Chapter 3

Satellite Communications
1. Define satellite communications.

In essence, a communications satellite is a microwave repeater in the sky

that consists of a diverse combination of one or more of the following: receiver,
transmitter, amplifier, regenerator, filter, onboard computer, multiplexer,
demultiplexer, antenna, wave guide, and about any other electronic
communications circuit ever developed. A satellite radio repeater is called a
transponder, of which a satellite may have many. A satellite system consists of
one or more satellite space vehicles, a ground-based station to control the
operation of the system, and a user network of earth stations that provides the
interface facilities for the transmission and reception of terrestrial
communications traffic through the satellite system.

2. Describe Satellite Orbital Patterns with figure.

Apogee. The point in an orbit that is located farthest from Earth

Perigee. The point in an orbit that is located closest to Earth
Major axis. The line joining the perigee and apogee through the center of
Earth;
sometimes called line of apsides
Minor axis. The line perpendicular to the major axis and halfway between the
perigee and apogee (Half the distance of the minor axis is called the semiminor
axis.)
3. Briefly explain satellite elevation categories.

Satellites are generally classified as having either a low earth orbit

(LEO), medium earth orbit (MEO), or geosynchronous earth orbit (GEO).
Most LEO satellites operate in the 1.0-GHz to 2.5-GHz frequency range.
Motorola’s satellite-based mobile-telephone system, Iridium, is a LEO
system utilizing a 66-satellite constellation orbiting approximately 480 miles
above Earth’s surface. The main advantage of LEO satellites is that the path
loss between earth stations and space vehicles is much lower than for
satellites revolving in medium- or high-altitude orbits. Less path loss equates
to lower transmit powers, smaller antennas, and less weight.
MEO satellites operate in the 1.2-GHz to 1.66-GHz frequency band
and orbit between 6000 miles and 12,000 miles above Earth. The
Department of Defense’s satellite based global positioning system,
NAVSTAR, is a MEO system with a constellation of 21 working satellites
and six spares orbiting approximately 9500 miles above Earth.
Geosynchronous satellites are high-altitude earth-orbit satellites
operating primarily in the 2-GHz to 18-GHz frequency spectrum with orbits
22,300 miles above Earth’s surface. Most commercial communications
satellites are in geosynchronous orbit. Geosynchronous or geostationary
satellites are those that orbit in a circular pattern with an angular velocity
equal to that of Earth. Geostationary satellites have an orbital time of
approximately 24 hours, the same as Earth; thus, geosynchronous satellites
appear to be stationary, as they remain in a fixed position in respect to a
given point on Earth.

4. Contrast the advantages and disadvantages of geosynchronous satellites.

The advantages of geosynchronous satellites are as follows:

1. Geosynchronous satellites remain almost stationary in respect to a

given earth station. Consequently, expensive tracking equipment is not
required at the earth stations.
2. Geosynchronous satellites are available to all earth stations within their
shadow 100% of the time. The shadow of a satellite includes all the earth
 stations that have a line-of-sight path to it and lie within the radiation pattern
of the satellite’s antennas.
3. There is no need to switch from one geosynchronous satellite to another
as they or bit overhead. Consequently, there are no transmission breaks due
to switching times.
4. The effects of Doppler shift are negligible.

The disadvantages of geosynchronous satellites are as follows:

1. Geosynchronous satellites require sophisticated and heavy propulsion

devices on board to keep them in a fixed orbit.
2. High-altitude geosynchronous satellites introduce much longer
propagation delays. The round-trip propagation delay between two earth
stations through a geosynchronous satellite is between 500 ms and 600 ms.
3. Geosynchronous satellites require higher transmit powers and more
sensitive receivers because of the longer distances and greater path losses.
4. High-precision space-manship is required to place a geosynchronous
satellite into orbit and to keep it there.

5. Briefly describe the functional characteristics of an uplink, a transponder,

and a downlink model for a satellite system.

