A

ASSIGNMENT REPORT
ON
Analyze the impact of load generation factors on protection relay settings
Submitted to the
Sant Gadge Baba Amaravati University
In the fulfilment of requirement of degree of
B.E. Electrical Engineering
Student Names: -
Om Abhimanyu Karande

Guided by: -
Prof. T. Y. Kharche

Department of Electrical Engineering

LSSBM’s

Padm. Dr. V. B. Kolte College of Engineering, Malkapur

Dist. Buldhana, 443101

2024-25
 LSSBM’s

Padm. Dr. V. B. Kolte College of Engineering,

Malkapur Dist. Buldhana, 443101

Department of Electrical Engineering

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the Assignment report entitled “Analyze the impact
of load generation factors on protection relay settings” has been carried out
successfully by Om Abhimanyu Karande.

It is bonafied work carried out under supervision of Prof. T. Y. Kharche

and is approved for partial fulfillment of requirement of university of Amravati,
for the award of Degree of Bachelor of Electrical Engineering.

………………………… ……………………….. ………………………….

Prof. T. Y. Kharche Prof. Y. P. Sushir Dr. A. W. Kharche
Assistance Professor Head of Department Principal
Electrical Engineering Electrical Engineering
VBKCOE, Malkapur VBKCOE, Malkapur VBKCOE, Malkapur

Date:

Place: Padm. Dr. V. B. Kolte College of Engineering, Malkapur, 443101

 ACKNOWLEDGMENT

I would like to express profound gratitude to my guide Prof. T. Y. Kharche for her
cherished support, encouragement, supervision, and useful suggestions throughout this project
work. Her moral support and continuous guidance enabled me to complete my project work
successfully.
I am grateful for the cooperation and constant encouragement from our honorable Head
of Department Prof. Y. P. Sushir. His regular suggestions made my work easy and proficient.
I wish to express my appreciation to Principal of VBKCOE., Dr. A. W. Kharche who helps me
to overcome my doubt in doing this project work.
Last but not the least, I am thankful and indebted to my family and all those who helped
me directly or indirectly in the completion of this project work.

Name of student Examination No.

Om Abhimanyu Karande 22BF310134

Padm. Dr. V. B. Kolte College of Engineering, Malkapur 443101 Page 3

 INDEX

CHAPTER Title Page

No
01 Introduction 5
02 Load factor and Impact 6
2.1 Introduction 6
2.2 Load factor 6
2.3 Power factor 7
2.4 Demand Factor 7
2.5 Diversity factor 7
03 Impact of generation factor 9
3.1 Introduction 9
3.2 Load variability and Relay coordination 9
3.3 Distributed generation and inverter-based resources 9
3.4 Load Modelling 10
3.5 Renewable integration and variable generation 10
04 Challenges in Relay Coordination 11
4.1 Introduction 11
4.2 Dynamic load behavior and sensitivity 11
4.3 Inverter based Distribution generation 11
4.4 Short Circuit Current variation 12
4.5 Coordination delay due to communication 12
Interpretation of Result 12
05 Conclusion 14

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 CHAPTER 1

Introduction

The reliability and security of power systems are fundamentally tied to the effectiveness
of their protection schemes. Among these, protection relays play a pivotal role in isolating faulty
components and maintaining the stability of the grid. As power systems grow increasingly
complex with the integration of distributed energy resources, renewable generation, and dynamic
load profiles, understanding how load generation factors influence protection relay settings has
become an essential area of study.
Protection relays are designed to detect abnormal conditions such as overcurrent,
overvoltage, frequency deviations, and differential faults, and to initiate control actions that
prevent equipment damage and ensure personnel safety. However, the effectiveness of these
relays is highly dependent on how accurately they are set in accordance with the prevailing
system conditions. Load and generation characteristics—which include real and reactive power
levels, fault current contributions, power factor variations, and temporal changes in demand—
have a direct impact on these settings. Incorrect or outdated relay settings in response to evolving
load and generation patterns can lead to misoperations, such as false tripping or failure to trip
during actual fault conditions.
Load behavior in modern power systems is becoming increasingly unpredictable due to
the proliferation of non-linear and time-varying loads such as electric vehicle chargers, HVAC
systems, and industrial drives. These types of loads introduce harmonics and fluctuating current
demands, challenging traditional relay coordination schemes that assume steady-state or quasi-
steady-state operating conditions.
Furthermore, demand-side management initiatives and real-time pricing models have
introduced significant variability in load profiles across different times of day and seasons. These
fluctuations necessitate more adaptive and intelligent relay settings, as fixed threshold-based
approaches may not account for peak and off-peak variations effectively. For example, a relay
setting optimized for typical daytime load conditions may not provide sufficient sensitivity or
selectivity during nighttime or high-demand periods.

