Environmental, systems and societies

IB Diploma Programme 2024-2026

Name:
Telmo Espinosa Bravo
 Index
1.1 Perspectives ............................................................................................................................... 6
4 perspectives towards nature: ..................................................................................................... 6
What is a perspective? ................................................................................................................. 6
Influences on perspectives: .......................................................................................................... 6
What are values:........................................................................................................................... 7
What is EVS? ........................................................................................................................... 7
Surveys vs questionnaires ........................................................................................................ 7
Value systems........................................................................................................................... 8
1.2 Systems ...................................................................................................................................... 9
What is a system? ........................................................................................................................ 9
Component withing a system:...................................................................................................... 9
Types of systems .......................................................................................................................... 9
Transfers vs. Transformations ................................................................................................... 10
Transfers ................................................................................................................................. 10
Transformations ..................................................................................................................... 10
Steady – state of equilibrium ..................................................................................................... 11
Stable equilibrium ...................................................................................................................... 11
Feedback loops .......................................................................................................................... 11
Negative and positive feedback ............................................................................................. 11
Gaia theory, by James Lovelock ................................................................................................ 12
Resilience and tipping points ..................................................................................................... 12
What is a model?........................................................................................................................ 13
1.3 Sustainability ........................................................................................................................... 14
The great acceleration. ........................................................................................................... 14
What is sustainability ................................................................................................................. 14
Pillars of sustainability............................................................................................................... 15
Environmental sustainability .................................................................................................. 15
EPI -> Environmental performance index ............................................................................. 15
Social sustainability ............................................................................................................... 16
 Economic sustainability ......................................................................................................... 16
Sustainability projects across time ............................................................................................. 17
GDP Gross Domestic Product ................................................................................................... 17
Green GDP ............................................................................................................................. 17
Environmental Justice ................................................................................................................ 18
Inequality ................................................................................................................................... 19
Sustainability indicators ............................................................................................................. 19
Ecological footprint ................................................................................................................ 20
Carbon footprint ..................................................................................................................... 20
Water footprint ....................................................................................................................... 20
Biocapacity ............................................................................................................................. 20
Planetary boundaries .................................................................................................................. 20
The Holocene vs Anthropocene Epoch ..................................................................................... 20
The Holocene ......................................................................................................................... 20
Transition to the Anthropocene .............................................................................................. 20
2030 SDG’s................................................................................................................................ 21
Type of economic models .......................................................................................................... 23
The doughnut economics ....................................................................................................... 23
Circular economy ................................................................................................................... 23
Linear economy ...................................................................................................................... 23
2.1 Species and population ............................................................................................................ 24
What is ecology ......................................................................................................................... 24
Biosphere................................................................................................................................ 24
Species ....................................................................................................................................... 25
Classification .......................................................................................................................... 25
Ecological niche ......................................................................................................................... 25
Abiotic and biotic....................................................................................................................... 26
Keystone species ........................................................................................................................ 26
Measuring abiotic factors in Freshwater ecosystems ................................................................ 26
Measuring abiotic factors in Terrestrial ecosystems.................................................................. 27
Organisms interact in different ways ......................................................................................... 28
Predator prey relationship .......................................................................................................... 28
Depending on another species ................................................................................................... 28
Symbiosis: .............................................................................................................................. 28
 Population changes over time .................................................................................................... 29
Factors that affect population’s amount ................................................................................. 29
Limiting factors that can impact growth .................................................................................... 29
Balances in an ecosystem .......................................................................................................... 29
Populations curves ..................................................................................................................... 29
J-shaped curve ........................................................................................................................ 29
S-shaped curve ....................................................................................................................... 29
Sampling strategies .................................................................................................................... 30
Measuring motile organisms ...................................................................................................... 30
Estimating abundance of motile organisms ........................................................................... 30
Measuring Biotic Factors in Ecosystems ................................................................................... 31
Lincoln’s index .......................................................................................................................... 32
2.2 Food webs????? ....................................................................................................................... 33
Types of energy ...................................................................................................................... 33
The first of thermodynamics ...................................................................................................... 33
Autotrophs ................................................................................................................................. 34
Photosynthesis ........................................................................................................................ 34
The second law of thermodynamics .......................................................................................... 34
Respiration ............................................................................................................................. 35
The 10% rule .......................................................................................................................... 36
Productivity ................................................................................................................................ 36
Gross vs. net productivity ...................................................................................................... 36
Bioaccumulation and biomagnification ................................................................................. 37
Bioaccumulation .................................................................................................................... 37
Biomagnification .................................................................................................................... 37
Toxins – DDT, ........................................................................................................................... 37
Ecological pyramids .................................................................................................................. 37
Benefits of ecological pyramids ................................................................................................ 38
2.3 Carbon ..................................................................................................................................... 39
The carbon cycle ........................................................................................................................ 39
Carbon flows – respiration photosynthesis and combustion ..................................................... 40
Respiration ............................................................................................................................. 40
Photosynthesis ........................................................................................................................ 40
Combustion ............................................................................................................................ 40
 Cycles of key terms ................................................................................................................ 40
Fossil fuels ................................................................................................................................. 40
Types of fossil fuels ............................................................................................................... 40
Carbon sequestration.................................................................................................................. 41
Human impact on the carbon cycle............................................................................................ 41
How to solve these impacts .................................................................................................... 41
 1
Foundations of environmental systems
and societies

