IB ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS AND SOCIETIES SL

NOTES

2022/23
1. Foundations of Environmental Systems and Societies 1
1.1 EVS 1
1.2 Systems and Models 3
1.3 Energy and Equilibria 3
1.4 Sustainability 4
1.5 Pollution 6
2. Ecology and the Environment 8
2.1 Species and Population 8
2.2 Communities and Ecosystems 10
2.3 Flows, Energy and Matter 14
2.4 Biome, Zonation and Succession 16
2.5 Investigating Ecosystems 19
3. Biodiversity and Conservation 20
3.1 Introduction to Biodiversity 20
3.2 Origins of Biodiversity 20
3.3 Threats to Biodiversity 20
3.4 Conservation of Biodiversity 20
4. Water and Aquatic Food Production Systems and Societies 20
4.1 Introduction to Water Systems 20
4.2 Access to Freshwater 23
4.3 Aquatic Food Production 27
4.4 Water Pollution 31
5. Soil Systems and Terrestrial Food Production Systems and Societies 33
5.1 Introduction to Soil Systems 33
5.2 Terrestrial Food Production Systems 37
5.3 Soil Degradation and Conservation 41
6. Atmospheric Systems and Societies 42
6.1 Introduction to the Atmosphere 42
6.2 Stratospheric Ozone 42
6.3 Photochemical Smog 42
6.4 Acid Deposition 42
7. Climate Change and Energy Production 42
7.1 Energy Choices and Security 42
7.2 Climate Change: Causes and Impacts 42
7.3 Climate Change: Mitigation and Adaptation 42
8. Human Systems and Resource Use 42
8.1 Human Population Dynamics 43
8.2 Resource use in Society 43
8.3 Solid Domestic Waste 43
8.4 Human Population Carrying Capacity 43

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 1. Foundations of Environmental Systems and Societies

1.1 EVS

● Environmental value system (EVS): particular worldview or set of paradigms that shape the way an individual, or
group of people, perceive and evaluates environmental issues
○ An ecocentric viewpoint puts ecology and nature as central to humanity and emphasizes a less
materialistic approach to life with greater self-sufficiency of societies. An ecocentric viewpoint prioritizes
bio rights, emphasizes the importance of education and encourages self-restraint in human behaviour.
○ An anthropocentric viewpoint argues that humans must sustainably manage the global system. This
might be through the use of taxes, environmental regulation and legislation.
○ A technocentric viewpoint argues that technological developments can provide solutions to
environmental problems. Scientific research is encouraged to form policies and understand how systems
can be controlled, manipulated or changed to solve resource depletion.
○ Deep Ecologist: the dominance of biorights and nature
○ Cornucopians: tech is always the answer, limitless possibilities
● Environmentalism: Environmentalism is a movement and ideology that aims to reduce the impact of human
activities on the earth and its various inhabitants.

EVS Inputs EVS Outputs

Economic Influences Perspective

Media and Education Decisions on how to act regarding environmental Issues

Cultural Influences Courses of Action

1.2 Systems and Models

● Systems: an assemblage of parts and the relationship between them, which together constitute an entity or
whole
○ Inputs: flow into system
○ Outputs: flow out of system
○ Processes: which can Transfer matter or energy to another location OR Transform energy or matter into
another state
○ Stores/Storage: where energy and matter are held
○ Flows: movement of energy and matter between stores (basically the two types of the process)

Types of Systems and Models:

● Open system: exchanges matter and energy with its surroundings. Small to middle-size ecosystems are often like
this.
● Closed system: exchanges energy but does not exchange matter with its surroundings. Most global systems are
like this: Carbon, Nitrogen, Hydrological, etc
● Isolated system: neither energy nor matter is exchanged across the boundary of the system

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 ● Model: A model is a simplified version of reality. Models can be used to understand how systems work and
predict how they will respond to change

Strengths Limits

Models allow scientists to simplify complex systems Environmental factors are very complex with many
and use them to predict what will happen if there are interrelated components, and it may be impossible to
changes to inputs, outputs, or storage. take all variables into account.

Models allow inputs to be changed and outcomes Different models may show different effects using the
examined without having to wait a long time, as we same data. For example, models used to predict the
would have to if studying real events effect of climate change can give very different
results.

1.3 Energy and Equilibria

● First law of thermodynamics: states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed: it can only change form
● Second law of thermodynamics: states that energy goes from a concentrated form (e.g. the Sun) into a
dispersed form (ultimately heat): the availability of energy to do work therefore decreases and the system
becomes increasingly disordered.
○ The second law states that the disorder in a system increases over time. Disorder in a system is called
entropy
○ An increase in entropy arising from energy transformations reduces the energy available to do work.
Therefore, as less energy becomes available, disorder (entropy) increases
● Equilibrium is a state of balance that exists between different parts of a system.
○ Open systems tend to have a state of balance among the components of a system, they are in a state of
equilibrium. This means that although there may be slight fluctuations in the system, there are no
sudden changes and the fluctuations tend to be between closely defined limits.
○ Equilibrium allows systems to return to an original state following disturbance.
● Steady-State Equilibrium: condition of an open system in which there are no changes over the longer term, but
in which there may be oscillations in the very short term. Eg the death of canopy trees in the shrub layer, and
homeostatic mechanisms in animals

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● Static Equilibrium: no inputs or outputs of matter or energy and no change in the system over time. Eg Chair or
Table

● Stable Equilibrium: condition of a system in which there is a tendency for it to return to the previous equilibrium
following disturbance

● Unstable Equilibrium: system that does not return to the same equilibrium but forms a new equilibrium

● Tipping point: the minimum amount of change within a system that will destabilize it, causing it to reach a new
equilibrium or stable state eg Amazon rain forest, Antarctic sea ecosystem

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 ● Negative feedback: feedback that counteracts any change away from equilibrium, contributing to stability.
Regulates itself. Eg temperature control, shrub layer of amazon tropical forest
● Positive feedback: occurs when a change in state of a system leads to additional increase change (eg climate
change)

1.4 Sustainability

● Sustainability: use and management of resources that allows full natural replacement of the resources exploited
and full recovery of the ecosystem affected
● Natural capital: term used for resources that can produce a sustainable natural income of goods and services
● Natural income: yield obtained from resources. Services provided by environment
○ Eg regulatory systems: flood prevention, water purification etc
● Environmental Impact Assessments: assess the environmental, social and economic impacts of a developmental
or construction project, predicting and evaluating the possible impacts