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 CHAPTER 2

Load factors and their Impact

2.1 Introduction:
Protection relays are critical components of modern power systems, responsible for
detecting abnormal system conditions and initiating timely disconnection of faulty elements.
Their performance, however, is significantly influenced by how accurately they are set in
relation to the prevailing operating conditions, especially load factors. Load factors—such as
power factor, demand factor, diversity factor, and load factor—directly affect the relay's
sensitivity, selectivity, and coordination. As power systems evolve with increasingly dynamic
loads and complex consumption profiles, it becomes essential to understand how these load-
related parameters influence protection schemes and relay configuration.

2.2 Load factor:

Load Factor is defined as the ratio of the average load over a designated period to the
peak load occurring in that period:
Load Factor = Average Load / Peak Load
A low load factor indicates large variations in load, which poses challenges for relay
coordination. In systems with low load factor, relays may be set too conservatively to
accommodate peak conditions, resulting in underutilization and potentially delayed tripping
during faults at lower load levels. Conversely, setting relays based on average load values can
cause nuisance tripping during peak periods, especially in overcurrent and thermal relays.
Impact on Relay Settings:
 Overcurrent Relays: Their pickup current and time dial settings are highly sensitive to
the load factor. Low load factor may necessitate a compromise between sensitivity to
faults and immunity to load surges.
 Thermal Relays: Varying load patterns influence thermal memory and aging models,
particularly for motor protection.

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2.3 Power Factor:
Power Factor is the cosine of the angle between voltage and current waveforms, and is a
measure of how effectively electrical power is being converted into useful work. Loads with low
power factor (inductive loads such as motors, HVAC systems).
Impact on Relay Settings:
 Distance Relays: These measure apparent impedance and may misinterpret low power
factor as fault impedance, especially near the boundary of the protection zone.
 Differential Relays: Relay operating margins are influenced by circulating reactive
currents, especially under transformer inrush or load imbalance conditions.
 Under/Over Power Factor Relays: These specialized relays may also trip if the
system’s PF drops below a safe operating threshold, especially in industrial
applications.

2.4 Demand Factor:

Demand Factor is the ratio of the maximum demand of a system to the total connected
load:
Demand Factor = Maximum Demand / Connected Load
High demand factors indicate that a significant portion of the connected load is in use
concurrently, which increases the baseline current levels in the system. Relay settings based
solely on nominal loads might not account for such high operational loads, leading to
underprotection or delayed operation.
Impact on Relay Settings:
 Transformer Protection: Transformer overcurrent and thermal settings must be
adjusted to account for high demand conditions to avoid nuisance tripping during
legitimate high-load periods.
 Feeder Protection: Feeder relays must account for the diversity in downstream
demand to avoid overreaching or missing faults under partial load scenarios.

2.5 Diversity Factor:

Diversity Factor is the ratio of the sum of individual maximum demands to the maximum
demand of the entire system:

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 Diversity Factor = ∑Individual Max Demands / Max System Demand
Higher diversity implies that not all loads peak simultaneously, which can be exploited
for more efficient relay setting. However, if this factor is not accurately reflected in load
forecasting and relay modeling, it may result in protection gaps, especially during unusual load
alignment events (e.g., holiday peaks).
Impact on Relay Settings:
 Zone Selectivity: Protection zones must be adaptable to aggregate loading behavior.
Static zone definition may fail under high diversity and shifting load centers.
 Adaptive Relaying: In smart grids, real-time load monitoring and adaptive relay
schemes can leverage diversity factors to dynamically adjust settings.

