Introduction to Analog Communication

Jayanta Kr Bag
Asst. Professor
ECE Dept.
 Objectives

▪ Obtain brief ideas of different elements of communication system.

▪ Function of Modulation process in communication system.
▪ Advantages of Modulation process.
▪ Modulation and demodulation technique of Amplitude Modulation (AM)
▪ Modulation Index
 Introduction
▪ Definition of Communication: It is the process of conveying or transferring information from source to
destination .
▪ In analog communication systems, the information to be transmitted is in the form of an analog signal
which is a continuous-time waveform.
▪ In digital communication systems, the message, or information to be transmitted is digital in form.

Fig-1 Fig-2
 Analog Communication Systems—An Overview
Source
▪ The source originates a message, such as a human voice, a television picture, an e-mail message, or data.
▪ If the data is nonelectric (e.g., human voice, e-mail text, television video),
▪ It must be converted by an input transducer into an electric waveform referred to as the baseband signal or message
signal through physical devices such as a microphone, a computer keyboard, or a CCD camera.
Transmitter
▪ The transmitter modifies the baseband signal for efficient transmission.
▪ The transmitter may consist of one or more subsystems: an A/D converter, an encoder, and a modulator.
▪ Similarly, the receiver may consist of a demodulator, a decoder, and a D/A converter.

Fig-3
 Contd. of Analog Communication Systems
Channel
▪ A medium of choice that can convey the electric signals at the transmitter output over a distance.
▪ A typical channel can be a pair of twisted copper wires (telephone and DSL), coaxial cable (television and internet), an optical
fiber, or a radio link.
▪ Signal waveforms are distorted because of physical phenomena such as frequency-dependent gains, multipath effects, and
Doppler shift
Noise
▪ In a practical environment, signals passing through communication channels not only experience channel distortions but also are
corrupted along the path by undesirable interferences and disturbances
▪ External noise includes interference signals transmitted on nearby channels, human-made noise generated by faulty contact
switches of electrical equipment, automobile ignition radiation, fluorescent lights or natural noise from lightning as well as
electric storms and solar and intergalactic radiation.
▪ Internal noise results from thermal motion of charged particles in conductors, random emission, and diffusion or
recombination of charged carriers in electronic devices.
▪ Proper care can reduce the effect of internal noise but can never eliminate it.
▪ Noise is one of the factors that limit the rate of telecommunications.
Receiver
▪ Reprocesses the signal received from the channel by reversing the signal modifications made at the transmitter and removing the
distortions made by the channel.
▪ The receiver output is fed to the output transducer, which converts the electric signal to its original form-the message.
Destination
▪ The unit to which the message is communicated.
The Fourier Series and Fourier transform
▪ Fourier Series

▪ Fourier Transform
Frequency-Shifting Property
 Modulation

▪ It is the process of varying the characteristics of high frequency carrier in accordance

with instantaneous values of modulating or message or baseband signal.
▪ It is a frequency translation technique which converts baseband or low frequency signal
to bandpass or high frequency signal.

Benefits or Need of Modulation

• To reduce the length or height of antenna
• Selecting the Desired Signal
• For multiplexing
Types of Modulation

Fig-4
 Contd. of Types of Modulation
• Amplitude Modulation: Amplitude of the carrier is varied in accordance with the instantaneous values of
modulating signal.
• Frequency Modulation: Frequency of the carrier is varied in accordance with the instantaneous values of
modulating signal.
• Phase Modulation: Phase of the carrier is varied in accordance with the instantaneous values of Modulating
signal.

Fig-5 AM Waveform Fig-5 FM and PM Waveform

 Amplitude Modulation (AM)
▪ The amplitude of the carrier signal varies in accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of
the modulating signal.

Fig-7 AM Waveform
 Time-domain Description of AM signal

▪ A sinusoidal carrier wave may be represented by

(1)

▪ Let x(t) be the modulating signal with a peak amplitude of say Am

▪ Assume here that x(t) has been so normalized that |x(t)|≤1.

