cannot move in solid or can move in liquid [1]

(ii) No ions in sulphur chloride or it is covalent or only molecules or only

strontium chloride has ions [1]

TOTAL = 7

PhysicsAndMathsTutor.com
 1 Acid-base reactions are examples of proton

(a) Ethylamine is a weak base and sodium hydroxide

transfer. is a strong base.

(i) In terms of proton transfer, explain what is meant by the term weak
.............................................................................................................................................
base.

....................................................................................................................................... [2]

(ii) Given aqueous solutions of both bases, describe how you could show that sodium
hydroxide is the stronger base. How could you ensure a ‘fair’ comparison between the two
solutions?

.............................................................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................... [3]

(b) Ethylamine reacts with acids to form salts.

CH3CH2NH2 + HCl → CH3CH2NH3Cl

ethylammonium chloride

(i) Complete the equation for the reaction between sulfuric acid and ethylamine. Name the
salt formed.

......CH3CH2NH2 + ............ → .........................

name of salt ............................................................................................. [3]

(ii) Amines and their salts have similar chemical properties to ammonia and ammonium salts.

Suggest a reagent that could be used to displace the weak base, ethylamine, from its salt
ethylammonium chloride.

....................................................................................................................................... [1]

PhysicsAndMathsTutor.com
 (c) Gases diffuse, which means that they move to occupy the total available volume.

(i) Explain, using kinetic particle theory, why gases diffuse.

.............................................................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................... [2]

(ii) When the colourless gases hydrogen bromide and ethylamine come into contact, a white
solid is formed.

CH3CH2NH2(g) + HBr(g) → CH3CH2NH3Br(s)

white solid

The following apparatus can be used to compare the rates of diffusion of the two gases
ethylamine and hydrogen bromide.

gives off gives off

CH3CH2NH2(g) HBr(g)

A B C

cotton wool soaked in cotton wool soaked in

ethylamine(aq) conc. hydrobromic acid

Predict at which position, A, B or C, the white solid will form. Explain your choice.

.............................................................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................... [3]

[Total: 14]

PhysicsAndMathsTutor.com
2 The halogens are a collection of diatomic non-metals in Group VII.

(a)
a) Define the term diatomic.

.............................................................................................................................. [1]

(ii) What do the electron distributions of the halogens have in common?

.............................................................................................................................. [1]

(iii) How do their electron distributions differ?

.............................................................................................................................. [1]

(iv) Complete the table.

solid, liquid or gas

halogen colour
at room temperature

chlorine ......................................... .........................................

bromine ......................................... .........................................

iodine ......................................... .........................................

[2]

(b) The halogens react with other non-metals to form covalent compounds.
Draw a diagram which shows the arrangement of the valency electrons in one molecule
of the covalent compound arsenic trifluoride.
The electron distribution of an arsenic atom is 2 + 8 + 18 + 5.

Use x to represent an electron from an arsenic atom.

Use o to represent an electron from a fluorine atom.

[3]

PhysicsAndMathsTutor.com
 (c) Photochromic glass is used in sunglasses. In bright light, the glass darkens reducing
the amount of light reaching the eye. When the light is less bright, the glass becomes
colourless increasing the amount of light reaching the eye.

Photochromic glass contains very small amounts of the halides silver(I) chloride and
copper(I) chloride.
The reaction between these two chlorides is photochemical.

AgCl + CuCl Ag + CuCl 2

colourless colourless black colourless

How does photochromic glass work?

...........................................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................................

..................................................................................................................................... [3]

[Total: 11]

PhysicsAndMathsTutor.com
3 Selenium and sulfur are in Group VI. They have similar properties.

(a) One of the main uses of selenium is in photoelectric cells. These cells can change light
into electrical energy.

(i) Name a process which can change light into chemical energy.

....................................................................................................................................

(ii) Name a device which can change chemical energy into electrical energy.