1.1 Perspectives
4 perspectives towards nature:
Stewardship:
Humans have responsibilities towards the environment on a local and global scale, and with that comes certain
privileges. We can manage the environment, and we can exploit it, therefore it is our duty to look after it and treat it
respectfully.
Imperialist:
Science can be used to control nature
Romantic:
Its value to humans is seen aesthetically, as a beautiful and unadulterated thing
Utilitarian:
A theory of morality, that advocates actions that foster happiness or pleasure and opposes actions that cause
unhappiness or harm.
..................

What is a perspective?
How a particular situation is viewed and understood by an individual. It is based on a mix of personal and collective
assumptions, values, and beliefs.

Influences on perspectives:
Community (friends and family) Personal past experiences
Beliefs and values Religion
 Political position Location
Socio economic class Media

*Can be influenced by many factors

..................

What are values:

Values are qualities or principles that people feel have worth and importance in life.

What is EVS?
ENVIRONMENTAL VALUE SYSTEMS is a worldview or philosophical perspective that shapes how individuals or
groups perceive environmental issues. Uses beliefs, attitudes and values related to the natural world and humans'
interaction with it.

Surveys vs questionnaires
Survey is a tool to collect information to describe, compare or explain an event or situation, considering knowledge,
attitudes behaviors, and sociodemographic characteristics.
Questionnaire is any set of questions
..................
Types of surveys:
1. The Likert scale.
2. Close ended.
 Value systems

Ecocentrism:
- Ecology at the center, rather than an individual organism
- Advocates for wilderness preservation and animal rights
- May favor population control to reduce human impact
o Might prioritize protecting a forest ecosystem over developing it for human use
Anthropocentrism:
- Places humankind as being the central
- Supports conservation for future generations
- May prioritize economic growth alongside environmental protection
o Support creation of natural parks to preserve natural beauty
Technocentric:
- Solution is technology
- Optimistic about human ability to manage Enviromental challenges
o Large scale capture and storage technologies to address climate change.
 ..................

1.2
Systems

1.2 Systems
What is a system?
Set of interrelated parts working together to make a complex whole

Component withing a system:

1. Storage: Pools where matter or energy is held

2. Flows: Movement of matter or energy between storages
A. Inputs: Matter or energy entering the system
B. Outputs: Matter or energy leaving the system
C. Transfers: Changes in location within the system
D. Transformations: Change in chemical nature, state, or energy inside the system
Example:
• Trees act as storage of carbon, Photosynthesis is an input of energy, Respiration is an output flow of CO2, Decomposition is a
transformation flow, Animal migration is a transfer flow, Respiration is an output flow of CO2

Types of systems
1. Open system:
Exchanges both energy and matter across their boundaries.
Example: Most ecosystems, forest ecosystem
2. Closed systems:
Exchanges only energy across their boundaries
Example: Sealed bottle of water (can heat or cool up but matter cannot cross boundaries)
3. Isolated systems
Exchange neither energy nor matter across boundaries
Does not exist in nature
.................

