ess revision

!RTFQ!
(Read The F*cking Question)

loss of biodiversity
all species have equal rights to live

unit 1

UNIT 1.1 (EVSs)

Most famous/influential international environmental agreements:

CITES - Endangered species - 1973

Montreal Protocol - Ozone hole - 1987
Kyoto Protocol - CO2 - 1997

Major landmarks in the modern environmental movement include: Minamata, Rachel

Carson’s Silent Spring, the Save the Whale campaign, Bhopal, and the Chornobyl disaster.
These led to:
● environmental pressure groups, both local and global
● the concept of stewardship
● increased media coverage raising public awareness.

EVS - a worldview or paradigm that shapes the way an individual, or group of people,
perceives and evaluates environmental issues, influenced by cultural, religious, economic,
and socio-political contexts.
UNIT 1.2 (Systems and models)

Systems are made of different parts.

Each part performs a specialized function.
The parts interact and work together.
In the systems approach, we focus on the interactions.

Transfers flow through a system and involve a location change.

Transformations lead to an interaction within a system in the formation of a new end product or
involve a change of state.

In photosynthesis, light energy is transformed into chemical energy in glucose, which is then
transformed into mechanical and thermal energy when eaten by consumers.

An open system exchanges both energy and matter across its boundary while a closed
system exchanges only energy across its boundary.
An isolated system is a hypothetical concept in which neither energy nor matter is
exchanged across the boundary.

Transformations require a change from one type of energy to another (i.e., chemical →
potential → mechanical → thermal)

Some energy is always lost (not 100% efficient) due to thermodynamics (loss of energy)

A model is a simplified version of reality (loss of accuracy)

photosynthesis: co2+h2o->o2+organic matter

respiration: glucose+o2->co2+h2o

UNIT 1.3 (Energy and equilibria)

The laws of thermodynamics govern the flow of energy in a system and the ability to do
work.

Destabilizing positive feedback mechanisms will drive systems toward these tipping points,
whereas stabilizing negative feedback mechanisms will resist such changes.

The first law of thermodynamics - energy in an isolated system can be transformed but
cannot be created or destroyed.
The second law of thermodynamics - the entropy of a system increases over time.

Entropy is a measure of the amount of disorder in a system. An increase in entropy arising

from energy transformations reduces the energy available to do work.

Entropy always increases (less energy for work)

Less energy at each level › ecological pyramids transformations are not efficient
Living systems require constant input of new energy from the Sun

Negative feedback can be defined as feedback that counteracts any change away from
equilibrium, contributing to stability. Negative feedback is a method of control that regulates
itself.

Negative feedback:
- Returns system to equilibrium
- Minimizes change

Positive feedback (BAD) loops (destabilizing) will tend to amplify changes and drive the
system towards a tipping point where a new equilibrium is adopted.

A tipping point is the minimum amount of change within a system that will destabilize it,
causing it to reach a new equilibrium or stable state.

A steady-state equilibrium is the condition of an open system in which there are no changes
over the longer term, but in which there may be oscillations in the very short term.

UNIT 1.4 (Sustainability)

Sustainable development meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability
of future generations to meet their own needs.

Sustainability - the use and management of resources that allows full natural replacement
of the resources exploited and full recovery of the ecosystems affected by their extraction
and use.

Natural capital - a term used for natural resources that can produce a sustainable natural
income of goods or services.

Natural income - the yield obtained from natural resources.

Factors such as biodiversity, pollution, population, or climate may be used quantitatively as
environmental indicators of sustainability.

An ecological footprint (EF) - the area of land and water required to sustainably provide
all resources at the rate at which they are being consumed by a given population. If the
ECOLOGICAL FOOTPRINT is greater than the area available to the population, this is an
indication of unsustainability.
 unit 2

UNIT 2.1 (Species and populations)

Species = a group of organisms of common characteristics that can interbreed to produce

fertile offspring

Population = a group of organisms of the same species living in the same place at the
same time and interacting with one

Habitat = the environment in which a species normally lives

Niche (or Ecological niche) = the role an organism plays within its habitat; where, when,
and how it lives within that environment

The fundamental niche describes the full range of conditions and resources in which a
species could survive and reproduce. The realized niche describes the actual conditions
and resources in which a species exists due to biotic interactions.

Biotic factors are the living part of the environment (Interactions between organisms are
also biotic factors) The interactions between the organisms - such as predation,
herbivory, parasitism, mutualism, disease, and competition - are termed biotic factors.

Abiotic factors are the non-living, physical factors that influence the organisms and
ecosystem (e.g. temperature, sunlight, acidity/alkalinity (pH), rainfall (precipitation), and
salinity). Abiotic factors also include the soil (edaphic factors) and topography (the
landscape).

Carrying capacity refers to the number of organisms – or size of population – that an area
or ecosystem can support sustainably over a long period of time.

Sustainability is the use and management of resources that allows full natural replacement
of the resources exploited and full recovery of the ecosystems affected by their extraction
and use.

Limiting factors slow population growth as it approaches the carrying capacity of the
system.