▪ The amplitude modulated signal may be expressed as
(2)
where
Let, m is called the modulation index or the depth of modulation

Then,

Hence, (3)
 Modulation Index
▪ Defined as the ratio of peak amplitude of the modulating signal to the peak amplitude of the
unmodulated carrier.
▪ It is a constant and is such that 0 ≤ ma ≤ 1
▪ Modulation percentage

Fig-8 AM Waveform
Types of AM with respect to modulation index:
• Under Modulation (ma <1)
• Critical Modulation (ma =1)
• Over Modulation (ma >1)
Source: Communication System by R P SINGH, S D SARPE
 Contd. Of Modulation Index

Fig-9 Amplitude modulation with different values of modulation index (m)

 Sideband and Carrier Power In DSB-FC
▪ In AM, the carrier term does not carry any information, and hence, the carrier power is wasteful from this point of view:

Power of g(t)

power efficiency
Prob 1: A carrier wave of 10 MHz frequency and peak value of 10 V is amplitude modulated by a 5 kHz sine-wave
of 6 V amplitude. Determine the modulation index and draw the one-sided spectrum of the modulated wave.
A carrier, amplitude modulated to a depth of 50% by a sinusoid, produces side frequencies of 5.005 MHz and
4.995 MHz. The amplitude of each side frequency is 40 V. Find the frequency and amplitude of the carrier
signal.
It is found that a radio transmitter is radiating a total power of 100 kW. When the modulation index is 0.8, what is the
carrier power being radiated by the transmitter? What is the sideband power?
 Nonlinear Modulators

▪ Let the input-output characteristics of either of the nonlinear elements be approximated by a power series

• The output of the last summer, z(t), no longer contains one of the inputs, the carrier signal cos wct. Consequently, the
carrier signal does not appear at the input of the final bandpass filter. The circuit acts as a balanced bridge for one of
the inputs (the carrier).
• This circuit is balanced with respect to only one input (the carrier); the other input m(t) still appears at the final
bandpass filter, which must reject it. For this reason, it is called a single balanced modulator.
 Switching Modulators

• The multiplication operation required for modulation can be replaced by a simpler switching operation if we realize
that a modulated signal can be obtained by multiplying m(t) not only by a pure sinusoid but by any periodic signal
Φ(t) of the fundamental radian frequency ωc

• To separate this component from the rest of the crowd, we

pass the signal m(t)w(t) through a bandpass filter of
bandwidth 2B Hz ,centered at the frequency fc
 (a) Diode-bridge electronic switch. (b) Series-bridge diode modulator. (c) Shunt-bridge diode modulator.

▪ When the signal cos ωct is Of a polarity that will make terminal c positive with respect to d, all the diodes conduct.
▪ Because diodes D1 and D2 are matched, terminals a and b have the same potential and are effectively shorted.
▪ During the next half-cycle, terminal d is positive with respect to c, and all four diodes open, thus opening terminals a and b.
Ring modulator

▪ During the positive half-cycles of the carrier, diodes D1 and

D3 conduct, and D2 and D4 are open.
▪ terminal a is connected to c, and terminal b is connected to d

▪ During the negative half-cycles of the carrier, diodes

D1 and D3 are open, and D2 and D4 are conducting,
▪ thus connecting terminal a to d and terminal b to c.
▪ the output is proportional to m(t) during the positive half-
cycle and to -m(t) during the negative half-cycle.
▪ In this circuit there are two inputs: m(t) and cos ωc t, The input to the final bandpass filter does
not contain either of these inputs.
▪ this circuit is an example of a double balanced modulator.
 Envelope Detector

The design criterion of RC should be

▪ On the positive cycle of the input signal, the input grows and
may exceed the charged voltage on the capacity vc (t),
turning on the diode and allowing the capacitor C to charge
up to the peak voltage of the input signal cycle.
▪ As the input signal falls below this peak value, it falls
quickly below the capacitor voltage (which is very nearly the
peak voltage), thus causing the diode to open. The capacitor
now discharges through the resistor R at a slow rate (with a
time constant RC).
 Frequency Mixer or Converter

▪ A frequency mixer, or frequency converter, used to change the carrier frequency of a modulated signal
m(t) cos ωct from We to another frequency ωI .