Transfers vs. Transformations

Transfers
Energy or matter flows and changes location but does not change its states
- Eg: Water moving from a river to a sea

Transformations
When energy or matter flows and changes its state, chemical nature or energy form
- Eg: Liquid water to water vapor during evaporation and boiling.
Steady – state of equilibrium
In a steady-state equilibrium, the system appears stable despite constant flux. Inputs = outputs,
meaning consistent conditions
- Example: lake, although having constant flow of nutrients in water its system is stable

Stable equilibrium
A state where a system returns to its original condition after a small disturbance.
..................

Feedback loops
Negative and positive feedback
Negative feedback loops counteract changes, helping to maintain stability in a system.

Ex: When body temperature rises, sweating increases to cool the body down, bringing
temperature back to normal.
 Positive feedback loops amplify changes in a system, driving it away from equilibrium

Ex: As ice melts, darker ocean water is exposed, absorbing more heat, and causing
further melting.

..................

Gaia theory, by James Lovelock

Gaia theory states that Earth and its systems behave as a single entity. This entity has controlled
self-regulatory negative feedback loops that keep the conditions on the planet within boundaries
that are favorable to life.

..................

Resilience and tipping points

Ecosystem resilience refers to an ecosystem’s ability to absorb disturbance and maintain its basic
structure and function. Factors affecting resilience include:
1. Biodiversity --> greater diversity leads to increased resilience
2. Functional redundancy --> multiple species performing similar roles and buffer against
species loss.
3. Connectivity --> well connected ecosystems can recover more easily.
The tipping point is the minimum amount of change within an ecosystem that will destabilize it,
causing it to reach a new equilibrium or steady state.
Equilibrium A Tipping Point Equilibrium B
Coral reef ecosystems --------> Bleached and dead coral

Influence leading to tipping point: Increasing Ocean acidification and temperatures

..................

What is a model?
A model is a simplified description designed to show the structure or workings of an object,
system or concept.

What is sustainability?
Measure the extent to which practices allow for long term viability of a system. Used to refer to the responsible
maintenance of socio-ecological systems that there is no diminishment of condition for future generations.

Ecological overshoot:
Ecological overshoot is the phenomenon which occurs when the demands made on natural
ecosystems exceed its regenerative capacity. Global ecological overshoot occurs when the
demands made by humanity exceed what the biosphere of Earth can provide through its capacity
for renewal.
‘Earth Overshoot Day’ – the point at which we exhaust the resources Earth can regenerate in a
year while also processing its waste.
 1.3
Sustainability

1.3 Sustainability
The great acceleration.
The rapid and widespread increase in human activity and its impact on the earth’s natural
systems.

What is sustainability
A measure of the extent to which practices allow for long term viability of a system. Generally
used to refer to responsible maintenance of socio-ecological systems such that there is no
diminishment of conditions for future generations.
Pillars of sustainability
Environment Society Economy
............................
Environmental sustainability

The use and management of natural resources allows replacement of the resources and recovery
and regeneration of ecosystems.

EPI -> Environmental performance index

Provides a data-driven summary of the state of sustainability around the world.
Social sustainability

Focuses on creating the structures and systems that support human well-being.

Economic sustainability

Focuses on creating the economic structures and systems to support production and consumption
of goods and services that will support human needs into the future.
...........................
Sustainability projects across time

............................

GDP Gross Domestic Product

Market value of all final goods and services produces in a country over a time period
Consumption + investment + Gov. Spending + (exports – imports) = GDP
..................
Green GDP
A country's regular GDP’s environmental repercussions. Indicator of economic growth with
Enivronmental factors considered and is tied to a country’s conventional GDP
Environmental Justice
Refers to the right of all people to live in a pollution free environment, and to have equitable
access to natural resources, regardless of issue such as race, gender, socio-economic status,
nationality.
Inequality
Unequal access to benefits and rights of society.
Inequalities of:
Income Gender
Race Cultural identity

Sustainability indicators
Quantitative measures of biodiversity, pollution, human population, climate change, material and
carbon footprints, and others.
Ecological footprint
Area of land and water required to sustainably provide all resources for a specific population.
Carbon footprint
The carbon footprint measures the amount of greenhouse gases (GHGs) produced, measured in
carbon dioxide equivalents
Water footprint
The water footprint measures water use
.........................
Biocapacity
Biocapacity is the capacity of a given biologically productive area to generate an ongoing supply
of Renewable resources and to absorb its resulting wastes.
.........................