S and J population curves describe a generalized response of populations to a particular

set of conditions (abiotic and biotic factors).
UNIT 2.2 (Communities and ecosystems)

A community is a group of populations living and interacting with each other in a common
habitat.

An ecosystem is a community and the physical environment with which it interacts.

photosynthesis: co2+h2o->o2+organic matter

respiration: glucose+o2->co2+h2o

Primary producers in most ecosystems convert light energy into chemical energy in the
process of photosynthesis.
The trophic level is the position that an organism occupies in a food chain, or the position
of a group of organisms in a community that occupy the same position in food chains.

Notes:

1.​ The 10% rule between trophic levels: only 10% of the energy within a level is passed
on to the next higher trophic level.

2.​ The energy passes through each trophic level and is ultimately lost as heat.

3.​ Matter is cycled repeatedly through all trophic levels by decomposers.

Bioaccumulation is the buildup of persistent or non-biodegradable pollutants within an

organism or trophic level because they cannot be broken down.

Biomagnification is the increase in concentration of persistent or non-biodegradable

pollutants along a food chain.

A pyramid of biomass represents the standing stock or storage of each trophic level,
measured in units such as grams of biomass per square meter (g m-2) or Joules per square
meter (J m-2)

Pyramids of productivity refer to the flow of energy through a trophic level, indicating the
rate at which that stock/storage is being generated.

UNIT 2.3 (Flows of energy and matter)

As solar radiation (insolation) enters the Earth’s atmosphere, some energy becomes
unavailable for ecosystems as this energy is absorbed by inorganic matter or reflected back
into the atmosphere.

Pathways of energy through an ecosystem include:

1.​ conversion (transformation) of light energy to chemical energy

2.​ transfer of chemical energy from one trophic level to another with varying efficiencies
3.​ overall conversion (transformation) of ultraviolet and visible light to heat energy by an
ecosystem
4.​ re-radiation of heat energy to the atmosphere (another transfer).

The conversion of energy into biomass for a given period of time is measured as
productivity.
Net primary productivity (NPP) is calculated by subtracting respiratory losses (R) from
gross primary productivity (GPP).
NPP = GPP – R

Gross secondary productivity (GSP) is the total energy or biomass assimilated by

consumers and is calculated by subtracting the
mass of fecal loss from the mass of food consumed.
GSP = food eaten – fecal loss

Human activities such as burning fossil fuels, deforestation, urbanization, and agriculture
impact energy flows as well as the carbon and nitrogen cycles.

UNIT 2.4 (Biomes, zonation + succession)

Climate determines the type of biome in a given area, although individual ecosystems may
vary due to many local abiotic and biotic factors.

Succession leads to climax communities that may vary due to random events and
interactions over time. This leads to a pattern of alternative stable states for a given
ecosystem.

Biomes are collections of ecosystems sharing similar climatic conditions that can be
grouped into five major classes: aquatic, forest, grassland, desert, and tundra. Each of
these classes has characteristic limiting factors, productivity, and biodiversity.

Insolation, precipitation, and temperature are the main factors governing the distribution of
biomes.
The tricellular model of atmospheric circulation explains the distribution of precipitation and
temperature and how they influence the structure and relative productivity of different
terrestrial biomes.

Zonation refers to changes in community along an environmental gradient due to factors

such as changes in altitude, latitude, tidal level, or distance from shore (coverage by water).

Succession is the process of change over time in an ecosystem involving pioneer,

intermediate, and climax communities.

r- and K-strategist species have reproductive strategies that are better adapted to pioneer
and climax communities, respectively.
UNIT 2.5 (Investigating ecosystems)

Ecosystems can be better understood through the investigation and quantification of their
components.

Organisms in an ecosystem can be identified using a variety of tools including keys,

comparison to herbarium or specimen collections, technologies and scientific expertise.

Sampling strategies may be used to measure biotic and abiotic factors and their change in
space, along an environmental gradient, over time, through succession, or before and after
a human impact.

Measurements should be repeated to increase reliability of data. The number of repetitions

required depends on the factor being measured.

Methods for estimating the biomass and energy of trophic levels in a community include
measurement of dry mass, controlled combustion and extrapolation from samples. Data
from these methods can be used to construct ecological pyramids.

Direct and indirect methods for estimating the abundance of motile organisms can be
described and evaluated.
Direct methods include actual counts and sampling.

Indirect methods include the use of capture-mark-recapture with the application of the
Lincoln index.

Species richness: how many different species there are in a place

Species evenness: how those species are distributed

 unit 3

UNIT 3.1 (Intro)

Biodiversity can be identified in a variety of forms, including species diversity, habitat

diversity and genetic diversity.
Biodiversity is a broad concept encompassing total diversity, including species diversity, habitat
diversity, and genetic diversity.

A species is a group of organisms sharing common characteristics that interbreed and produce
fertile offspring.