EIA Benefits Costs

China 1/8th of countries electricity Relocation of ppl, reduced water

Social increased economic development speed, endangered species, flood 13
along edges and reduced seasonal cities and 140 towns
flooding

No greenhouse gases, less seasonal 47 Endangered species, disruption to

Environmental flooding, less earthquake potential ecosystems eg fish spawning. New
landslides, reduction of sediment in
east China Sea

Stages of an EIA

● Screening and Scoping

● Impact Assessment and Mitigation
● Impact Management
● Creating the Report
● Monitoring

1.5 Pollution

● Pollution: addition of a substance or an agent to an environment by human activity, at a rate greater than that at
which it can be rendered harmless by the environment, and which has an appreciable effect on the organisms
within it

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Types of Pollution:

● Point pollution: source of contaminants that can be represented by a single point on a map, pollution can be
tracked
● Non-Point pollution: refers to more dispersed sources from which pollutants originate
● Primary: active on emission eg gas released from burning coal
● Secondary: arising from primary pollutants undergoing physical or chemical change eg acid rain
● Acute: occurring after a short intense exposure, symptoms experiences within few hours
● Chronic: occurring after a low level long term exposure
● Persistent: cannot be broken down by living organisms and so are passed along food chains
● Biodegradable: not stored in biological matter or passed along food chains
● Bioaccumulation: retention or buildup of non biodegradabe or slowly biodegradable chemicals in the body
● Biomagnification: biological amplification (process whereby concentration of chemicals increases at each
trophic level)

What is DDT?

● DDT: synthetic pesticide with a controversial history (exemplifies conflict between utility of a pollutant and its
effect on the environment)
○ Used during WWII to control lice and spread of malaria. Post-WWII used as an insecticide in farming
○ post WW2 WHO used DDT to eradicate malaria, however, due to extensive use for agricultural purposes
effectiveness decreased (Pakistan Sri Lanka turkey)
● Restrictions: banned due to being a persistent pollutant
● Environmental impacts: Hydrophobic- easily absorbed by soil
● Environmental impacts: Leads to bioaccumulation as it can’t be dissolved in water but is stored in fatty tissue.
● Human Impact: increased cases of asthma and diabetes, higher risk of liver disease and pancreatic cancer

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 2. Ecology and the Environment

2.1 Species and Population

● Species: a group of organisms sharing common characteristics that can interbreed and produce offspring that
also produce young.
○ Limitations: doesn’t classify extinct populations, doesn’t account for asexual organisms
● Habitat: the environment in which a species lives, where an organism can find food, shelter, protection, and
mates.
● Ecosystem: a community of interdependent organisms (biotic) and their interactions with the physical
environment (abiotic) they inhabit.
● Population: a group of individuals of the same species living in the same area at the same time.
● Abiotic: The nonliving, physical factors that influence organisms and ecosystems.
○ Eg. temperature, sunlight, pH, precipitation, soil, landscape/topography.
○ There are upper and lower level limits beyond which a population cannot survive
○ (optimal range → physiological stress → intolerance)
● Biotic: anything that is living and any interactions between the living components.
● Niche: the set of biotic and abiotic conditions and resources that an organism or population responds to (not
just habitat, but how an organism interacts with others). No two species can have the same niche.
○ Fundamental Niche: full range of conditions/resources an organism can survive and reproduce in.
○ Realised Niche: actual conditions a species exists in due to biotic interactions.
■ Different niches can still share the same habitat due to space, behaviour patterns etc
● Limiting Factors: resources in the environment that limit the growth, abundance and distribution of
organisms/populations in an ecosystem.
● Carrying Capacity: maximum number of individuals of a species that the environment can sustainably support in
a given area
● Density-dependent: affect the population only when it reaches a certain density. These include competition,
disease, parasitism and predation - they tend to be the biotic factors. The disease spreads best when there are a
lot of organisms for it to infect.
● Density independent: factors will control populations no matter what their density of it is. They include sunlight,
temperature, water and natural disasters. High density or low density the organisms still need a certain
temperature range or a particular amount of sunlight and water.

Population Curves

● J-Shaped Curve: shows exponential population growth under ideal conditions with plenty of resources and
limited competition.
○ The population continues to grow until environmental resistance takes effect – it could be that the
organisms have used all the resources available.
○ At that point the population will crash. Organisms that follow this type of graph generally show great
fluctuation and a “boom and bust” pattern in population numbers. eg bacteria

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● S-Shaped Curve: more likely when resources are limited - they are limiting factors.
○ Exponential growth is only possible for a short period of time because as the population grows resources
are depleted and the growth rate slows and will eventually plateau off.

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 ● Predation: where one organism (the predator) hunts and kills another (the prey) in order to provide it with the
energy for survival and reproduction.
○ creates a negative feedback loop in which the predator and prey populations are kept in balance

● Herbivory: an interaction where an animal feeds on a plant

Fig 9. Interaction of Herbivory

● Parasitism; a parasite is an organism that benefits at the expense of another (the host)
● Mutualism: symbiosis is a relationship where two organisms live together, when one species is harmed its called
parasitism, when both species gain a benefit its called mutualism
● Competition: the demand by individuals for limited environmental resources
○ within a species: intraspecific competition
○ between different species: interspecific competition
● Disease: departure from the normal state of functioning of any living organism – plant, animal or human.
○ Rapid initial growth, then slowing as carrying capacity is reached, where population fluctuates around K.