.............................................................................................................................. [2]

(b) The electron distribution of a selenium atom is 2 + 8 + 18 + 6.

(i) Selenium forms an ionic compound with potassium. Draw a diagram which shows
the formula of this ionic compound, the charges on the ions and the arrangement of
the valency electrons around the negative ion.
Use o to represent an electron from an atom of potassium.
Use x to represent an electron from an atom of selenium.

[3]

PhysicsAndMathsTutor.com
 (ii) Draw a diagram showing the arrangement of the valency electrons in one molecule
of the covalent compound selenium chloride.
Use x to represent an electron from an atom of selenium.
Use o to represent an electron from an atom of chlorine.

[3]

(iii) Predict two differences in the physical properties of these two compounds.

....................................................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................................. [2]

(c) The selenide ion reacts with water.

Se2– + H2O → HSe– + OH–

What type of reagent is the selenide ion in this reaction? Give a reason for your choice.

...........................................................................................................................................

..................................................................................................................................... [3]

[Total: 13]

PhysicsAndMathsTutor.com
4 Chlorine reacts with phosphorus to form phosphorus trichloride.

(a) Draw a diagram showing the arrangement of the valency electrons in one molecule of
the covalent compound, phosphorus trichloride.
Use x to represent an electron from a phosphorus atom.
Use o to represent an electron from a chlorine atom.

[2]

(b) Phosphorus trichloride reacts with water to form two acids.

(i) Balance the equation for this reaction.

PCl 3 + .......H2O → .......HCl + H3PO3

[1]

(ii) Describe how you could show that phosphorus acid, H3PO3, is a weaker acid than
hydrochloric acid.

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................................. [3]

PhysicsAndMathsTutor.com
 (iii) Two salts of phosphorus acid are its sodium salt, which is soluble in water, and its
calcium salt which is insoluble in water. Suggest a method of preparation for each of
these salts from aqueous phosphorus acid. Specify any other reagent needed and
briefly outline the method.

sodium salt ................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................................. [2]

calcium salt ................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................................. [2]

[Total: 10]

PhysicsAndMathsTutor.com
5 Ethanoic acid is a colourless liquid at room temperature. It has the typical acid properties
and forms compounds called ethanoates.

(a) A pure sample of ethanoic acid is slowly heated from 0oC to 150oC and its temperature
is measured every minute. The results are represented on the graph below.

D
E

temperature

B
C

A
time

(i) Name the change that occurs in the region D to E.

[1]

(ii) What would be the difference in the region B to C if an impure sample had been
used?

[1]

(iii) Sketch on the graph how the line would continue if the acid was heated to a higher
temperature. [1]

PhysicsAndMathsTutor.com
 (iv) Complete the following table that compares the separation and movement of the
molecules in regions C to D with those in E to F.

C to D E to F

separation (distance
between particles)

movement of particles random and slow

Can particles move apart to

fill any volume?

[5]

(b) Complete the word equations for the reactions of ethanoic acid.

calcium + ethanoic acid

+ ethanoic acid zinc ethanoate + water [2]

(c) Write the symbol equation for the reaction between ethanoic acid and sodium
hydroxide.

[2]

PhysicsAndMathsTutor.com
 Question Answer Marks Guidance

1(a)(i) proton acceptor; A alternative words to ‘acceptor’ e.g.

‘receiver’
I references to pH

M2 does not accept (protons) readily A ‘hydrogen ion’ or ‘H+’ for proton
OR less able to accept protons (than strong bases); 2 I accepts fewer / less protons
(a)(ii) M1 same concentration of both bases;

M2 measure their pH; A suitable method e.g. universal indicator

or pH paper or pH meter
I litmus or methyl orange or
phenolphthalein
I titration methods for M2 and M3

M3 the higher pH is the stronger base; 3 A suitable colours of both weak strong
bases e.g. ethylamine is (greeny)blue,
NaOH is darker blue / purple