Species diversity in communities is a product of two variables, the number of species

(richness) and their relative proportions (evenness)(no. of species and relative proportions)

-​ Species richness: the number of different species of living organisms living in an area
-​ Species evenness: how they are distributed (i.e., their abundance relative to one
another)

A community is a group of populations living and interacting with each other in a common
habitat.

A habitat is the environment in which a species normally lives.

Habitat diversity refers to the range of different habitats in an ecosystem or biome.

A biome is a large collection of flora and fauna occupying a major habitat.

The ability to both understand and quantify biodiversity is important to conservation efforts.

Genetic diversity: The variety of different types of genes within a species.

●​ Larger population → greater genetic diversity

●​ Greater genetic diversity → greater variation within the species
●​ Greater variation → better adaptability and survivorship

Communities can be described and compared through the use of diversity indices. When
comparing communities that are similar, low diversity could be indicative of pollution,
eutrophication (цветение воды) or recent colonization of a site. The number of species
present in an area is often indicative of general patterns of biodiversity.
The Simpson index (D) is a method for measuring diversity. Areas with a high D value
suggest a stable and mature site. A low value of D could suggest pollution, recent
colonization, or agricultural management.

A niche describes the particular set of abiotic and biotic conditions and resources to which
an organism or population responds.

The fundamental niche describes the full range of conditions and resources in which a
species could survive and reproduce.

The realized niche describes the actual conditions and resources in which a species exists
due to biotic interactions.

Quantification of biodiversity is important to conservation efforts so that areas of high

biodiversity may be identified, explored, and appropriate conservation put in place where
possible.
The ability to assess changes to biodiversity in a given community over time is important in
assessing the impact of human activity in the community

Hotspots: region with high level of biodiversity that is under threat from human activities

Examples: Hawaii, Iceland, yellowstone places, coral reefs, mangroves (hotspots of the
ocean)

Tropical rainforests are vulnerable because:

▪ upsetting equilibrium due to deforestation

▪ flows of nutrients has imbalanced (very few nutrients are present in the soil, they’re mainly
in living material/biomass)
Ex: palm oil extraction in Indonesia
Tropical Rainforests are hotspots (something that has a small area but high biodiversity)

UNIT 3.2 (Origins of biodiversity)

Evolution is a gradual change in the genetic character of populations over many

generations, achieved largely through the mechanism of natural selection.

Environmental change gives new challenges to species, which drives the evolution of
diversity.

There have been major mass extinction events in the geological past
Biodiversity arises from evolutionary processes.

Biological variation arises randomly and can either be beneficial to, damaging to, or have no
impact on, the survival of the individual

Natural selection occurs through the following mechanism:

●​ Within a population of one species, there is genetic diversity, which is called

variation.
●​ Due to natural variation, some individuals will be fitter than others.
●​ Fitter individuals have an advantage and will reproduce more successfully than
individuals who are less fit.
●​ The offspring of fitter individuals may inherit the genes that give that advantage.

Speciation is the formation of new species when populations of a species become isolated
and evolve differently from other populations.

Isolation of populations can be caused by environmental changes forming barriers such

as mountain formation, changes in rivers, sea level change, climatic change or plate
movements.

ex of a physical barrier: Large flightless birds ​only occur on continents that made up
“Gondwana” - Africa, Australia, NewZealand, South America

The distribution of continents has also caused climatic variations and variation in food
supply, both contributing to evolution
UNIT 3.3 (Threats to biodiversity)

The current rates of species loss are far greater now than in the recent past, due to
increased human influence. The human activities that cause species extinctions include
habitat destruction, introduction of invasive species, pollution, overharvesting and hunting.

The International Union of Conservation of Nature (IUCN) publishes data in the “Red
List of Threatened Species” in several categories. Factors used to determine the
conservation status of a species include: population size, degree of specialization,
distribution, reproductive potential and behavior, geographic range and degree of
fragmentation, quality of habitat, trophic level, and the probability of extinction.

Tropical biomes contain some of the most globally biodiverse areas and their
unsustainable exploitation results in massive losses in biodiversity and their ability to
perform globally important ecological services.

Most tropical biomes occur in less economically developed countries (LEDCs) and
therefore there is conflict between exploitation, sustainable development and conservation.

UNIT 3.4 (Conservation of biodiversity)

Arguments about species and habitat preservation can be based on aesthetic,

ecological, economic, ethical and social justifications.
CITES = Convention on the International Trade of Endangered Species

Conservation approaches include habitat conservation, species-based conservation and a

mixed approach.

HABITAT approach:
Focus on habitats protects all species, not just the most charismatic flagship species.
Generally in situ conservation: on site.

MIXED approach:
Apply species-based strategies within the boundaries of habitat-based protected areas or
nature reserves.

SPECIES approach:
Focus on one keystone species, which plays a critical role in food chains or ecosystems.
Includes exsitu (off site) efforts such as captive breeding, zoos, and reintroduction.

In situ conservation is the conservation of species in their natural habitat.

Ex situ conservation is the preservation of species outside their natural habitats.

Criteria for consideration when designing protected areas include size, shape, edge effects,
corridors, and proximity to potential human influence.