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 2.2 Communities and Ecosystems

● A community is a group of populations living and interacting with each other in a common habitat
● An ecosystem is a community and the physical environment it interacts with

● Respiration and photosynthesis can be described as processes with inputs, outputs and transformations of
energy and matter

Process Inputs Outputs Transformations Processes

Photosynthesis Sunlight, CO2, water Glucose + O2 Solar - chemical -

Respiration Organic matter + CO2, H20, released Oxidation inside cells

Oxygen energy from heat Chemical- kinetic
and heat

Respiration

● Respiration is the conversion of organic matter into c02 and water in all living organisms, releasing energy.
● Equation: glucose + oxygen — carbon dioxide + water
● Chemical Equation: 6CO2 + 6H2O 🡪 C6H12O6 + 6O2 (solar energy)
● During respiration large amounts of energy are dissipated as heat, increasing the entropy in the ecosystem while
enabling the organisms to maintain relatively low entropy/high organization
● Primary producers in the majority of ecosystems convert light energy into chemical energy in the process of
photosynthesis

Photosynthesis

● Photosynthesis is the process by which green plants convert light energy from the sun into useable chemical
energy stored in organic matter. Produces the raw material for producing biomass
● Equation: carbon dioxide + water —> glucose + oxygen
● Chemical Equation: C6H12O6 + 6O6 🡪 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy
● Trophic level: position that an organism occupies in a food chain or a group of organisms in a community that
occupy the same position in food chains

Parts of an Ecosystem

● Feeding relationships involve producers, consumers and decomposers. these can be modelled using food chains,
food webs and using ecological pyramids
● Food chains: begin with producers, followed by primary consumers, secondary tertiary etc, decomposers feed at
every level of the food chain

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 ● Producers (autotrophs): are typically plants or algae that produce their own food using photosynthesis and form
the first trophic level in a food chain. exceptions include chemosynthetic organisms which produce food without
sunlight
● Decomposers: Organisms that break down the body parts of dead organisms.
● Consumers: Organisms that cannot make their own food from inorganic matter and must ingest organic matter
from other organisms.
● Pyramids: graphical models showing quantitative differences between trophic levels of an ecosystem
○ Pyramid of numbers: records the number of individuals at each trophic level.
○ Pyramids of biomass: represents biological mass of the standing stock of each trophic level. gm-2 or
units of energy Jm-2. May vary as it specifies to a point in time (seasonal variation eg phytoplankton
varies with light intensity)
○ Pyramids of productivity: show flow of energy through diff trophic levels gm-2yr-1. Indicate rate at
which stock is being generated. Pyramids of productivity for entire ecosystems over a year always show
a decrease along the food chain
● Bioaccumulation is the build-up of persistent / non-biodegradable pollutants within an organism or trophic level
because they cannot be broken down
● Biomagnification is the increase in the concentration of persistent/non-biodegradable pollutants along a food
chain

2.3 Flows, Energy and Matter

● As solar radiation (insolation) enters the earth's atmosphere some energy becomes unavailable for ecosystems
as the energy is absorbed by inorganic matter or reflected back into the atmosphere
● Pathways of radiation through the atmosphere involve a loss of radiation through reflection and absorption

Pathways of energy through an ecosystem include:

○ Conversion of light energy to chemical energy

○ Transfer of chemical energy from one trophic level to another with varying efficiency
○ Overall conversion of ultraviolet and visible light to heat energy by an ecosystem
○ Re-radiation of heat energy to the atmosphere
● The conversion of energy into biomass for a given period is measured as productivity
● Primary Productivity: the gain by producers (autotrophs) in energy or biomass per unit per area per time
● Secondary Productivity: the biomass gained by heterotrophic organisms through feeding and absorption
(measured in units of mass or energy per unit per area per time)
● Gross Productivity: total gain in energy or biomass per unit area per time
● Net Productivity: gain of total energy or biomass per unit area per unit time remaining AFTER allowing for
respiratory losses
● Gross Primary Productivity: the mass of glucose created by photosynthesis per unit area per unit time in
primary producers
○ Equation: Net Primary Productivity + Respiration
● Net primary productivity: gain by producers in energy or biomass per unit area per unit time remaining AFTER
allowing for respiratory losses ®
○ Equation: Gross Primary Productivity- Respiration

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 ● Gross secondary productivity: total energy or biomass assimilated by consumers and is calculated by subtracting
the mass of faecal loss from the mass of food consumed
○ Equation: Food ate- faecal loss
● Net secondary productivity: Gross secondary productivity - respiration
● Maximum sustainable yields are equivalent to the net primary or net secondary producvitity of a system

Carbon Cycle

Key Flows of Carbon Cycle Key Stores of Carbon Cycle

Photosynthesis Fossil Fuels

Cell respiration Forests

Fossilization Atmosphere

Combustion Soil

Decomposition -

Consumption/Feeding -

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Nitrogen Cycle

Key Flows of Nitrogen Cycle Key Stores of Nitrogen Cycle

Nitrogen Fixation Organisms

Lightning Soil

Absorption Water bodies

Assimilation Atmosphere

Consumption -

Excretion -

● Human Activities: burning fossil fuels, deforestation, urbanization, agricultural impact

● Impact of fossil fuel on Energy Flows: increase CO2 levels has caused increase temps, ocean level rises, reduced
amount of sunlight energy reflected etc. Changes in the atmosphere due to pollution have increased
interception of solar radiation
● Impact of deforestation on matter cycle: timber harvesting interferes with nutrient cycling (especially in
rainforests) due to low fertility of soils, nutrients cycle between leaf litter and tree biomass. Rapid
decomposition due to warm conditions and high rainfall mm leads to a quick breakdown of leads (which carries
nutrients), if the trees are cut down, the canopy no longer intercepts rainfall and soil and leaf litter are washed
away along with nutrients.
● Impact of eutrophication on matter cycles: Increased use of fertilizers containing nitrates and phosphates, leads
to a change in the location of nitrogen store and can cause a change to the nitrogen cycle and cause disruption
to an ecosystem

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 2.4 Biome, Zonation and Succession

● Biomes: a collection of ecosystems sharing similar climatic conditions which can be grouped into five major
classes: aquatic, forest, grassland, desert and tundra. Each has limiting factors, characteristics and biodiversity
● Distribution of biomes: mostly impacted by insolation, precipitation and temperature
● Tricellular model of atmospheric circulation: how temperature and precipitation explain the relative
productivity of biomes. Divided into 3 cells:
○ Hadley Cell: controls weather over the tropics: warm/unstable air
○ Ferrel Cell
○ Polar
○ Order: Polar-Tundra-Forest-Grassland-desert-tropical
1. Air warm air rises, cool air condenses, forming large clouds
2. These create thunderstorms (characteristics of rainforests)
3. Pressure on the equator is low as air is rising and cooler air begins to spread out
4. Descending to 30 degrees north and south of the equator
5. Pressure is therefore high (air is descending). Creating the desert biome
6. This Dry air either returns to the equator or travels towards the poles as warm winds
7. Falling 60 degrees south or north (air rises and is less dense, creating an area of low pressure)
8. The air cools and condenses, forming clouds, and precipitation (forest biomes)

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 Biomes Limiting Factors Productivity Biodiversity