Planetary boundaries
The planetary boundaries model describes the nine processes and systems that have regulated the
stability and resilience of the Earth system.
Current Status: At least four of the Planetary Boundaries have been exceeded.

The Holocene vs Anthropocene Epoch

The Holocene
Start: Began 11,650 years ago.
It represents a small fraction of human history.
Known to support approximately 7.5 billion humans.
Transition to the Anthropocene
Definition: New geological epoch acknowledging human influence on the planet. Current
Status. Humanity has left the Holocene; transitioning to the Anthropocene.
Predictions: Likely to experience a hotter and less stable climate, termed a “hot-house
Earth” scenario.
2030 SDG’s
1. No Poverty:
End poverty in the whole world. Less poverty would lead to a more efficient and productive
society, allowing us to achieve the SDGs.
2. Zero Hunger:
End hunger and achieve food security globally. It is important to achieve zero hunger to achieve
an even more fair society, where all members can work productively.
3. Good Health and Well-being:
Achieve secure health and well-being worldwide. Having access to healthcare and well-being is
essential in order to maintain a healthy and efficient society.
4. Quality Education:
Ensure equal and quality education for everybody around the world. Quality education leads to a
more educated, equal and positive community.
5. Gender Equality:
Achieve gender equality by creating anti-discrimination laws in order to reduce inequalities like
paternal leaves of absence. This is significant because inequalities currently dominate our
society, resulting in a less happy, and sustainable society.
6. Clean Water and Sanitation:
Obtain clean and renewable water for everybody. This provides a generally improved
development for poorer countries and happiness for everybody.
7. Affordable and Clean Energy:
Obtain clean, renewable and sustainable energy worldwide. This allows for all countries to
develop and improves comfort and efficiency everywhere.
8. Decent Work and Economic Growth:
Make sure everyone has a stable job and can cover all basic human needs with their salary. This
is significant because a stable economy leads to further development for the environment.
9. Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure:
Build resilient infrastructure, and ensure all families worldwide have a roof to live under. This
leads to further job creation and an improved market industry.
10. Reduced Inequalities:
Reduce inequality within and among countries. We can notice that the USA has a much higher
inequality rate than Europe or Western Europe. This is why it is important to improve inequality
rates so that we can all work collaboratively to reach our objectives.
11. Sustainable Cities and Communities:
Make all human cities sustainable, fair and respectful between communities. Cities should be
sustainable in order to slow and, hopefully, reverse the effects of climate change.
12. Responsible Consumption and Production:
Reduce or eliminate all sources of food waste worldwide. Reducing global food waste is
essential for countries to prove their production quality and improve global warming.
13. Climate Action:
Act towards climate change, reducing the impact and finding solutions to reverse our past
actions. Reduces global warming effects with the hope of completely stopping global warming.
It has not worked so far, as seen in the graph below.
 14. Life Below Water:
Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas, and marine resources for sustainable
development, and restoring coral reefs, such as the Great Barrier Reef. These ecosystems are the
base for our nutrition and biodiversity, which is why it is essential to protect them.
15. Life on Land:
Aiming to protect and restore land ecosystems, as well as managing forests. All life on land
deserves to be protected in order to feed and create new animals, enhancing biodiversity and
global warming through photosynthesis.
16. Peace, Justice, and Strong Institutions:
Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development by providing equal justice
for everyone, as well as building inclusive institutions for all people. Like that, we can focus and
develop our SDGs and become sustainable.
17. Partnerships for the Goals:
Ensure a fair and sustainable collaboration between communities to achieve all SDGs. By
working all together, we are able to generate more productively and be sustainable.
..........................
.
Type of economic models

The doughnut economics

The doughnut economics model is a framework for creating a
regenerative and distributive economy to meet the needs of all people
within the means of the planet.
Circular economy
The circular economy is a model that promotes decoupling economic
activity from the consumption of finite resources. It has three
principles: eliminating waste and pollution, circulating products and
materials, and regenerating nature.
Linear economy
Redundant or broken goods are discarded.

..........................................
 2.1
Species and population

2.1 Species and population

What is ecology
Branch of biology that studies how organisms interact with their environment and other
organisms
Biosphere
Ecological system composed of individuals, populations, communities, ecosystems.