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 CHAPTER 3

Impact Of Generation factor

3.1 Introduction:
In modern power systems, protection relays are crucial for detecting faults and initiating
isolation of the affected sections to maintain system stability and prevent damage to equipment.
As power systems grow more complex with the integration of diverse generation sources and
dynamic loads, the configuration and coordination of protection relays become increasingly
challenging. Load generation factors—such as variations in load demand, distributed generation
(DG), renewable energy integration, and power system topology—directly impact the accuracy
and reliability of relay settings. This paper analyzes the critical role load generation factors play
in determining protection relay settings and how improper consideration of these factors can lead
to maloperation or non-operation of protection schemes.

3.2 Load Variability and Relay Coordination:

Load profiles in power systems are inherently variable, with significant fluctuations
between peak and off-peak periods. These changes affect current and voltage levels, which
protection relays rely on for operation. Overcurrent relays, for instance, must distinguish
between normal load currents and fault conditions. If the relay setting does not account for high-
load conditions, it might misinterpret load surges as faults, causing nuisance tripping.
Moreover, incorrect coordination among primary and backup relays can arise due to load-
induced current variation, especially in radial distribution systems. IEEE Std C37.112-2018
emphasizes the importance of adaptive relay settings to dynamically adjust to load changes and
improve coordination reliability.

3.3 Distributed generation and inverter-based resources:

The growing presence of distributed generation (DG)—such as solar PV, wind, and
small-scale gas turbines—introduces bi-directional power flow and changes short-circuit current
levels, which complicates relay coordination. Inverter-based DGs, in particular, contribute
limited fault current, often below traditional relay pickup thresholds. As a result, protection

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relays might not detect faults involving DGs, leading to protection gaps.
Also, DGs may lead to islanding conditions where part of the grid remains energized
even when disconnected from the main system. Protection schemes must detect such scenarios
quickly, which requires relay settings sensitive to both load and generation behavior.
To counter these issues, utilities are increasingly implementing directional overcurrent
relays and adaptive protection systems, as discussed in CIGRÉ Technical Brochure 671.

3.4 Load modelling:

Distance relays, commonly used for transmission line protection, calculate impedance to
the fault location using voltage and current measurements. The presence of large industrial loads
or motor loads during faults can cause low power factor conditions, distorting impedance
measurements and leading to underreaching or overreaching of the relay.
Additionally, in systems with significant load diversity, especially in mixed urban-
industrial grids, fault currents may vary significantly depending on the load infeed and pre-fault
operating condition. Relay settings must therefore be robust enough to consider different loading
scenarios, including those with large inrush currents during motor starting or transformer
energization.

3.5 Renewable integration and variable generation:

Renewable generation sources, such as wind and solar, are inherently variable and often
follow unpredictable generation patterns. These variations affect system inertia and fault levels,
which protection relays must consider when setting thresholds. For instance, as wind turbines
decelerate during a fault, the fault current contribution quickly decays, affecting fault detection
reliability.
Protection relay manufacturers now provide adaptive settings and real-time
communication-enabled devices that receive SCADA or PMU data to adjust relay parameters in
near real-time. As discussed in NREL's report on inverter-based resources, these technologies are
key to maintaining relay performance in high-renewable scenarios.

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 CHAPTER 4

Challenges in relay coordination

4.1 Introduction:
Relay coordination ensures that protective devices operate in a selective, timely, and
reliable manner. However, the increasing complexity of load-generation patterns in modern
power systems introduces new challenges for achieving optimal relay coordination. Traditional
protection schemes often fall short in accounting for dynamic changes brought about by variable
loads, the proliferation of distributed energy resources (DERs), and the evolving topology of
interconnected networks. This section explores the key challenges encountered in relay
coordination when considering the impact of load generation factors, highlighting areas where
traditional protection philosophies must evolve to meet modern grid demands.

4.2 Dynamic load behavior and sensitivity:

Electric loads are no longer static; instead, they vary with time, season, and user
behavior. Industrial processes, electric vehicle (EV) charging, and demand response mechanisms
can cause sudden increases or decreases in load. Overcurrent and distance relays must be set
above the maximum load current to avoid false trips, but such a conservative setting can reduce
relay sensitivity during faults—especially high-impedance or downstream faults.
Moreover, high inrush currents during transformer energization or motor starting can
resemble fault conditions. Without proper coordination and restraint logic, protection relays may
operate unnecessarily. According to IEEE Std C37.113-2015, improper distinction between fault
and load conditions can lead to relay mis operation and coordination failure.