Tropical Rainforest - Constant High temps (26) - High productivity - Vines, palms trees,
- High rainfall (over - High plant biodiversity - orchids and ferns
2500mm) High rates of net primary - High diversity of animals
productivity. and plants
- 480 species in a single
hectare
- multilayered meaning
they provide many
different niches

Desert - desert temperatures rise - Low productivity - cacti. small bushes. short
to an average of 38°C - NPP rates are very low grasses
- desert temperatures fall due to low photosynthesis - Vegetation is not sparse
to an average of -3.9°C rates - animals adapted to desert
- About 250 millimetres conditions
(10 inches) of rain per year

Tundra - Temperatures usually - the lowest net primary - Almost no trees due to
range between -40°C (-40 ecosystem of any short growing season and
°F) and 18°C ecosystem, due mainly to permafrost; lichens,
(64°F). the cold and short growing mosses, grasses, sedges,
- 150 to 250 millimetres (6 season, and the infertile shrubs
to 10 inches) of rain per soils. - animals adapted to cold
year. conditions

● Zonation: arrangement or pattern of communities in bands in response to change in some environmental factor
over a distance. Eg changes in ecosystem over mountains as altitude increases.
● Succession: the process of change over time in an ecosystem involving pioneer, intermediate, and climax
communities
○ Sere: change in communities from earliest community to the final community
○ Pioneer community: first seral stage of succession. The first stage of an ecological succession contains
hardy species able to withstand difficult conditions.
○ Climax community: later communities in a sere are more complex, the final stage of seral succession.
More stable and in equilibrium
■ Lithosere: bare rock
■ Hydrosere: freshwater habitat
■ Xerosere: dry habitat eg sand
● Succession occurring on the previously uncolonized substrate is called primary succession
● Secondary succession: occurs in places where a previous community has been destroyed (eg forest fires). Faster
than primary succession because of soil and seed banks
● Happens when species change the habitat they have colonized and make it more suitable for new species. Eg
lichens and mosses are typical pioneer species
● Changes: gross productivity, net productivity, diversity, and mineral cycles change over time as an ecosystem
goes through succession. Greater habitat diversity leads to greater species and genetic diversity

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Early stages:

○ Changes in energy flow GP and NP: gross productivity is low. The low density of producers. The
proportion of energy lost through community respiration is relatively low. Net productivity is high
(ecosystem is growing and biomass accumulating)
○ Changes in diversity: low biomass and few niches
○ Changes in mineral cycling: open system

Later stages:

○ Changes in energy flow GP and NP: Gross productivity is high (increased consumer community).
Balanced because of more respiration.
○ Changes in diversity: Greater complexity, larger plants, complex food webs and chains
○ Changes in mineral cycling: closed systems
● Pioneer: r-strategists
● Climax: k strategists

R-Strategists K-strategists

Initial Colonizers Dominant species

a Large number of few species Diverse range of species

Rapid growth and development Slow development

small large

Short life Long life span

● Plagioclimax: interference of human factors causes interruption to succession/halts the process

2.5 Investigating Ecosystems

● Accuracy: how detailed/specific measurement is

● Reliability: trustworthy readings
● Validity: how far have you measured what you intended to
● Dichotomous key: a tool for identifying where there are two options based on different characteristics at each
step. The outcome of each choice leads to another pair of options. This continues until the organism is identified

Abiotic Factors:

● Marine systems: salinity, pH, temperature, dissolved oxygen.

● Freshwater systems: turbidity, temp, flow velocity
● Terrestrial systems: temp, wind speed, soil moisture, light intensity

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Biotic Factors:

● Abundance: ecological concept referring to the relative representation of a species in a particular ecosystem,
usually measured as a number of individuals found per sample
● Motile Species: Direct Species
● Pitfall traps: beakers or pots buried in the soil which animals walk into and cannot escape from
○ Adv: low effort
○ Lim: high animal death rate
● Light traps: UV bulb against a white sheet attracts certain night flying insects
○ Adv: low effort
○ Lim: ethical concerns/only works for insects
● Small animal traps: often baited, with a door that closes once the animal is inside
○ Adv: effective
○ Lim: ethical concerns

Motile Species: Indirect Species

● Lincoln Index: used to estimate the total population size of a motile animal in the study area.
● Indirect because the formula is used rather than counting organisms
● (N1 Number caught in first sampled and marked x N2 number caught in the second sample) / N3 number caught
in the second sample which was previously marked
● Lim: animals move out of sample area. The density of the population in different areas varies.

Non-motile species: Quadrat Sampling

● Random sampling: used if the same habitat is found throughout the area
● Stratified random sampling: used in two areas different in habitat quality
● Systematic Sampling: used along a transect where there is an environmental gradient (along succession)
● Population density: number of individuals of each species per unit area. Calculated by dividing a total number of
species in all quadrats / by area of one quadrat x total number of quadrats
● Percentage cover: an estimate of the area in a given quadrat covered by the organism (usually a plant). Not
suitable for motile species as they move.
● Percentage frequency: the number of actual occurrences divided by the number of possible occurrences,
expressed as a percentage.
● Species richness: number of species in a community
● Species diversity: number of species and their relative abundance in a given area of a sample
● Simpson’s diversity index: used to calculate diversity

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 3. Biodiversity and Conservation

3.1 Introduction to Biodiversity

● Biodiversity: the variety of all life on earth. It includes genetic diversity, species diversity and habitat diversity.
● More habitats create more ecological niches for organisms to occupy, which results in a wider range of
environmental pressures selecting for beneficial characteristics of a given species.
● Therefore a wider range of varied characteristics caused by genetic diversity within a species is maintained
within a diverse ecosystem.

Species Diversity

● A species is a group of organisms sharing common characteristics that interbreed and produce fertile offspring.
● Species diversity: refers to the variety of species per unit area; it includes both the number of species present
and their relative abundance.
○ The higher the species diversity of a community or ecosystem, the greater the complexity. Areas of high
species diversity are also more likely to be undisturbed (e.g. primary rainforest).
● Species diversity in communities is a product of two variables, the number of species (richness) and their relative
proportions (evenness).
○ Species richness: the number of different species living in an area
○ Species evenness: relative abundance of each species (how they are distributed)
■ High vs Low evenness: A community with high evenness is one that has a similar abundance of
all species – this implies a complex ecosystem where there are lots of different niches that
support a wide range of different species. In contrast, low evenness refers to a community
where one or a few species dominate – this suggests lower complexity and a smaller number of
potential niches, where a few species can dominate.
● Simpson’s Diversity index is used to measure species diversity (using a combination of species richness and
evenness)

Simpson’s Diversity Index:

○ D is the Simpson Diversity Index.