Individual is single organism within a one species, Population is a group of organisms of the same
capable of independent survival. species living in the same area at a particular time.
Capable of interbreeding.
Community groups of different populations Ecosystem is a group of community functioning
in an area or habitat. as a single unit.
 Biosphere represents the parts of the Earth where life exists

………………………………………………….

Species
A group of organisms sharing common characteristics that interbreed and produce fertile
offsprings.
Classification
First name Second name
The genus The species

Example: Leopard
Panthera Pardus
………………………

Ecological niche
Role of a species in an ecosystem. The niche comprises all biotic and abiotic interactions that
influence
1. The growth
2. Survival
3. Reproduction of a population
4. How food is obtained.
………………………
Abiotic and biotic
Abiotic features are the non-living physical Biotic features are the living components of
factors that may influence organisms. the environment.

Light Fungi
Temp Bacteria
Water Plants
Ph… Mammals…

Keystone species
A Keystone species is one that plays a critical role in maintaining the structure of the ecosystem
in which they live.

Measuring abiotic factors in Freshwater ecosystems

Turbidity A Secchi disc Temperature affects the
HIGH turbidity = CLOUDY metabolic rates of marine
water organisms.
LOW turbidity = CLEAR Many are ectothermic (body
water temp = same as water)
pH pH meter pH is usually between 6 and 8
Enzymes are sensitive to pH
Temperature Temperature probe Enzymes are sensitive to
temperature
Dissolved oxygen Oxygen sensitive electrode Inversely linked to water
Winkler titration (a chemical temperature
test) Low results can be sign of water
pollution
Flow velocity 1. electric flow meter Flow velocity determines which
2. impellers species can
3. floating device live in a certain area.
The average flow velocity of a
river can be
estimated from the surface flow
velocity by
dividing the surface velocity by
1.25
Measuring abiotic factors in Terrestrial ecosystems
Air temperature Thermometer Enzymes & metabolism &
growth are sensitive to
temperature
Light intensity Digital probe Measures insolation which is
important for productivity
Wind speed Anemometer Wind is the movement of heat
energy, and the circulation of
heat controls our climate
Size and direction are both
important
Rainfall Rain gauge Precipitation is an important
index for describing
The climate of an ecosystem
Precipitation is linked to
water availability which
is important for productivity
(i.e. plant growth)
Particle size Size and distribution of them
affects a soil's drainage and
water-holding capacity.
Moisture content Drying & calculate difference Water availability is crucial
for plant growth
Organic content Loss on Ignition method The organic content of a soil
is plant and animal
residues in various stages of
decay and it has several
functions: Supplies nutrients
to the soil. Holds water (like a
sponge)
Helps reduce compaction and
crusting.
Increases infiltration.
Mineral content Soil testing kit Wide range of soil nutrients
essential for fertile soil.
Soil pH pH will determine what types
of plants can grow
Organisms interact in different ways
Organisms may cooperate, compete, or depend on each other for survival

Predator prey relationship

Predators can affect how the prey populations are distributed
EX: fish in large groups
Prey can affect the location and number in predator populations
EX: birds feeding on insects migrate to the areas where the insects are plentiful
Predator refers to where one organism hunts and kills another in order to provide it with the
energy for survival and reproduction.

…………………………

Depending on another species

Symbiosis:
Two different species who live together in a close relationship
Three types…
1. Mutualism – two species interacting with each other and both species benefit.
2. Commensalism – two species interacting with each other and one species benefiting the
other is unaffected
3. Parasitism – two species interacting while one species benefits and the other (host
species) is harmed.
…and two ways:
a. Intra-species: Between members of the same species.
EX: Roots from a tree competing for space, nutrients, water and light.
b. Inter-species: Between two different species.
EX: Lions and hyenas both hunting the same herbivore species.

Competition is the struggle between individuals or different populations for a limited resource
Population changes over time
Factors that affect population’s amount
1. Birth rate
2. Predator prey interactions

Limiting factors that can impact growth

1. Availability of food
2. Diseases and parasites
3. Predation
4. Hunting
5. Natural disasters

Balances in an ecosystem
Carrying Capacity: the maximum number of individuals that an ecosystem can support.
Limiting factors affect carrying capacity

Populations curves

J-shaped curve
The graph of a population that grows
exponentially is called a J-shaped curve.