▪ The operation of frequency mixing/conversion is also known as heterodyning

▪ When we select local carrier the operation is called upconversion
▪ When we select local carrier the operation is called downconversion
 Single Sideband (SSB)
▪ DSB spectrum (including suppressed carrier and AM) has two sidebands: the upper sideband (USB) and the lower
sideband (LSB), each containing the complete information of the baseband signal m(t) .
▪ As a result, for a baseband signal m(t) with bandwidth B Hz, DSB modulations require twice the radio-frequency
bandwidth to transmit.
▪ To improve the spectral efficiency of amplitude modulation
▪ Single-sideband (SSB) modulation, which removes either the LSB or the USB that uses only bandwidth of B Hz for one
message signal m(t);

For Demodulation
 Hilbert Transform

Observe that the right-hand side of the above equation has the form of a convolution

1
Fourier transform of 𝜋𝑡

Application of the time convolution property to the convolution in Fourier Transform yields

▪ It follows that if m(t) passes through a transfer function H(f)=-j sgn (f), then the output is mh(t), the Hilbert transform of
m(t).

❖ A Hilbert transformer is an ideal phase shifter that shifts the phase of

𝝅
every spectral component by - 𝟐 .
Single Sideband (SSB)

USB spectrum 𝝓𝑼𝑺𝑩 (f) can be expressed as

For Upper Side Band

For Lower Side Band

A general SSB signal 𝝓SSB(t) can be expressed as

▪ SSB-SC signals can be coherently demodulated
 Detection of SSB Signals with a Carrier (SSB+C)

if the carrier amplitude A is large enough, m(t) can also be (approximately) recovered from by 𝝓SSB+C(t) envelope or rectifier
detection.
 SSB Modulation Systems
The phase shift method.

▪ The box marked "-π/2" is a phase shifter, which delays the phase of every positive spectral component by -π/2.
▪ Note that an ideal Hilbert phase shifter is unrealizable.

▪ This is because the Hilbert phase shifter requires an abrupt phase change of π at zero frequency.
▪ When the message m(t) has a de null and very little low-frequency content, the practical approximation of this
ideal phase shifter has almost no real effect and does not affect the accuracy of SSB modulation.
 Filter Method of Generation of SSB-SC Signals

▪ A DSB-SC signal is first generated using a balanced modulator and the unwanted sideband is suppressed using an
appropriate filter.

▪ There are some practical difficulties one encounters while implementing the filtering.

▪ To obtain an LSSB-SC signal from the DSB-SC signal, the passband of the filter must extend from ( fc - W ) to + fc
and must suddenly change over to the stop band without any transition band,
▪ Such a filter cannot be realized in practice.
Practical Filter
 ▪ voice signals have practically no energy upto about 300 Hz; i.e.,
these signals possess a spectrum of the type shown fL =300Hz

▪ It is now possible to make use of a practical narrow bandpass filter with a finite transition bandwidth for
suppressing the unwanted upper sideband of the DSB-SC signal.
▪ Can have a transition bandwidth from ( fc - fL) to ( fc + fL), i.e., a bandwidth of 2fL
▪ However, if fc is say 10 MHz, the transition bandwidth of the filter, which is now 2fL = 600 Hz, will be
extremely small compared to fc.
▪ Hence an extremely high value of Q is needed for the filter.

▪ To overcome this difficulty, a very low carrier frequency, like 100 kHz, is used for generating the DSB-SC signal so that the
required Q value of the filter is practically attainable atleast with crystal filters.
▪ After suppressing the unwanted sideband, the carrier frequency is raised to the required level by mixing this SSB-SC
signal of a low frequency carrier with a high-frequency signal generated by a crystal oscillator,
 VESTIGIAL SIDEBAND (VSB)

▪ Vestigial sideband (VSB) modulation, also called the asymmetric sideband system, is a compromise between DSB and SSB.
▪ It inherits the advantages of DSB and SSB but avoids their disadvantages at a small cost.
▪ VSB signals are relatively easy to generate, and, at the same time, their bandwidth is only a little (typically, 25%) greater
than that of SSB signals.
▪ The vestigial shaping filter that produces VSB from DSB is Hi(f)

▪ m(t) be recoverable from 𝝓VSB(t) by using synchronous demodulation at the receiver.