○ N is the total number of organisms of all species found.
○ n is the number of individuals of a particular species.

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Genetic Diversity

● Genetic Diversity: a variety of different types of genes within a species, genetic variation.

Why is it important?

● There is a better chance that some members of the species will be resilient and survive environmental disasters
● Low genetic diversity (often caused by small populations) causes inbreeding which makes the genetic make-up
of the population more uniform. This means that any flaws or disabilities within that population will become
more common.
● Extinction is frequently preceded by a drop in genetic diversity.
● Once lost, genetic diversity is almost impossible to regain.
● Genes are the instructions on how to make organisms; so our food, medicine and biofuels are all coded by
genes. If something we rely on (such as wheat) is struck by disease then genetic diversity increases the chances
of us finding alternatives that are disease free.

Habitat Diversity: Range/quantity of different habitats in an area. Eg marine habitats (coral reefs with high diversity vs
pelagic zones with low diversity)

Improving Habitat diversity leads to:

1. High habitat diversity gives different areas for populations of species to spread into. Separation prompts greater
variations in the gene pools.
2. High habitat diversity gives a wide range of spaces for animals to adapt to and/or move into. This results in
higher species diversity.
3. High genetic diversity increases species adaptability and can lead to speciation and thus higher species diversity.
4. High species diversity of plants so higher habitat diversity

● Quantification of biodiversity is important to conservation efforts so that areas of high biodiversity may be
identified, explored, and appropriate conservation put in place where possible.
● Areas that are high in biodiversity are known as hotspots. They contain large numbers of endemic species
(species not found anywhere else), and so measures of biodiversity are essential in identifying areas that should
be protected against damaging human activities.
○ EG: Tumbes-Chocó-Magdalena, an area that includes the forests of the South American Pacific coast
(from Panama to Peru) and the Galápagos Islands.
● The ability to assess changes to biodiversity in a given community over time is important in assessing the impact
of human activity in the community.

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 3.2 Origins of Biodiversity

● Evolution: cumulative, gradual change in the genetic composition of a species over many successive generations,
ultimately giving rise to species different from the common ancestor
● Speciation: formation of new species when populations of a species become isolated and evolve differently.

Process of Evolution:

1. Within a population of one species, there is genetic diversity, which is called variation.
2. The offspring of fitter individuals may inherit the genes that give them that advantage.
3. Due to natural variation, some individuals will be fitter than others and therefore have a comparative
advantage.
4. Fitter individuals are more likely to survive long enough to reproduce more successfully than individuals who are
less fit.

Darwin’s Evolutionary Theory

○ Species tend to over-reproduce, leading to competition for resources ‘struggle for existence
○ Species variation show variation (all individuals are not alike, they have subtle differences in appearance
or behaviour)
● Conclusions: those best adapted to their surroundings survive, these can then go on to reproduce.
● Variation: caused by genetic diversity: changes in the gene pool of a species arise through mutations (changes in
the genetic code) and sexual reproduction.
○ Genes are sections of DNA found in the nucleus of all cells. They are essentially the instructions from
which a species is produced. Gene pool refers to all the different types of genes found within every
individual of a species.
○ Biological variation: arises randomly and can either be beneficial to, damage to, or have no impact on
the survival of the individual.
○ Beneficial change to the gene pool of a species can lead to increased chances of survival and the ability
to pass on the same genetic advantage to the next generation.
● Darwin called the process natural selection because nature does the choosing, as opposed to artificial selection
(selective breeding), a common practice in which humans choose animals or plants to breed together based on
desirable characteristics.
○ within a population of one species, there is genetic diversity, which is called variation
○ because of natural variation, some individuals will be fitter than others
○ fitter individuals have an advantage and will reproduce more successfully
○ the offspring of fitter individuals inherit the genes that give the advantage; these offspring, therefore,
survive and pass on the genes to subsequent generations.

Evidence for Evolution

● Artificial selection: chosen characteristics that we choose to breed

● Convergent Evolution: where similar structures have evolved independently in different organisms without the
presence of a common ancestor
● Vestigial Structures: These are parts of an animal that no longer serve any purpose but they serve as reminders
of what the organism evolved from

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 ● Biogeographical distribution: when a single species would spread into various niches, adapt to different
conditions and evolve into a new species.
● Fossil Records: shows the changes in organisms over time as the organisms’ structure can be compared to past
and present species thus allowing the construction of a tree of life.

Causes for Evolution

● Mutation: a change in DNA. Evolution is often due to the accumulation of genetic mutation
○ Mutations are totally random and they may or may not manifest themselves in the individual.
○ They may be beneficial, harmful or neutral but they are unconscious. Genes do not mutate to
consciously change the individual – they just are.
○ Mutations can have small and large-scale impacts.
● Natural Selection: gene variation has increased the chances of survival

Geographical Isolation

● Geographical isolation is a physical barrier, such as a mountain range, that causes populations to become
separated.
● Natural Selection requires isolation. Populations must first become separated so that genes cannot be
exchanged between them (this is reproductive isolation). If the environments of the isolated populations are
different, so natural selection will work on each population so that, through evolution, new species are formed
(i.e. speciation occurs).
● Isolation of populations can be caused by environmental changes such as mountain formation, change in river
courses, sea level change, climatic change, or plate movements.

● Temporal isolation: Populations live their lives at different times of the day and so do not meet to breed.
● Behavioural isolation: They have different mating rituals.

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 EXAMPLE 1: SPECIATION IN SPOTTED OWLS

● Populations in North America have been separated through geography, creating two varieties: the northern
spotted owl and the Mexican spotted owl

EXAMPLE 2: CHANGING ADVANTAGE IN BRITISH PEPPERED MOTH BISTON BETULARIA

● 1800s → light variation dominated because they were well camouflaged and predation levels were lower,
birds could see the dark variety more easily so more of them were eaten and fewer survived to reproduce.
● Industrial Revolution → pollution killed the lichens and blackened the tree bark thus camouflaging the darker
variety. The lighter variety then suffered higher predation levels as the birds picked them off and left the dark
ones to reproduce. The balance changed and the darker variety dominated.
● Clean air act in 1956 → air became less polluted the lichens re-established themselves and the trees returned
to their natural lighter colour. This once again favoured the lighter-coloured moth and the balance returned to
pre-industrial revolution levels.