S-shaped curve
The graph of a population that grows until it
reaches a stable size based on the carrying
capacity is called an S-shaped curve.
Sampling strategies

Random sampling Every individual in - Unbiased results - May miss some

the population has an - Suitable for large sample points
equal chance of being populations - Not effective in
sampled. small study areas
Systematic sampling Samples are taken at - Easier to apply than - May be biased due
fixed intervals along random sampling to different chances
an environmental - Coverage of the of selection
gradient whole study area can - Patterns may be
be achieved missed or
exaggerated
Transect sampling Sampling along a - Simple and - Many transects may
straight line, placing relatively easy to need to be combined
quadrats at regular conduct for sufficient data
intervals. - Only requires basic - Limited to linear
equipment habitats

Measuring motile organisms

Motile populations are population of organisms that can move from place to place

Estimating abundance of motile organisms

1. For invertebrates or small mammals
2. Capture-mark-release-recapture method
3. Marked individuals will mix with unmarked individuals which after recapture helps the
estimation of the population amount.
Measuring Biotic Factors in Ecosystems
Insects/ crawling insects.
Cannot fly

Pit fall trap

Insects that can fly or live in

Sweep Net plant canopies

Insects that can fly or live in

plant canopies
Tree beating

Invertebrates in soil or leaf

litter

Tullgren funnel

Aquatic invertebrates

Kick sampling

Larger organisms that like in

Photo/Camera traps
large areas
Lincoln’s index
Used to estimate populations sizes.

M is the number of individuals caught and marked initially

N is the total number of individuals recaptured
R is the number of marked individuals recaptured.
 2.2
Communities and ecosystems

2.2 Communities and ecosystems

Types of energy
Light energy - Anything that is luminous gives off light energy.
Kinetic energy - due to movement/ motion
Chemical energy - Batteries, foods and fuels store energy which can be produced in a chemical
action.
Heat energy - Above a temperature of ‘absolute zero’ everything has heat energy. (Molecules
vibrate)

The first of thermodynamics

Energy in an isolated system cannot be created or destroyed but can transform from one form to
another.

Biomass is defined as the dry mass or weight of the living organism in the
environment. Measuring biomass helps scientists to understand the energy stored at
each trophic level.

Assimilation is the process through which an organism incorporates nutrients such

as glucose from outside its body to the more complex structures needed inside of
it.
Autotrophs
Self-nourishing organisms called primary producers.
Photoautotrophs fix energy from the sun and store it in complex organic compounds.
Producers = autotrophs Consumers =heterotrophs Decomposers
Organisms that convert Obtain their energy by eating Obtain their food and
sunlight energy into chemical other organisms. nutrients from the breakdown
energy. Manufacture their of dead organic
own food from inorganic matter
substances.

Photosynthesis
Conversion of light energy to chemical energy in the form of glucose, some of which can be
stored as biomass by autotrophs.

The second law of thermodynamics

States that energy transformations in ecosystems are inefficient.
Example: Loss of energy in a food chain due respiration or uneaten (bones, fur,…)
Respiration
The process by which living organisms convert oxygen and glucose into a useful energy form,
generating CO2 and water

Trophic level = Is the position that an organism occupies in a food chain, or a group of
organisms in a community that occupy the same position in food

A food chain = The flow of energy from one organism to the next.

It shows the feeding relationships between species in an ecosystem.

………………………………..

Types of consumers What they eat

Herbivores Eat plants

Predators Kill and eat other organisms

Parasites An organism that lives in or on an organism of
another species
Scavengers Eat dead or decaying animals

Decomposers Eat dead or decaying plants or animals, called detritus

Detritivores Type of decomposer that consumes detritus through internal
digestion
Saprotrophs Type of decomposer that consumes detritus through external
digestion
The 10% rule
Not all the food available to a given trophic level is harvested: of what is harvested, not all is
consumed; of what is consumed, not all is absorbed; of what is absorbed, not all is stored.

Productivity
Conversion of energy into biomass over a given period of time.

Can be measured either:

- joules/m2/week
- g/m2/year
- gC/m2/year

Primary productivity: the gain by producers (autotrophs) in energy or biomass per unit area
per unit time.

Gross vs. net productivity

Gross productivity = total gain in biomass by an organism.