A alternative methods for M2 and M3

e.g.
e. measure conductivity (M2) and high
conductivity is the stronger base (M3)
e.g.add aluminium / Al (M2) and stronger
base gives faster rate of
effervescence / more fizzing / more
bubbling (M3)
(b)(i) 3CH2NH2 + H2SO4 → (CH3CH2NH3 )2 SO4 A multiples
species; I state symbols
balancing; A one mark for correct product

the salt is ethylammonium sulfate; 3 A close spellings

A diethylammonium sulfate

PhysicsAndMathsTutor.com
 Question Answer Marks Guidance

(b)(ii) sodium hydroxide / calcium hydroxide / NaOH / Ca(OH)2 ; 1 any Group 1 or Group 2 hydroxide or
oxide
(c)(i) Any two from:
(particles move in) random motion;

(particles) collide; A alternative phrases for collide

(particles) move from a region of high concentration to low concentration; 2 A down a concentration gradient
6(c)(ii)
(c
M2 it has a lower (relative) molecular mass (than HBr); A ethylamine is less dense
A ethylamine is a lighter molecule but
M3 ethylamine diffuses faster (than HBr); I ‘ethylamine is lighter’
3 I ethylamine is a smaller molecule
A ethylamine molecules or particles
move faster

A ECF for M2 and M3 if A is given e.g.

HBr diffuses faster for M3 because it is a
lighter molecule for M2
A ECF for M2 if B is given e.g. they diffuse
at same rate for M3 because molecules
weigh the same for M2

PhysicsAndMathsTutor.com
2 (a (i) two atoms per molecule [1]

(ii) 7e in outer shell or level / same number of outer electrons / need to gain one electron [1]

(iii) different number of energy levels / different number of electrons [1]

(iv)
halogen solid, liquid or gas colour
at room temperature

chlorine gas yellow / yellow green /

green

bromine liquid brown / red-brown /

orange-brown
not: red / orange

iodine solid black / grey / silver-grey /

purple / violet
NOT: blue-black
NOTE: one mark for each vertical column [2]

(b) correct formula, AsF3 [1]

3nbps and 1bp around all 3 fluorine atoms [1]
3bps and 1nbp around arsenic atom [1]

(c) (increased) light increases / causes forward reaction / light causes

AgCl reacts with CuCl [1]
(increased) light increases the amount of silver (and so darkens glass) [1]
decrease in light reverses reaction / uses up silver / silver reacts (and so reduces darkness)[1]

[Total: 11]

PhysicsAndMathsTutor.com
3 (a (i) photosynthesis or a photochemical reaction [1]
not an example, question requires a process
not devices which convert light into electricity

(ii) cell [1]

accept battery
not generator

(b) (i) correct formula [1]

cond following marks conditional on correct formula

If covalent mark 1 only
correct charges [1]
6x and 2o around anion [1]
do NOT penalise for incorrect coding
ignore electrons around potassium

(ii) correct formula [1]

If ionic mark 1 only

cond
2 bp and 2 nbp around selenium [1]
1 bp and 3 nbp around both chlorine atoms [1]

(iii) the ionic compound

higher melting point / boiling point / less volatile
conducts when molten or aqueous, covalent compound does not
is soluble in water, covalent is not / ionic insoluble in organic solvents, covalent soluble
in organic solvents
harder
any two [2]
note there has to be comparison between the ionic compound and the covalent
compound
not density

(c) base [1]

not alkali
accepts a proton [2]
accepts hydrogen ion / H+ only [1]
proton and H+ [2]

PhysicsAndMathsTutor.com
4 (a 3 bp and 1nbp around phosphorus [1]
1 bp and 3nbp around each chlorine [1]

(b) (i) PCl3 + 3H2O → 3HCl + H3PO3 [1]