Large is better than small:

●​ More habitats
●​ More species
●​ More niches
●​ More varied
●​ Supports larger populations
●​ Ideal for large mammals
and apex predators
●​ Less edge effect
Edge effect refers to changes in a population or community along the boundary of a
habitat. A clear example of this is when an agricultural field meets a forest.

Alternative approaches to the development of protected areas are species-based

conservation strategies including: CITES,captive breeding,reintroduction (разводят
животных для дальнейшего возвращения в среду обитания) and flagship species.
 unit 4

UNIT 4.1 (Introduction to water systems)

The hydrological cycle is a system of water flows and storages that may be disrupted by
human activity.

The ocean circulatory system (ocean conveyor belt) influences the climate and global
distribution of water (matter and energy).

Freshwater makes up only a small fraction (approximately 2.6% by volume) of the Earth’s
water storages.

Storages in the hydrological cycle include organisms, soil and various water bodies,
including oceans, groundwater (aquifers), lakes, rivers, atmosphere, glaciers and ice caps.

Flows in the hydrological cycle include evapotranspiration, sublimation, evaporation,

condensation, advection (wind-blown movement), precipitation, melting, freezing, flooding,
surface runoff, infiltration, percolation, and stream-flow or currents.

Human activities such as agriculture, deforestation and urbanization have a significant

impact on surface runoff and infiltration.

Ocean circulation systems are driven by differences in temperature and salinity. The
resulting difference in water density drives the ocean conveyor belt, which distributes heat
around the world, and thus affects climate.

UNIT 4.2 (Access to fresh water)

Supplies of freshwater resources are inequitably available and unevenly distributed, which
can lead to conflict and concerns over water security.
Water supplies can be enhanced through reservoirs, redistribution, desalination, artificial
recharge of aquifers and rainwater harvesting schemes. Water conservation (including
grey-water recycling) can help to reduce demand but often requires a change in attitude by
the water consumers.

The scarcity of water resources can lead to conflict between human populations,
particularly where sources are shared.

UNIT 4.3 (Aquatic food production systems)

Unsustainable use of aquatic ecosystems can lead to environmental degradation and

collapse of wild fisheries.

Aquaculture provides potential for increased food production.

The highest rates of productivity are found near coastlines or in shallow seas, where
upwellings and nutrient enrichment of surface waters occurs.

Unsustainable exploitation of aquatic systems can be mitigated at a variety of levels

(international, national, local and individual) through policy, legislation and changes in
consumer behaviour.

Issues around aquaculture include: loss of habitats, pollution (with feed antifouling agents,
antibiotics and other medicines added to fish pens), spread of diseases and escaped
species (some involving genetically modified organisms).

UNIT 4.4 (Water pollution)

Types of aquatic pollutants include floating debris, organic material, inorganic plant
nutrients (nitrates and phosphates), toxic metals, synthetic compounds, suspended solids,
hot water, oil, radioactive pollution, pathogens, light, noise and biological pollutants
(invasive species).

A wide range of parameters can be used to directly test the quality of aquatic systems,
including pH, temperature, suspended solids (turbidity), metals, nitrates and phosphates.

Biodegradation of organic material utilizes oxygen, which can lead to anoxic conditions
and subsequent anaerobic decomposition, which in turn leads to formation of methane,
hydrogen sulfide and ammonia (toxic gases).
Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) is a measure of the amount of dissolved oxygen
required to break down the organic material in a given volume of water through aerobic
biological activity. BOD is used to indirectly measure the amount of organic matter within a
sample.

Some species can be indicative of polluted waters and can be used as indicator species.

A biotic index indirectly measures pollution by assaying the impact on species within the
community according to their tolerance, diversity and relative abundance.

Eutrophication can occur when lakes, estuaries and coastal waters receive inputs of
nutrients (nitrates and phosphates), which results in an excess growth of plants and
phytoplankton.

Dead zones in both oceans and fresh water can occur when there is not enough oxygen to
support marine life.
 unit 5

UNIT 5.1 (Introduction to soil systems)

Soil system storages include organic matter, organisms, nutrients, minerals, air and water.

Transfers of material within the soil, including biological mixing and leaching (minerals
dissolved in water moving through soil), contribute to the organization of the soil.

Leaching refers to the downward loss of nutrients through soil layers (horizons).
Nutrients are carried by water as it percolates through the soil matrix.

Soil texture influences leaching rates:

● Sandy soils = a lot of pore space = rapid percolation

● Clay soils = minimal pore space = slow percolation

There are inputs of organic material including leaf litter and inorganic matter from parent
material, precipitation and energy.

Outputs include uptake by plants and soil erosion.

Transformations include decomposition, weathering and nutrient cycling.

Decomposition is the breakdown of organic, formerly living matter.

The structure and properties of sand, clay and loam soils differ in many ways, including
mineral and nutrient content, drainage, water-holding capacity, air spaces, biota and
potential to hold organic matter.