Uplink Model
The primary component within the uplink section of a satellite system
is the earth station transmitter. A typical earth station transmitter consists of
an IF modulator, an IF-to-RF microwave up-converter, a high-power
amplifier (HPA), and some means of band limiting the final output spectrum
(i.e., an output bandpass filter). The IF modulator converts the input
baseband signals to either an FM-, a PSK-, or a QAM-modulated
intermediate frequency. The up-converter (mixer and bandpass filter)
converts the IF to an appropriate RF carrier frequency. The HPA provides
adequate gain and output power to propagate the signal to the satellite
transponder. HPAs commonly used are klystons and traveling-wave tubes.
Transponder
Atypical satellite transponder consists of an input band limiting device
(BPF), an input low-noise amplifier (LNA), a frequency translator, a low-
level power amplifier, and an output bandpass filter. This transponder is an
RF-to-RF repeater. Other transponder configurations are IF and baseband
repeaters similar to those used in microwave repeaters. The input BPF limits
the total noise applied to the input of the LNA. (A common device used as
an LNA is a tunnel diode.) The output of the LNA is fed to a frequency
translator (a shift oscillator and a BPF), which converts the high-band uplink
frequency to the low-band downlink frequency. The low-level power
amplifier, which is commonly a traveling-wave tube, amplifies the RF signal
for transmission through the downlink to earth station receivers. Each RF
satellite channel requires a separate transponder.
Downlink Model
An earth station receiver includes an input BPF, an LNA, and an RF-
to-IF down-converter. Again, the BPF limits the input noise power to the
LNA. The LNA is a highly sensitive, low-noise device, such as a tunnel
diode amplifier or a parametric amplifier. The RF-to-IF down-converter is a
mixer/bandpass filter combination that converts the received RF signal to an
IF frequency.
1. An earth station is located at Houston, Texas, that has a longitude of 99.5°
and a latitude of 29.5° north. The satellite of interest is Satcom V.
Determine the look angles for the earth station antenna.
Pb. 15
Satcom V = longitude of 143°

ΔL, difference between the longitude of the earth station and the satellite
vehicle:
ΔL = 143°- 99.5°
2. A satellite system operates at 14-GHz uplink and 11-GHz downlink and has
a projected P(e) of 10-7. The modulation scheme is 8-PSK, and the system
will carry 120 Mbps. The equivalent noise temperature of the receiver is 400
K, and the receiver noise bandwidth is equal to the minimum Nyquist
frequency. Determine the following parameters: minimum theoretical C/N
ratio, minimum theoretical Eb/N0 ratio, noise density, total receiver input
noise, minimum receive carrier power, and the minimum energy per bit at
the receiver input. Pb 16
Eb = 20N0

3. A satellite system operates at 6-GHz uplink and 4-GHz downlink and has a
projected P(e) of 10 -6. The modulation scheme is QPSK and the system will
carry 100 Mbps. The equivalent receiver noise temperature is 290 K, and
the receiver noise bandwidth is equal to the minimum Nyquist frequency.
Determine the C/N ratio that would be measured at a point in the receiver
prior to the BPF where the bandwidth is equal to (a) 11⁄2 times the minimum
Nyquist frequency and (b) 3 times the minimum Nyquist frequency.

Pb.17
(a) (1 1/2 x 100M) /100M (b) (3 x 100M)/100M

4. An earth station satellite transmitter has an HPA with a rated saturated

output power of 10,000 W. The back-off ratio is 6 dB, the branching loss is
2 dB, the feeder loss is 4 dB, and the antenna gain is 40 dB. Determine the
actual radiated power and the EIRP.
Pb.19
the actual radiated power = Pt x At
5. Determine the total noise power for a receiver with an input bandwidth of 20
MHz and an equivalent noise temperature of 600 K.
Pb.20

6. Determine the noise density for Problem 6.

Pb.21

7. Determine the energy per bit-to-noise density ratio when the receiver input
carrier power is 100 dBW, the receiver input noise temperature is 290 K, and
a 60-Mbps transmission rate is used.
Pb. 23

N/B = KTe , C/fb = 100/60M

8. Determine the carrier-to-noise density ratio for a receiver with a 70-dBW

input carrier power, an equivalent noise temperature of 180 K, and a
bandwidth of 20 MHz.

No = KTe Pb.24