▪ The signal e(t) is further passed through the low-pass equalizer filter of the transfer function Ho(f) .
we can define a new low-pass filter
▪ The carrier frequency of a certain VSB signal is fc = 20kHz, and the baseband signal bandwidth is 6 kHz.
The VSB shaping filter Hi(f) at the input, which cuts off the lower sideband gradually over 2 kHz, is shown
in Fig. Find the output filter H0(f) required for distortionless reception.
▪ Consider a DSB-SC case where a received signal is

▪ the local carrier is

▪ The local-carrier frequency and phase errors in this case are Δω and δ, respectively.
▪ The product of the received signal and the local carrier is 𝑒(𝑡), given by

▪ The second term on the right-hand side is filtered out by the low-pass filter, leaving the output 𝑒𝑜(𝑡)

▪ If Δ𝜔=0, above equation is reduces to

 Problem Due to Phase Error

▪ This output is proportional to 𝑚(𝑡) when 𝛿 is a constant.

▪ The output is maximum when 𝛿=0 and minimum (zero) when δ=±π/2.
▪ Thus, the phase error in the local carrier causes the attenuation of the output signal without causing any
distortion, as long as 𝛿 is constant.
▪ Unfortunately, the phase error δ may vary randomly with time. This may occur, for example, because of
variations in the propagation path.
▪ This causes the gain factor cos δ at the receiver to vary randomly and is undesirable.

Now, consider the case where δ=0 and Δω≠0 In this case,

▪ Because Δ𝜔 small, the output is the signal 𝑚(𝑡) multiplied by a low-frequency sinusoid.
▪ This causes the amplitude of the desired signal 𝑚(𝑡) to vary from maximum to zero periodically at twice
the period of the beat frequency Δ𝜔.
▪ This "beating" effect is catastrophic even for a small frequency difference.

▪ The effect of this distortion even for a small frequency mismatch, say Δf=1 Hz, is similar to the output when some
restless kid is fiddling with its volume control knob up and down continuously twice a second.
 LOCAL CARRIER SYNCHRONIZATION

▪ In a suppressed carrier, amplitude-modulated system (DSB-SC, SSB-SC, and VSB-SC), the coherent receiver must
generate a local carrier that is synchronous with the incoming carrier( frequency and phase)
▪ Any discrepancy in the frequency or phase of the local carrier gives rise to distortion in the detector output.

▪ Consider an SSB-SC case where a received signal is because of propagation delay and Doppler frequency shift

▪ At the receiver, The product of the received signal and the local carrier 2coswct is

▪ The bandpass component is filtered out by the receiver low-pass filter, leaving the output e0 (t) as
 PHASE-LOCKED LOOP

▪ The phase-locked loop (PLL) is a very important device typically used to track the phase and the frequency of the carrier
component of an incoming signal.
▪ A PLL has three basic components:
▪ A voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO).
▪ A multiplier, serving as a phase detector (PD) or a phase comparator.
▪ A loop filter H(s).

▪ The operation of the PLL is similar to that of a feedback system

▪ In a typical feedback system, the signal fed back tends to follow the input signal.
▪ If the signal fed back is not equal to the input signal, the difference (known as the error) will change the signal fed back until it is
close to the input signal.
▪ A PLL operates on a similar principle, except that the quantity fed back and compared is not the amplitude, but the phase.
 VCO
PLL Circuit Diagram
Voltage-Controlled Oscillator (VCO):
▪ An oscillator whose frequency can be controlled by an external voltage is a voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO).
▪ In a VCO, the oscillation frequency varies linearly with the input voltage.
▪ If a VCO input voltage is 𝑒𝑜(𝑡),its output is a sinusoid of frequency given by 𝜔(𝑡)=𝜔𝑐+𝑐𝑒𝑜(𝑡) where 𝑐 is a
constant of the VCO and 𝜔𝑐 is the free-running frequency of the VCO [the VCO frequency when 𝑒𝑜(𝑡)=0].
▪ The multiplier output is further low-pass-filtered by the loop filter and then applied to the input of the VCO. This
voltage changes the frequency of the oscillator and keeps the loop locked.