UNIT 5.2 (Terrestrial food production systems)

The sustainability of terrestrial food production systems is influenced by socio political,

economic and ecological factors.

The supply of food is inevitably available and land suitable for food production is unevenly
distributed among societies, and this can lead to conflict and concerns.

Climate change with higher temps in tropical and subtropical areas can lead to crop loss.

Subsistence Farming
 ●​ Producing food for family and local community
●​ No surplus
●​ Human and animal labor (low tech)
●​ Mixed crops
●​ Low inputs of energy from fossil fuels or chemicals
●​ Cash cropping = growing crop for market

Commercial Farming

●​ Production for PROFIT

●​ Maximizing yield
●​ High level of technology
●​ Monocultures (crop or animal)
●​ High inputs of energy from fossil fuels & chemicals
●​ Extensive = more land with lower stocking/planting
●​ Intensive = use land more intensively with high input and output per unit area

Pastoral Farming

●​ Raising animals on grass and land not

●​ suitable for crops

Arable Farming

●​ Growing crops on good soil to eat directly or feed to animals

Mixed Farming

●​ Crops and animals

●​ Animal waste used to fertilize crops
●​ Crops used to feed animal

Malnutrition = “bad” nutrition due to unbalanced diet

Undernourished = lacking calories (not enough food)

Overnourished = too many calories leads to obesity

Unbalanced = not the right amount of nutrients for optimal health

What foods we grow and eat are determined by:

1.​ Climate – determines availability (although we

adapt this through irrigation & greenhouses)
2.​ Cultural & Religious influences – traditions influence
preferences, Hindu – no beef, Islam – no pork, Buddhism - vegetarian
3.​ Politics – subsidies and tariffs on some food
4.​ Socio-economics – supply/demand, affordability

Borneo Rice Production California Rice Production

Traditional Extensive Intensive Farming

Low inputs of energy and High inputs of energy and
chemicals chemicals
Labor intensive Energy inputs = petrol
High productivity
Low productivity
Large amounts of
High energy efficiency fertilizers/pesticides
No fertilizers/pesticides High rice yield
Lower energy efficiency
GMO’s possible
Increasing Sustainability of Food Supplies

SOLUTIONS

1.​ Maximize yield of food production systems

Improve technology
Polycultures – mix crops to conserve water and soil
Avoid plowing & tilling to conserve soil and water
Buffer Zones around agricultural lands – absorb nutrients in runoff, provides wildlife habitat,
prevents eutrophication
Alternate pest management systems – companion planting, biological controls
Drip irrigation to conserve water and prevent erosion

Alter What is Grown

Genetically modified foods (GMO) – Very Controversial
Aquaculture & hydroponics
Crop rotation

Green Revolution
Agroecology – closed system farms
Drought resistant crops
Quick growing ground cover between crops

2.​ Reducing Food Waste

Improve storage in LEDCs – avoid loss to infestations,

weather, lack of refrigeration or preservation methods
In MEDCs food waste is due to overconsumption
Only purchase what is needed
Composting and using in garden
Use food waste for livestock

3.​ Monitoring & Controlling

Governments (GOs) and Intergovernmental bodies (IGOs) regulate imports and exports
GO and IGOs regulate unsustainable agricultural practices
Multinational and National food corporations raise standards for supply farms
Individuals and NGOs apply pressure to farmers

4.​ Changing Attitudes About Food and

Diets
Eat different crops that are more sustainable
Eat less meat
Increase education about food and diet

5.​ Change How we Sell Food

Reduce processing – whole foods are more nutritious

Reduce packaging – creates domestic waste
Reduce transporting foods – increases use of fossil fuels

UNIT 5.3 (Soil degradation and conservation)

Fertile soils require significant time to develop through the process of succession.

Human activities may reduce soil fertility and increase soil erosion.

Soil conservation strategies exist and may be used to preserve soil fertility and reduce soil
erosion.
Erosion – processes that take away the soil
• Can be due to wind or water
• Occurs mainly when lack of vegetation to stabilize soil
(deforestation, overgrazing)

Making Soil Unusable

• Pollutants making soil toxic
• Leaching of nutrients from soil to point it cannot support
producers (deforestation, unsustainable agricultural practices)

SALINIZATION
• Irrigation water contains small amounts of dissolved salts
•Evaporation and transpiration leave salts behind
•Salt builds up in soil

WATERLOGGING
•Precipitation and irrigation water move downward
•Water table rises
•Soil saturated or impermeable

TOXIFICATION
An increase in soil acidity ( low pH = more acidic)
Caused by leaching of metals
Burning of plant material increases soil pH
Can be counteracted by using lime stone to raise the pH and reduce acidity
Large problem in the Ohio valley in the USA due to coal power plants

UNSUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES

•Complete removal of crops after harvest (no vegetation makes soil susceptible to erosion)
•Growing crops with barren soil between rows (erosion)
•Plowing in direction of slope (creates channels)
•Overuse of pesticides (toxification)
•Overuse of chemical fertilizers (eutrophication)
• Irrigation methods (salinization)
•Monocropping (nutrient depletion)
•Overcropping (nutrient depletion)

Soil conservation.