Plate Tectonics

● The surface of the Earth is divided into tectonic plates, which have moved throughout geological time. This has
led to the creation of both physical barriers and land bridges with evolutionary consequences.
● The lithosphere the crust of the earth is divided into eight major and many minor plates. They are carried on the
mantle (asthenosphere) beneath them
○ South African Plate
○ Arabian Plate
○ Iranian Plate
○ Cocos Plate
○ Caribbean Plate
○ Gorda Plate
○ North American Plate
○ Eurasian Plate
○ Philippines Plate
○ Pacific Plate
○ Antarctic Plate
○ Nazca Plate
● The edges of adjacent plates can move parallel to each other/be pushed under one another or collide.
Earthquakes, volcanoes and mountain buildings are due to the movement of boundaries
● The movement and forming/reforming of these plates is known as plate tectonics
● During the Palaeozoic and Mesozoic eras (250mil ago) all land on earth was one supercontinent (Pangea)
● 175mil ago land mass split into two supercontinents: Laurasia (contained North America, Eurasia, and
Greenland). Gondwana contained land that became South America, Africa, Australia and Antarctica
● The distribution of all extinct and current species found in these areas can be explained in terms of their
previous land masses
● The movement of tectonic plates can produce mountain ranges, oceans, and rift valleys (leading to the isolate of
gene pools and the development of unique species) Eg separation of Australia led to distinctive fauna and flora
(kangaroos) → or Madagascar and lemurs

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 ● The formation of land bridges between previously disconnected plates can provide new habitats for species
● The movement of plates through different climatic zones allows new habitats to be utilized
● Plate movement can generate new and diverse habitats, thus promoting biodiversity

Land Development

● Subduction of denser oceanic crust beneath the less dense continental crust. This can lead to new island arcs
(e.g. New Zealand, where the Pacific plate is being subducted under the Indian/ Australian plate), and mountain
areas where magma rises up from under the subduction area causing volcanic action and thickening of the crust
(e.g. the Andes of South America and the Cascade Range of north- western USA).

● Oceanic crust is subducted beneath oceanic crust – as both are the same density, the effect is different from that
in Figure 3.10. Resulting volcanic activity from rising magma causes new islands to form, with new habitats
providing possibilities for speciation. Japan, the Philippines, the Aleutians of Alaska, and the Leeward Islands of
the Caribbean were all created in this way.

● Continental plates colliding. This leads to an increase in

continental plate thickness and eventually to new mountain
ranges (e.g. the Himalayas, where the Indian plate is being
pushed against the large Asian plate). Creation of new habitats at
different altitudes adds to the biodiversity of the region.

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 ● Continental plates moving apart cause rift valleys. Deep lakes
may form in these valleys (e.g. Lake Tanganyika and Lake Victoria
in the East African rift valley and the world’s deepest lake, Lake
Baikal, in Siberia). Given time, new seascmay form – The Red
Sea, which separates Africa and Saudi Arabia, is an example. The
creation of new aquatic habitats drives speciation in these rift
areas. Magma rising from the rift can stick to the separating
plates creating new land (e.g. Iceland, Ascension Island, the
Azores, and Tristan de Cunha in the Atlantic) again creating new
opportunities for species evolution.
● In some areas, hot rock rises from deep in the
mantle and breaks through the oceanic crust. These
hotspots are not caused at plate edges but by
movement of plates over areas where magma rises.
The hotspots can create chains of islands (e.g.
Galápagos Islands and Hawaii). As Darwin found,
the creation of volcanic islands and their
colonization by animals and plants that become
adapted to local conditions can lead to increased
regional diversity.

● Divergent plate margins: plates move apart and this creates opportunities for diversification:
○ Ocean floors spreading throws up huge underwater mountain chains (mid oceanic ridges). As with
mountain chains on the land this creates new habitats and niches that marine life can exploit.
○ Oceanic ridges are associated with hydrothermal activity, which change water temperatures over a wide
area and form the basis for entire food chains based on chemosynthesis.
○ As the Mid Atlantic Ridge developed a shallow section of the ocean allowed volcanic activity to break the
ocean surface to form Iceland.
● Convergent Plate Margins: As plates move together, they create mountains, volcanoes, land bridges and massive
ocean trenches.
● Volcanic activity creates new habitats and niches both on land and in the oceans. Any new land created by
volcanic eruptions is subject to succession as species colonise the area, for example, the southern end of the
Hawaiian island chain consists of a large active volcano, Kilauea. Its most recent eruption started in 1983 and has
added 206 hectares of land to the island, species invade the area and biodiversity increases

Mass Extinctions

● Mass extinction: is a period in which at least 75 per cent of the total number of species on the Earth at the time
are wiped out.

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 ○ The average time between these mass extinctions is around 100 million years. The exception is the gap
between the Permian–Triassic and the End Triassic extinctions, which were approximately 50 million
years apart.
● Background extinction: rate, or normal extinction rate, refers to the number of species that would be expected
to go extinct over a period of time, based on non-anthropogenic (non-human) factors

1. Ordovician-Silurian mass extinction (440 million years ago): At this time the majority of life on Earth was
actually in the oceans so marine organisms were hit hardest by this extinction with over 80% of them being
wiped out. The event lasted some four million years and consisted of two peaks of extinction. The peaks seem to
coincide with the beginning and end of the most severe glaciation, which in turn was caused by a marked dip in
atmospheric carbon dioxide levels.

2. Late Devonian mass extinction (375-360 million years ago): There is a great deal of contention over this mass
extinction. Firstly there is little scientific consensus about this event. Estimates for its duration range from
500,000 to 25 million years and the causes are even less clear. It is agreed that the late Devonian era was a time
of significant environmental change that would have had a big enough impact on life on earth to cause
extinction. What triggered those environmental changes is up for debate. It is agreed that this extinction wiped
out around three-quarters of all species on earth and once again marine life took a hammering. The coral reef
biodiversity took over 100 million years to recover.