Lock range and Capture range

▪ To generalize, suppose that the loop is locked, meaning that the frequencies of both the input and the output
sinusoids are identical. The two signals are said to be mutually phase coherent or in phase lock.
▪ APLL can track the incoming frequency only over a finite range of frequency shift. This range is called the
hold-in or lock range. Moreover, if initially the input and output frequencies are not close enough, the loop
may not acquire lock.
▪ The frequency range over which the input will cause the loop to lock is called the pull-in or capture range.
▪ Also, if the input frequency changes too rapidly, the loop may not lock
 Carrier Acquisition in DSB-SC

Signal-Squaring Method:

The squarer output x(t) is

▪ Now m2 (t) is a nonnegative signal, and therefore has a nonzero average value [in contrast to m(t), which generally has a
zero average value] .
▪ Let the average value, which is the DC component of m2 (t)/2, be k. We can now express m2(t)/2 as
▪ The bandpass filter is a narrowband (high-Q) filter tuned to frequency 2wc, It completely suppresses the signal m2 (t) ,
whose spectrum is centered at w = 0.

▪ It also suppresses most of the signal φ(t) cos 2wct, This is because although this signal spectrum is centered at 2wc, it
has zero (infinitesimal) power at 2wc. since ¢ (t) has a zero de value.
▪ Moreover, this component is distributed over the band of 4B Hz centered at 2wc, Hence, very little of this signal passes
through the narrowband filter.

▪ In contrast, the spectrum of k cos 2wct consists of impulses located at ±2wc. Hence, all its power is concentrated at 2wc
and will pass through. Thus, the filter output is k cos 2wct plus a small undesired residue from φ(t) cos 2wct.

▪ This residue can be suppressed by using a PLL, which tracks k cos 2wct. The PLL output, after passing through a 2: 1
frequency divider, yields the desired carrier
Costas Loop:
 Power Calculation in Multiple-Tone Amplitude Modulation (AM)

Carrier Signal:
Total Side band power
 Net Modulation Index for Multiple-Tone Modulation

We know that for a multiple-tone modulation, the total power is expressed as

Let us consider that 𝑚𝑡 is the total or net modulation index for a multiple-tone modulation.
 An AM transmitter radiates 9 K watts of power when the carrier is unmodulated and 10.125 K watts when
the carrier is sinusoidally modulated. Find the modulation index and percentage of modulation. Now, if
another sine wave, corresponding to 40 percent modulation, is transmitted simultaneously, then calculate the
total radiated power.
An amplitude modulator has output(in Volts)
𝑠(𝑡)=𝐴cos(400𝜋𝑡)+𝐵cos(360𝜋𝑡)+𝐵cos(440𝜋𝑡)
The carrier power normalized to 1 Ω resistance is 50 Watts. The ratio of the total sideband
power to the total power is 1/9. The value of B (in Volts, rounded off to two decimal places)
is _________.
Consider the amplitude modulated (AM) signal 𝐴𝑐cos𝜔𝑐𝑡+2cos𝜔𝑚𝑡cos𝜔𝑐𝑡. For
demodulating the signal using an envelope detector, the minimum value of 𝐴𝑐
should be _______.
 Angle Modulation
FM is used over AM when better sound quality, noise resistance, and stable transmission are needed, while
AM is preferred for long-distance broadcasting and lower-cost transmissions

Phase Modulation
In phase modulation, the phase deviation ∅ 𝑡 is varied in such a way that at any instant of time, t, it is
proportional to the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal, x(t)

Kp unit of radians per volt

When speed v, is varying with time and is denoted by v(t), a function of time, we know that the distance s(t) covered
in say t seconds, is given by

𝜃 𝑡 = 𝜔𝑡 and 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓, if the frequency is varying with respect to time,

In frequency modulation, the instantaneous frequency of the modulated wave changes in such a way that at any
instant, the change from the unmodulated carrier frequency is directly proportional to the instantaneous amplitude of
the modulating signal,

the change in fi(t) from fc, the unmodulated carrier frequency, called the frequency deviation,
 Frequency modulation using a phase modulator

Phase modulation using a frequency modulator

FM PM
(ii) For FM:
Sketch FM and PM waves for the modulating signal m(t) shown in Fig. The constants kf and kp are
2𝝅 x 105 and 10𝝅 , respectively, and the carrier frequency fc is 100 MHz.
 BANDWIDTH OF ANGLE-MODULATED WAVES

Angle modulation is nonlinear and no properties of Fourier transform can be directly applied for its bandwidth analysis.
▪ The modulated wave consists of an unmodulated carrier plus various amplitude-modulated terms, such as a(t) sin 𝝎ct, a2 (t)
cos 𝝎ct, a3 (t) sin 𝝎ct, . . . .
▪ The signal a(t) is an integral of m(t). If M (f) is band-limited to B, A(f) is also band-limited to B.
▪ The spectrum of a2 (t) is simply A(f) * A(f) and is band-limited to 2B.
▪ Similarly, the spectrum of an(t) is band-limited to nB.
▪ Hence, the spectrum consists of an unmodulated carrier plus spectra of a(t) , a2 (t) , . . . , an(t) , . . . , centered at 𝝎c

Because n! increases much faster than |kfa(t)|n ,

▪ Most of the modulated-signal power resides in a finite bandwidth.