4.3 Inverter based Distribution generation:

Inverter-based distributed generation (e.g., solar PV, wind) injects power into the grid at
various points, leading to non-traditional current flow paths. Legacy protection devices, such as
non-directional overcurrent relays, may fail to detect or incorrectly isolate faults due to reversed
or fluctuating current direction.

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4.4 Short Circuit Current variation:
The integration of renewable sources—especially solar and wind—reduces system short-
circuit capacity. Traditional protection coordination relies on predictable fault current levels to
grade relays effectively. However, inverter-dominated networks can present drastically reduced
or distorted fault currents. According to IEC TR 61850-90-11:2019, fault current contribution in
such systems can drop to 1.2–2 times the rated current, insufficient for standard relay pickup
thresholds
When protection relays are not recalibrated for these conditions, they may fail to operate
during genuine faults or operate incorrectly due to harmonics or transient disturbances.
Furthermore, coordination margins between primary and backup relays can collapse due to the
narrow difference between load and fault currents.

4.5 Coordination delay due to communication:

Modern coordinated protection often uses IEC 61850-based communication for logic
sharing, status updates, and dynamic setting changes. However, communication delays or
failures can disrupt time coordination between relays, especially in schemes such as differential
protection or transfer tripping.
For example, if a remote backup relay does not receive timely trip or block signals, it
may operate out of turn, leading to non-selective tripping. The risk is further amplified in wide-
area protection schemes where latency varies based on network traffic and device processing
speed.

 Interpretation Of Result:
Analyzing the interaction between load generation factors and protection relay settings
reveals several crucial insights into how modern power systems must adapt their protection
strategies. The interpretation of observed data and simulated scenarios highlights both the direct
and indirect impacts of varying load and generation profiles on relay operation, coordination, and
system reliability
Dynamic Load Profiles Alter Relay Pickup and Coordination Margins
The analysis demonstrated that fluctuating load demands—especially during peak
consumption or large industrial inrush conditions—can cause operational currents to approach or
exceed the preset pickup values of protection relays. When these settings are not periodically

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reviewed or adjusted, the likelihood of nuisance tripping increases, potentially disconnecting
healthy sections of the grid.
Thermal Limit Observations:
Thermal limits of the conductors were a key constraint in defining the maximum
allowable current under normal and overload conditions. The ampacity values, based on IEEE
Std 738-2012 guidelines, were used to establish the steady-state thermal ratings of the lines.
Fault Current Impact:
The analysis of fault current levels across the system revealed that instantaneous
protection must be designed to clear faults within milliseconds to prevent conductor damage
Protection Coordination and Relay Settings:
Relay settings were tuned based on both thermal overload curves and fault current
thresholds

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 CHAPTER 5

Conclusion

The impact of load and generation factors on protection relay settings is a critical
consideration in ensuring the safe, reliable, and efficient operation of modern power systems. As
generation and load profiles continue to evolve with the integration of renewable sources,
distributed energy resources (DERs), and complex grid architectures, protection systems must be
carefully evaluated and adapted to these changing dynamics.
Thermal limits of conductors are dictated by their ampacity, which defines the maximum
current that can be carried continuously without causing excessive temperature rise. These limits
are influenced by ambient temperature, conductor size and material, wind speed, solar radiation,
and line configuration. Exceeding the thermal limit causes accelerated conductor aging, sagging
due to elongation, and potential damage to insulation or surrounding infrastructure.
Load variation is inherent in power systems due to daily demand cycles, seasonal
changes, and the increasing presence of non-linear loads. These variations affect current and
voltage magnitudes across the system, which directly influence the operation of protective relays,
especially overcurrent, distance, and differential protection schemes.
In overcurrent protection, relay pickup settings must be configured above the maximum
load current to avoid nuisance tripping. However, if the maximum load increases beyond the
anticipated levels without corresponding relay setting adjustments, the relay may underperform
or fail to detect genuine fault conditions. Conversely, if the settings are too conservative, relays
may operate unnecessarily during transient load surges, leading to decreased system reliability.

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