3. Permian Mass extinction (250mil years ago): Also called "The Great Dying", this was the biggest extinction event
in Earth’s history destroying around 96% of all species on the planet. Put another way – that means life’s current
biodiversity evolved from the 4% of species that survived! Once again, there is a great deal of contention as to
the causes of this extinction. Some scientists favour catastrophic events such as bolide impacts (meteors that
burn up in the sky), large-scale volcanism or a sudden release of large amounts of methane from the sea floor.
Other scientists propose gradual processes such as sea level changes, falling oxygen levels and increased aridity.

4. Triassic-Jurassic mass extinction (200mil years ago): This is not one of the major events as regards actual
extinction, but very important as regards impacts. In the two or three extinction phases that took place in the
final 18 million years of the Triassic period approximately half of all known species went extinct. This vacated
terrestrial niches and allowed the dinosaurs to take over. Causes for these events are very hard to determine but
favoured explanations include gradual climate change (probably due to volcanic eruptions releasing flood
basalts), sea level fluctuations and asteroid impacts.

5. Cretaceous-Tertiary mass extinction (65mil years ago); The most recent and most famous mass extinction
occurred when an asteroid hit the Yucatan peninsula in Mexico. Not only did it wipe out the dinosaurs, but some
estimates suggest 80% of all life on Earth was made extinct. The key fact here is that many mammals and birds
survived and were able to take over the niches previously occupied by the dinosaurs.

6. Holocene mass extinction: The extent of this extinction is extremely difficult to establish and estimates vary
wildly. Humans are definitely killing off species and many scientists agree we are doing so thousands of times
faster than nature is creating them. The cause of this extinction is not up for debate - it is human activity.

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 3.3 Threats to Biodiversity

● Animals: 7.77 million (12 per cent of which are described)

● Fungi: 0.61 million (7 per cent of which are described)
● Plants: 0.30 million (70 per cent of which are described)
● Other species: 0.07 million.
● Estimates of the total number of species on the planet vary considerably. They are based on mathematical
models, which are influenced by classification issues and lack of finance for scientific research, so many habitats
and groups are significantly under-recorded. Some methods used to measure tot number of species include:
○ Host Specific Species:: **A common method is to intensively count the number of species in one area
and then extrapolate this to a wider area
○ Ratio of temperate and tropical species: Based on fairly extensive knowledge of the number of
temperate species and of the number of mammals and birds in tropical areas. It has been found that the
number of mammals and birds in the tropics is 2-3 times greater than the numbers of these groups in
temperate regions and hence an assumption has been made that this ratio can be applied across all
other groups of species.
○ Taxonomic classification system: This classification system created by Carl Linnaeus (1758) groups
organisms according to observed similarities
● There are unknown species we have yet to identify. There are several other problems with counting the number
of species:
○ Species may be counted more than once
○ Difficult to isolate and count smaller species (eg bacteria)
○ Deep sea creatures are difficult to access
○ Lack of taxonomy expertise to cover all groups of species.
○ Lack of finances to fully fund identification of all species.
○ Coordination is required across the globe to create one unique species inventory.

Human Impact on Biodiversity

● Population growth: leads to increased demand for resources which leads to factors described below:
○ Over-exploitation of resources: resources need to be used sustainably, as they need time to regenerate,
the over-consumption/hunting/harvesting may lead to species loss (as seen with overfishing) →
Newfoundland had an incredibly productive fishery, however, the stocks became exhausted and
collapsed.
○ Habitat fragmentation, degradation & loss: with the latest tech developments, farming has become
more abrasive and intensive, the mechanisation has led to habitat loss, with previously unfarmed areas
being now used for crops. In less developed areas, soil can become infertile due to constant plantation
and harvesting of crops (loses nutrients and degrades over time)
○ Invasive species: can very easily dissipate endemic species
○ Pollution: aquatic pollution can occur due to industrial discharge, sewage disposal and agricultural
run-off, degrading habitats and decreasing species diversity. Disposal of debris on land (eg plastics) can
get. tangled up in birds/turtles and harm them, they can also ingest it and cause stomach issues.
Atmospheric pollution can occur from car use and change local species such as linen, other species may

26
 also be intolerant to air pollution causing them to decrease in pop/go extinct. Acid rain (caused by the
burning of fossil fuels) can also destroy habitats
○ Climate Change: the increase in greenhouse gases has caused increased global temps and changes in
climatic patterns, some species may not be able to adapt and migrate/ die. Up to 30% of plants and
animals are at risk from extinction as a consequence of climate change.

IUCN RED LIST

● The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List aims: “to provide information and analysis on
the status, trends and threats to species in order to inform and catalyse action for biodiversity conservation.”
● The list uses a range of factors to evaluate the level of threat of each species
● Criteria used to evaluate threat:
○ Population size (number of mature individuals): those with an ability to reproduce, if there are less
mature species they are less chances of reproduction, hence increasing chances of extinction
○ Population size reductions: loss of individuals within the population is calculated for a period of 10 years
or three generations of the species, greater the rate of decline in population size, the higher the risk that
the species will become extinct.
○ Area of occupancy is where the species can normally be found, is there is a lesser extent species are
more likely to be threatened
○ Number of locations: number of location where species are found, issue is most acute in islands with
high endemic species
○ Extent of habitat fragmentation: Fragmentation of habitats often occur through human activities such
as urban development and roads. Depending on the level of fragmentation sub-populations may
become isolated and not have the critical numbers of mature individuals to successfully breed.
○ Quality of Habitat: Organisms are dependent on their habitat for food and water. Hence the quality of
habitat contributes to the survival and success of a species. Decline in habitat quality = decline in
available food.
○ Probability of extinction: the predicted likelihood of all the populations of the species in the wild dying
out in the future.
○ Degree of specialisation: for example, species with a very restricted diet. This includes pandas who are
reliant on bamboo and therefore are more vulnerable than species that depend on a wider range of
foods.
○ Their trophic level: for example, organisms high up in a food chain may be exposed to higher levels of
pollutants due to the process of bio-magnification and bio-accumulation.

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CRITICALLY ENDANGERED SPECIES: HAWKSBILL TURTLE

● Resides in tropical oceans, predominately within coral reefs although its habitat varies according to its stage in
its lifecycle. Eggs are incubated and hatch on sandy beaches.
● The Hawksbill Turtle is omnivorous eating algae, sponges, mollusc, crustaceans and fish. The turtle is in high
demand for cultural/social reasons. They are used in traditional medicines and the shell is used in religious
ceremonies/ made into jewelry and ornaments, as a symbol of wealth and social status. Presence of the
Hawksbill Turtle is also a key tourist attraction generating income.
● Reasons for Decline in Population
○ Reduced nesting sites due to coastal development leading to loss of sandy beach and habitation by
humans.
○ Loss of feeding habitats, loss of corals reef ecosystems due to pollution such as suspended solids
blocking light penetration.
○ Pollution, such as ingestion of plastic debris resulting in blockage of digestive system and
subsequent death.
○ The increase in temperature of nesting sites beyond tolerance levels for successful incubation or
beach erosion caused by increase storm conditions.
○ Accidental capture in fishing nets.