(ii) acid solutions same concentration [1]

measure pH/pH paper/Universal indicator [1]
hydrochloric acid lower pH [1]

colours of Universal indicator can be given as red<orange<yellow

ignore precise pH values as long as HCl is lower than H3PO3

OR Acid solutions same concentration [1]

add magnesium or any named metal above Hydrogen in reactivity series but not above
magnesium
calcium carbonate or any insoluble carbonate [1]
hydrochloric acid react faster/shorter time [1]

OR acid solutions same concentration [1]

measure electrical conductivity [1]
hydrochloric acid better conductor/bulb brighter [1]

OR acid solutions same concentration [1]

add sodium thiosulphate [1]
hydrochloric acid forms precipitate faster/less time [1]

(iii) sodium hydroxide/sodium carbonate [1]

titration cond on correct reagent [1]
second mark scores for mention of titration /burette/pipette/indicator.
experimental detail not required

any named soluble calcium salt e.g. calcium chloride/nitrate/hydroxide [1]

precipitation/filter/decant/centrifuge
rec

PhysicsAndMathsTutor.com
5 (a)(i) boiling [1]

(ii) lower temperature or

over temperature range or no plateau [1]

(iii) direct continuation of E to F [1]

(iv) close or touching far apart [2]

fast and random [1]
cannot move apart can move apart [2]

(b)(i) calcium ethanoate + hydrogen [1]

(ii) zinc oxide or hydroxide [1]

(c) CH3COOH + NaOH º CH3COONa + H2O [2]

reactants [1] products [1]

TOTAL = 12

PhysicsAndMathsTutor.com
 1 In which changes do the particles move further apart?

W X
gas liquid solid
Y Z

A W and X B W and Z C X and Y D Y and Z

2 Diagrams X, Y and Z represent the three states of matter.

X Y Z

Which change occurs during boiling?

A X to Y B Y to Z C Z to X D Z to Y

3 Which change of state takes place during evaporation?

A gas to liquid
B liquid to gas
C liquid to solid
D solid to gas

4 In which process do particles move closer together but remain in motion?

A condensation
B diffusion
C evaporation
D freezing

PhysicsAndMathsTutor.com
5 The changes that occur when a substance changes state are shown below.

W X
solid liquid gas
Z Y

Which process, W, X, Y or Z, is occurring in the following four situations?

1 Butter melts on a warm day.

2 Water condenses on a cold surface.
3 The volume of liquid ethanol in an open beaker reduces.
4 Ice forms inside a freezer.

6 The diagram shows a sugar lump in a cup of tea.

Which two processes must happen to spread the sugar evenly in the tea?

PhysicsAndMathsTutor.com
 7 A sugar cube is dropped into a hot cup of tea.

The tea is not stirred.

Which statement explains why the tea becomes sweet?

A The heated water molecules penetrate the sugar cube.

B The hot tea causes the sugar to melt.
C The sugar cube dissolves and its molecules diffuse.
D The sugar molecules get hot and evaporate.

8 A crystal of purple potassium manganate(VII) was added to each of the beakers shown in the
diagram.

hot water cold water

crystal of potassium
manganate(VII)

One beaker contained hot water and the other beaker contained cold water.

In both beakers the purple colour of the potassium manganate(VII) spreads out.

Which result and explanation are correct?

esult
result explanation

A colour spreads faster in cold water particles move faster at a higher temperature
B colour spreads faster in cold water particles move slower at a higher temperature
C colour spreads faster in hot water particles move faster at a higher temperature
D colour spreads faster in hot water particles move slower at a higher temperature

PhysicsAndMathsTutor.com
 9 Which statement is an example of diffusion?

A A kitchen towel soaks up some spilt milk.

B Ice cream melts in a warm room.
C Pollen from flowers is blown by the wind.
D The smell of cooking spreads through a house.

10 A few drops of perfume were spilt on the floor. A few minutes later the perfume could be smelt a
few metres away.

Which two processes had taken place?