Terracing - reduces soil erosion - controls water runoff by holding water at each level.
Contour Planting/ Strip Cropping
Each row acts as a small dam to help slow water runoff and reduce soil erosion

Alley cropping
Crops planted in alleys between trees/shrubs. Provides shade and helps slow down the
release of soil moisture.

Windbreak
Crops planted in alleys between trees/shrubs. Provides shade and helps slow down the
release of soil moisture.

Cover crops
Fast growing crops that cover soil between rows of main crop or between harvests.
Prevents soil erosion, adds nutrients back to soil
 unit 6

UNIT 6.1 (Intro)

The atmosphere is a dynamic system (with inputs, outputs, flows and storages) that has
undergone changes throughout geological time.

The atmosphere is predominantly a mixture of nitrogen and oxygen, with smaller amounts of
carbon dioxide, argon, water vapour and other trace gases.

-> ATMOSPHERE COMPOUNDS: NITROGEN (азот), OXIGEN, small amounts of CARBON

DIOXIDE, ARGON, WATER VAPOURS and other trace gases.

Atmospheric layers (down —> up)

1.​ Troposphere (Meteorological and climatic phenomena) 0-10km -> clouds-albedo effect
2.​ Stratosphere (Ozone layer) 10-50km
3.​ Mesosphere (Coolest layer) 50-80km
4.​ Thermosphere (Northern Lights) 80-500km

Albedo effect is a measure of reflectivity. More reflectivity -> less solar radiation absorbed by
Earth surface. -> lower temperatures at the planet surface

The Greenhouse effect - natural and necessary phenomenon maintaining suitable temperatures
for living systems.

Caused by trapping gases in the atmosphere reducing heat losses by radiation back into space.

UNIT 6.2 (Stratospheric ozone)

Stratospheric ozone is a key component of the atmospheric system because it protects living
systems from the negative effects of ultraviolet radiation from the sun.

Stratospheric ozone (in stratosphere) is good -> absorbs UV radiation (blocks incoming UV
radiation from the sun)

Ground-level ozone (in troposphere) is bad -> contributes to smog

Three types of UV radiation:

UV-B , UV-C = most harmful type, UV-A = least harmful

Three pollution management strategies:

3TIER MODEL: 1) changing behavior 2) capturing/regulating emissions 3) cleaning up

Tier 1: Eliminate the production of ozone-depleting chemicals in the first place.

Tier 2: Minimize the release of those chemicals into the stratosphere.
Tier 3: Remove ozone-depleting compounds from the atmosphere.

Example of dynamic equilibrium.

The ozone destruction and reformation.

(Some ultraviolet radiation from the Sun is absorbed by stratospheric ozone causing the ozone
molecule to break apart. Under normal conditions the ozone molecule will reform.)

Ozone depleting substances (such as CFCs) are used in aerosols, gas-blown plastics,
pesticides, flame retardants and refrigerants.

Halogen atoms (such as chlorine) from these pollutants increase destruction of ozone in a
repetitive cycle, allowing more ultraviolet radiation to reach the Earth.

Ozone depleting chemicals:

●​ CFCs (aerosols,solvents)
●​ HCFCs (aerosols,solvents)
●​ Halons (fire extinguishers)
●​ Methyl bromide (pesticides)

EFFECTS OF ULTRAVIOLET RADIATION

minuses:

on people:
1)​ damages human living tissues
2)​ increasing the incidence of cataracts
3)​ mutation
4)​ skin cancer (high in Australia & NZ) and etc

on others:
1)​ damage to photosynthetic organisms (phytoplankton -> form the basis of aquatic food
webs)

pluses:

1)​ Vitamin D production is stimulated (in animals)

2)​ Used as a sterilizer: water/air purifier
3)​ Lasers, forensic analysis
Methods of reduction of ozone-depletion.

1) Before - Alter human activity

- Replace CFCs with CO2 or replace gas-blown plastics

2) During - regulate and reduce pollutants

- Recover and recycle CFCs from refrigerators/AC units or capture CFCs from scrap car AC
units

3) After - Clean up and restore

- Add ozone to or remove chlorine from stratosphere (not practical)

●​ Recycling refrigerants
●​ Developing alternatives plastics, pesticides, aerosols etc
●​ Non-propellant alternatives
●​ Consistent monitoring of the illegal market for ozone-depleting substances

MONTREAL PROTOCOL on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer (1987) and subsequent
updates is an international agreement for the reduction of use of ozone-depleting substances
signed under the direction of UNEP. National governments complying with the agreement made
national laws and regulations to decrease the consumption and production of halogenated
organic gasses such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).

UNIT 6.3 (photochemical smog)

The combustion of fossil fuels produces primary pollutants that may generate secondary
pollutants and lead to photochemical smog, the levels of which can vary by topography,
population density and climate.

Possible effects of ozone

- Toxic gas
- Breathing issues (humans) -> asthma, lung cancer, and other respiratory problems
- Photosynthesis problems (plants)
- Attacks rubber, plastic, cellulose

Photochemical smog can be reduced by decreasing human reliance on fossil fuels.