 Narrowband Angle Modulation Approximation

-------- Equation -1

▪ When kf is very small such that

▪ The FM signal follow this condition is called narrowband FM (NBFM)

▪ Then all higher order terms in Eq. 1 are negligible except for the first two

-------- Equation -2

▪ This expression similar to that of the AM signal with message signal a(t) .

▪ Because the bandwidth of a (t) is B Hz, the bandwidth of FM in Eq. 2 is 2B Hz

𝜋
▪ The sideband spectrum for FM has a phase shift of 2 with respect to the carrier, where as that of AM is in phase with the
carrier.
 Wideband FM (WBFM) Bandwidth Analysis

▪ Consider a low-pass m(t) with bandwidth B Hz. This signal is well approximated by a staircase signal m(t).
▪ The signal m(t) is now approximated by pulses of constant amplitude.
▪ For convenience, each of these pulses will be called a "cell."

▪ fs = 2B is called the Nyquist rate

▪ Sampling interval Ts = 1 /2B is called the
Nyquist interval

▪ Hence, the FM signal corresponding to this cell is a sinusoid of frequency 𝝎𝒄 + 𝒌𝒇 𝒎(𝒕𝒌 ) and duration T = 1 /2B,
▪ The FM spectrum for 𝒎(t)
ෝ consists of the sum of
the Fourier transforms of these sinusoidal pulses
corresponding to all the cells.

▪ Hence, the maximum and the minimum significant

frequencies in this spectrum are
𝝎𝒄 + 𝒌𝒇 𝒎(𝒕𝒑 ) + 𝟒𝝅𝑩 and 𝝎𝒄 - 𝒌𝒇 𝒎(𝒕𝒑 ) − 𝟒𝝅𝑩

▪ The FM spectrum bandwidth is approximately

▪ The peak frequency deviation in hertz by

▪ we observe that for the case of NBFM, 𝑘𝑓 is very small. Hence, given a fixed 𝑚𝑝 , ∆𝑓 is very small (in comparison to B)
for NBFM. In this case, we can ignore the small ∆𝑓 term

▪ Earlier that for narrowband, the FM bandwidth is approximately 2B Hz.

▪ This indicates that a better bandwidth estimate is

▪ This formula goes under the name Carson's rule in the literature
▪ Observe that for a truly wideband case, where ∆𝒇 ≫ 𝑩 , can be approximated as

▪ Carson's rule can be expressed in terms of the deviation

▪ We define a deviation ratio 𝜷 as ratio as

▪ 𝜷 is called the modulation index

 Spectral Analysis of Tone Frequency Modulation

▪ We use this special case to verify the FM bandwidth approximation.

▪ Tone modulation is a special case for which a precise spectral analysis is possible

▪ The bandwidth of m(t) is 𝟐𝝅𝑩 = 𝝎𝒎 rad/s

▪ The deviation ratio (or in this case, the modulation index) is

𝟐𝝅
▪ Note that 𝒆𝒋𝜷𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝎𝒎 𝒕 is a periodic signal with period and can be expanded by the exponential Fourier series, as
𝝎𝒎
usual,

▪ This integral has been extensively tabulated and is denoted by 𝑱𝒏 (𝜷)

▪ The Bessel function of the first kind and the nth order
▪ The strength of the nth sideband at 𝝎 = 𝝎𝒄 +n𝝎𝒎 is 𝑱𝒏 (𝜷)
From the plots of 𝑱𝒏 (𝜷) in Fig, it can be seen that for a
given 𝜷, 𝑱𝒏 (𝜷) decreases with n.

▪ It can be seen from that 𝑱𝒏 (𝜷) is negligible for 𝒏 > 𝜷 + 1

▪ The number of significant sideband impulses is 𝜷 + 1

▪ The bandwidth of the FM carrier is given by