A distillation and condensation

B distillation and diffusion
C evaporation and condensation
D evaporation and diffusion

PhysicsAndMathsTutor.com
11 The diagram shows the result of dropping a purple crystal into water.

water purple
after five hours solution
purple
crystal

Which processes take place in this experiment?

chemical
diffusing dissolving
reaction

A   
B   
C   
D   

12 Two gas jars each contain a different gas. The gas jars are connected and the cover slips are
removed.

The diagram shows what happens to the particles of the gases.

cover slips

Which process has occurred?

A chemical reaction
B condensation
C diffusion
D evaporation

PhysicsAndMathsTutor.com
 13 A liquid is heated until it boils.

thermometer

test-tube

25 cm3 liquid

spirit burner

ethanol

Which result shows that the liquid in the test-tube is pure water?

A Condensation forms at the top of the test-tube.

B Steam is produced.

C The thermometer reads 100 °C.

D There is nothing left behind in the test-tube.

14 An attempt was made to compress a gas and a solid using the apparatus shown.
piston

gas solid

Which substance would be compressed and what is the reason for this?

substance reason

A gas the gas particles are close together

B gas the gas particles are far apart
C solid the solid particles are close together
D solid the solid particles are far apart

PhysicsAndMathsTutor.com
 15 A gas jar of bromine vapour and a gas jar of air are set up as shown in diagram 1.

The glass slide is removed. Diagram 2 shows the appearance of the gas jars after one hour.

air

mixture of air
glass slide and bromine

bromine
vapour

diagram 1 diagram 2

Which statement explains why the bromine and air mix together?

A Bromine is denser than air.

B Bromine is lighter than air.
C Bromine molecules moved upwards and molecules in air moved downwards.
D Molecules in bromine and air moved randomly.

16 The diagram shows a cup of tea.

Which row describes the water particles in the air above the cup compared with the water
particles in the cup?

moving faster closer together

A  
B  
C  
D  

PhysicsAndMathsTutor.com
 17 What are the processes W, X, Y and Z in the following diagram?

W X
solid liquid gas
Y Z

18 ‘Particles moving very slowly from an area of high concentration to an area of low
concentration.’

Which process is being described above?

A a liquid being frozen

B a solid melting
C a substance diffusing through a liquid
D a substance diffusing through the air

PhysicsAndMathsTutor.com
19 Which diagram shows the process of diffusion?

key
A
different
atoms

20 In which substance are the particles close together and slowly moving past each other?

A air
B ice
C steam
D water

PhysicsAndMathsTutor.com
21 The diagrams show the arrangement of particles in three different physical states of substance X.

state 1 state 2 state 3

Which statement about the physical states of substance X is correct?

A Particles in state 1 vibrate about fixed positions.

B State 1 changes to state 2 by diffusion.
C State 2 changes directly to state 3 by condensation.
D The substance in stage 3 has a fixed volume.

22 In which changes do the particles move further apart?

W X
gas liquid solid
Y Z

A W and X B W and Z C X and Y D Y and Z

PhysicsAndMathsTutor.com
23 Aqueous lead(II) nitrate and aqueous potassium iodide are added to a dish containing water, as
shown.

yellow precipitate

aqueous lead(II) nitrate aqueous potassium iodide

A yellow precipitate forms after a few minutes.

Which process occurs before the precipitate forms?

A diffusion
B distillation
C fermentation
D filtration

24 The diagram shows how the molecules in the exhaust gases diffuse into the air.
molecules in air

molecules in
exhaust gases

Which statement describes what happens to these molecules next?

A The molecules fall to the ground because they are heavier than air molecules.
B The molecules go back together as they cool.
C The molecules spread further into the air.
D The molecules stay where they are.

PhysicsAndMathsTutor.com
1 D

2 B

3 B

4 A

5 B

6 B

7 C

8 C

9 D

10 D

11 D

12 C

13 C

14 B

15 D

16 B

17 C

18 C

19 C

20 D

21 D

22 D

23 A

24 C

PhysicsAndMathsTutor.com