Primary pollutants from the combustion of fossil fuels include carbon monoxide, carbon
dioxide, black carbon or soot, unburned hydrocarbons, oxides of nitrogen, oxides of
sulfur.
In the presence of sunlight, secondary pollutants are formed when primary pollutants
undergo a variety of reactions with other chemicals already present in the atmosphere.

primary pollutants -> variety of reaction with other chemicals -> secondary pollutants

secondary pollutant ex.: tropospheric ozone (bad ozone)

Tropospheric ozone is highly reactive and damages plants (crops and forests), irritates
eyes, creates respiratory illnesses and damages fabrics and rubber materials.

The frequency and severity of smog in an area depends on local topography, climate,
population density, and fossil fuel use.

Thermal inversions occur due to a lack of air movement when a layer of dense, cool air is
trapped beneath a layer of less dense, warm air. This causes concentrations of air
pollutants to build up near the ground instead of being dissipated by "normal" air
movements.

наглядный пример (снизу - вверх): cooler air | warm air | cold air
normal: warmer air ~ cooler air ~ cold air

Deforestation and burning may also contribute to smog.

Pollution management strategies include:

Before:
- Consume less, burn less fossil fuel.
- Lobby governments to increase renewable energy use.
During:
- Government regulation/taxation
After:
- Re-greening of cities (more trees + parks to absorb Co2)
- Afforestation to filter air

●​ altering human activity to consume less fossil fuels (example activities include the
purchase of energy-efficient technologies the use of public or shared transit, and
walking or cycling)
●​ regulating and reducing pollutants at the point of emission through government
regulation or taxation
●​ using catalytic converters to clean the exhaust of primary pollutants from car exhaust
 ●​ regulating fuel quality by governments
●​ adopting clean-up measures such as reforestation, regreening, and conservation of
areas to sequester carbon dioxide.

UNIT 6.4 (acid deposition)

Acid deposition can impact living systems and the built environment.

The combustion of fossil fuels produces sulfur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen as primary
pollutants. These gases may be converted into secondary pollutants of dry deposition (such
as ash and dry particles) or wet deposition (such as rain and snow).

The possible effects of acid deposition on soil, water and living organisms include
1)​ direct effect
ex: chlorophyll loss & yellowing, thinning of cuticle, symbiotic root microbes killed
2)​ indirect toxic effect
ex: increased solubility of metal on fish
3)​ indirect nutrient effect
ex: leaching on plant nutrients

The impacts of acid deposition may be limited to areas downwind of major industrial regions
but these areas may not be in the same country as the source of emissions.

Pollution management strategies include:

Before:
- Reducing emissions (renewable energy sources)
- Reduce demand for electricity through education campaigns (India&China)
- Reducing SO2 (sulfur dioxide) emissions by removing sulfur from fuel before combustion
During:
- End of pipe measures (removes SO2 and NOx from waste gases)
- Catalytic converters (converts NOx to nitrogen gas): expensive to buy
After:
- Liming lakes to neutralize acidity
- Expensive, and only treats symptoms, not the cause
- International agreements (difficult to establish+monitor)
 unit 7

UNIT 7.1 (Energy choices and security)

Sources of energy with lower carbon dioxide emissions than fossil fuels include
renewable energy (solar, biomass, hydropower, wind, wave, tidal and geothermal) and
their use is expected to increase.
Nuclear power is a low- carbon low-emission non- renewable resource but is controversial
due to the radioactive waste it produces and the potential scale of any accident.

The energy choices adopted by a society may be influenced by availability; sustainability;

scientific and technological developments; cultural attitudes; and political, economic and
environmental factors. These in turn affect energy security and independence.

Improvements in energy efficiencies and energy conservation can limit growth in energy
demand and contribute to energy security.

Energy efficiency = same output from less energy input

Each appliance uses less electricity per unit of work done

Energy conservation = reduce consumption or waste save energy

Turn off appliances when not in us

Insulate buildings to stop heat loss

Turn heat cooler in winter and AC warmer in summer to reduce electricity consumption

UNIT 7.2 (Climate change - causes and impacts)

Climate describes how the atmosphere behaves over relatively long periods of time,
whereas weather describes the conditions in the atmosphere over a short period of time.

Weather and climate are affected by oceanic and atmospheric circulatory systems.

Warm ocean water warms the air above. Winds move that warm air, which then influences
climate locally. This effect is minimized far from the ocean.

Human activities are increasing levels of greenhouse gases (GHGs, such as carbon
dioxide, methane and water vapour) in the atmosphere, which leads to: an increase in the
mean global temperature; increased frequency and intensity of extreme weather
events; the potential for long-term changes in climate and weather patterns; rise in
sea level.

The potential impacts of climate change: changes in water availability, distribution of

biomes and crop growing areas, loss of biodiversity and ecosystem services, coastal
inundation, ocean acidification, and damage to human health.