Net productivity = amount of biomass remaining after energy losses due to cellular respiration.
[Total mass – cellular respiration]

Pollution
Pollution is the addition of a substance or an agent to an environment through human activity,
at a rate greater than that at which it can be rendered harmless by the environment, and which
has an appreciable effect on the organisms in the environment.

Pollution can be in the for of organic or inorganic substances and biodegradable or non-
biodegradable.
Biodegradable: don’t persist in the Non-biodegradable: resistant to breaking
environment and breakdown quickly over down and remain active in the environment
time. for a long time
Bioaccumulation and biomagnification
Bioaccumulation
Building up of chemical matter which is absorbed into the individual’s body and not excreted.

If the chemical stays in the ecosystem for a prolonged period of time the concentration
builds up.
……………………….
Biomagnification
The magnification of chemical concentration from trophic level to trophic level.

Toxins – DDT,
Name of toxin What it was Bioaccumulation and
biomagnification issues
DDT Widely used as a pesticide to Biomagnification as apex
control malaria-carrying predators like birds has
mosquitoes. Accumulates in higher concentrations of DDT
living organisms. Caused leading to many health
reproductive issues in birds. implications.
Bioaccumulation in the
organisms which then was
biomagnificated.
Mercury Mercury pollution in Bioaccumulation in aquatic
Minamata Bay due to species which then was
industrial discharges from the biomagnified into humans
Chisso Corporation though fishing.
PCB Chemical used by industries Polar bears and seals,
all over the world as a coolant accumulate PCBs in their
or insulation liquid. bodies, which then due to
bioaccumulation its
concentration increased,
resulting in many health
problems.

Ecological pyramids
Pyramids: graphical models of the quantitative differences between amounts of living material
stored at each trophic level of a food chain.
 Benefits of ecological pyramids
1. Allow easy examination of energy transfers and energy losses.
2. Give an idea of what feeds on what and what organisms exist at the different trophic
levels.
3. They also help to demonstrate that ecosystems are systems that are in balance.

Name of What does it Images

Units Used? Advantages? Disadvantages?
Pyramid describe?
Show how
many
organisms there
A simple and easy All organisms are
are in a habitat
Pyramid of Number per method to give an included regardless of
Number unit area overview of size, often leading to
(products may
population changes inverted pyramids
be less than
the second
trophic level)

Amount of Overcomes some of Organisms must be

Pyramid of Units of mass
biological the problems of the killed to measure the dry
Biomass per unit area
material pyramids of number mass

Units of
Most accurate
Flow of energy energy or Very difficult and
Pyramid of system to show the
through trophic mass per unit complex to collect
Productivity actual energy
levels area per energy data
transferred
period of time
 2.3
Carbon cycle

2.3 Carbon
Biogeochemical cycles
Biogeochemical cycles are a system that consists of stores, sources and sinks of matter. These
cycles ensure that chemical elements continue to be available to living organisms.

Organic = inside a living organism Inorganic = outside a living organism

The carbon cycle

Stores = sinks Flows do not store carbon

Carbon flows – respiration photosynthesis and combustion
Respiration
Glucose + Oxygen → Carbon Dioxide + Water (+ ATP)

Photosynthesis
Carbon Dioxide + Water (+ Light Energy) → Glucose + Oxygen

Combustion
Burning of fuel to release carbon dioxide

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Cycles of key terms

Store An area where carbon A mature forest will act as a
accumulates over time carbon store.
through carbon sequestration
Sink When the carbon inflow to a A young forest will act as a
carbon store is greater than carbon sink.
the outflow.
Source When the carbon outflow is A forest destroyed by fire or
greater than the carbon deforestation.
inflow.

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Fossil fuels
Stores of carbon with unlimited residence times.
They are carbon sinks in past eras and become carbon sources when burned.

Types of fossil fuels

Coal Crude oil Natural gas
Carbon sequestration
Process of capturing gaseous an atmospheric carbon dioxide and storing it in a solid or liquid
form.

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Human impact on the carbon cycle

Examples
1. Burning fossil fuels
2. Deforestation
3. Urbanization
4. Agriculture / farming

How to solve these impacts

1. Low carbon technologies
2. Reduce the use of fossil fuels
3. Carbon capture and sequestration (CCS) ORCA PROJECT
4. Reforestation (≠ deforestation)
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