UNIT 7.3 (Climate change - mitigation and adaptation)

Mitigation attempts to reduce the causes of climate change.

Mitigation: how to prevent climate change (proactive)

Adaptation attempts to manage the impacts of climate change.

Adaptation: how to respond to climate change (reactive)

Mitigation strategies to reduce GHGs in general may include: reduction of energy

consumption; reduction of emissions of oxides of nitrogen and methane from agriculture;
use of alternatives to fossil fuels; geoengineering

Mitigation strategies for carbon dioxide removal (CDR techniques) include: protecting
and enhancing carbon sinks; through land management;protecting and enhancing carbon
sinks;using biomass as a fuel source; using carbon capture and storage (CCS)*;enhancing
carbon dioxide absorption by the oceans through either fertilizing oceans with compounds
of nitrogen, phosphorus and iron to encourage the biological pump, or increasing upwellings
to release nutrients to the surface.

*The general idea is to capture CO2 and store it somewhere it cannot trap infrared
radiation. Capturing carbon in living biomass or burying it deep underground are the most
commonly discussed and researched methods of CCS.

Adaptation strategies can be used to reduce adverse effects and maximize any
positive effects. Examples of adaptations include flood defences, vaccination
programmes, desalination plants and planting of crops in previously unsuitable climates.
 unit 8

UNIT 8.1 (Human population dynamics)

Demographic tools for quantifying human population include crude birth rate (CBR), crude
death rate (CDR), total fertility rate (TFR), doubling time (DT) and natural increase rate
(NIR).

Doubling time (DT): the number of years it would take a population to double its size at its
current growth rate.

Natural increase rate (NIR): difference between the CBR and CDR; accounts for how
quickly populations grow

Increasing population = increasing demand for resources:

●Food
●Soil nutrients
●Water
●Timber
​
Increasing urban populations = greater infrastructure pressure
●Transportation
●Clean water
●Shelter
●Waste

Increasing resource use = graph at right, describe the more waste

●CO2
●Domestic Waste
●Industrial effluents

Age-gender pyramids and demographic transition models (DTM) can be useful in the
prediction of human population growth.

The DTM is a model that shows how a population transitions from a pre-industrial stage
with high CBRs and CDRs to an economically advanced stage with low or declining CBRs
and low CDRs.

Influences on human population dynamics include cultural, historical, religious, social,

political and economic factors.
UNIT 8.2 (Resource use in society)

Renewability depends on the rate of replacement:

Quickly replaced = renewable

Slowly replaced = replenishable
Not replaced (finite) = non- renewable

Renewable natural capital can be generated and/or replaced as fast as it is being used. It
includes living species and ecosystems that use solar energy and photosynthesis, as well
as non-living items, such as groundwater and the ozone layer.

Renewable resources:
restock themselves by growing
Driven by solar energy “engine”
Often (but not always) biotic components of ecosystems

Non-renewable natural capital is either irreplaceable or can only be replaced over

geological timescales; for example, fossil fuels, soil and minerals.

Renewable natural capital can be utilized sustainably or unsustainably. If renewable

natural capital is used beyond its natural income this use becomes unsustainable.

If renewable natural capital is used beyond its natural income this use becomes
unsustainable.

Natural income = growth or yield of natural capital.

The impacts of extraction, transport and processing of a renewable natural capital may
cause damage, making this natural capital unsustainable.

Natural capital provides goods (such as tangible products) and services (such as climate
regulation) that have value. This value may be aesthetic, cultural, economic, environmental,
ethical, intrinsic, social, spiritual or technological.

UNIT 8.3 (Solid domestic waste)

The abundance and prevalence of non- biodegradable pollution (such as plastic, batteries
or e-waste) in particular has become a major environmental issue.

Waste disposal options include landfills, incineration, recycling and composting.

There are a variety of strategies that can be used to manage SDW influenced by cultural,
economic, technological and political barriers.

These strategies include:

●​ altering human activity – for example, through a reduction of consumption and

composting of food waste.

●​ controlling the release of pollutants– governments create legislation to encourage

recycling and reuse initiatives and impose taxes for SDW collection and on
disposable items.

●​ reclaiming landfills, using SDW for waste-to-energy programmes, implementing

initiatives to remove plastics from the Great Pacific garbage patch (cleanup and
restoration).

UNIT 8.4 (Human population carrying capacity)

Carrying capacity is the maximum number of a species, or “load”, that can be sustainably
supported by a given area.

It is possible to estimate the carrying capacity of an environment for a given species;

however, this is problematic in the case of human populations for a number of reasons.

1.​ We import/export resources between ecosystems.

2.​ We substitute “equivalent” resources.

3.​ We develop new technology that impacts levels of resource consumption.

EF is a model used to estimate the demands that human populations place on the
environment.

EFs may vary significantly by country and by individual and include aspects such as
lifestyle choices (EVS), productivity of food production systems, land use and industry.

If the EF of a human population is greater than the land area available to it, this indicates
that the population is unsustainable and exceeds the carrying capacity of that area.