EXTINCT SPECIES: DODO

● It was endemic on the island of Mauritius in the Indian Ocean, feeding on fruits and seeds from its forest
habitat. Numbers of Dodos were high due to the lack of natural predators.
● By the start of the 17th century, the Dodo had become rare and the last Dodo was observed in 1681.

Factors contributing to the extinction of the Dodo included:

● Hunting of the bird by humans for meat.

● Introduction of animals to the island by humans, such as dogs, monkeys, pigs, and rats, which attacked the
nests and ate the eggs and chicks.
● Human exploitation of forest resources, destroying the forest habitat.

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 IMPROVED CONSERVATION STATUS: LEAR’S MACAW

● The two known colonies of Lear’s MaCaw are located in Toca Velha and Serra Branca, in Brazil.
● They eat Licuri palm nuts, flowers and maize. They typically nest in sandstone cliffs. Threats include:
○ Capture of parrots for the pet trade.
○ Reduction of Licuri palms (Syagrus coronate) and change to a grassland habitat.
○ Grazing of its habitat by livestock leading to degradation.

Action taken involved:

● Surveillance and monitoring the birds habitat, especially foraging and nesting sites.
● Enforcing legislation resulting in the arrest of poachers, smugglers, collectors together with confiscation of all
birds found.
● Planting Licuri palms and protecting them from livestock grazing and trampling.
● Monitoring the health of the species and studying their natural history.
● Education and awareness programme.
● Working with local people and compensating farmers for crop losses.
○ Future plans: under consideration include breeding in captivity and re-introduction of the parrot into
its natural habitat. The numbers of Lear’s MaCaw in the wild improved from 70 birds in 1987 to more
than 1,100 in 2010

Biological Hotspots

● British environmentalist Norman Myers, proposed the concept of biological hotspots which was then adopted by
Conservation International.
● The two key elements to the concept are that these sites must have a high level of endemic species and also be
under threat.
● Conservation International now uses the following two criteria, both of which must be met for a site to be
designated as a biological hotspot:
1. It must have at least 1,500 vascular plants as endemics — which is to say, it must have a high percentage
of plant life found nowhere else on the planet. A hotspot, in other words, is irreplaceable.
2. It must have 30% or less of its original natural vegetation. In other words, it must be threatened.
● Identification of biological hotspots allows conservation efforts to be focused in areas where it can protect the
highest numbers of species. There are 34-35 global biodiversity hotspots, mostly located in the tropical
rainforest.

Tropical Rainforest: Biome

● Tropical biomes contain some of the most globally

biodiverse areas and their unsustainable exploitation results
in massive losses in biodiversity and their ability to perform
globally important ecological services.
● Rainforest biomes cover roughly 6% of the land surface and
are the richest and diverse biomes.

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 ○ The largest regions of tropical rainforest are located in the Amazon basin, Congo basin and Indo-Malay
region
● TRFs have high levels of productivity & more than 50% of the world’s species, they are also some of the oldest
biomes (therefore it’s climax community is stable)
● The nutrient cycles are short. Nutrient levels in the soil are low as nutrients are easily leached out by the
continual rain.
● Nutrients are mostly held within the biomass, especially the root mats. Therefore, the removal of trees can
cause nutrient levels within the ecosystem to decline rapidly.

PAPUA NEW GUINEA

Papua New Guinea is home to one of the world's largest expanses of tropical rainforest. Today, this biological hotspot
is under threat from:

● Commercial logging
● Mining activity
● Agriculture
● Population growth

Like many less economically developed countries (LEDCs) Papua New Guinea has welcomed multinational logging and
mining companies, in exchange for economic growth. Some people believe that habitat degradation or habitat loss is a
price worth paying for development. However, there have been cases where:

● Enforcement of legislation against illegal logging activities has been weak.

● Situations in which permits for logging have been gained under suspicious circumstances, with allegations of
corruption against politicians and others in authority.

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 EVS ARGUMENT FOR REASONS

Ecocentric Preserve Resources Importance of intrinsic value of

environment and species. Bio rights
of all species and habitats. Minimum
disturbance and use of ecosystems.

Anthropocentric Sustainable Development People should manage resources

sustainably with the concept of
sustainable development central to
all activities. Policies and regulations
should be used to manage natural
resources and restrict environmental
damage. Economic and educational
tools should be used to encourage
sustainable development. Problems
should be solved through community
participation.

Technocentric Exploitation of Resources All natural resources can be

justifiably used for human benefit.
Human ingenuity and technological
developments will find solutions to
any future environmental problem.
Any deficits can be overcome with
substitutes. The exploitation of
resources should only be limited by
scientific, and technological
developments or by the economic
cost.

3.4 Conservation of Biodiversity

● Arguments about species and habitat preservation can be based on aesthetic, ecological, economic, ethical and
social justification
● Reasons given for conservation will vary depending on the EVS
○ Deep ecologist with an ecocentric view would argue that it is our moral duty to conserve biodiversity
and that every species has biorights, the right to exist.
○ Cornucopians with a technocentric view would argue that exploitation and loss of biodiversity is
acceptable and that human ingenuity will help replace any lost resources.
○ Environmental managers with an anthropocentric view would consider the ecological environment,
economic and social aspects with the aim of achieving sustainable development.
● Reasons to Conserve Biodiversity
○ Utilitarian value is where there is an economic value associated with the use of resources.
Non-utilitarian value is when use does not have any economic value.
○ Aesthetic Reasons: species and habitats are pleasant to look at and provide beauty and inspiration
○ Ecological Reasons: Concerned with ecosystems and their functioning. Rare habitats should be
conserved as they may contain endemic species that require specific habitats. Higher levels of

31
 biodiversity in a habitat also indicate they may be more stable and more likely to survive in the future.
Healthy Ecosystems are more likely to provide utilitarian value (services for population etc)
■ Utilitarian: Ecological services, such as carbon sink, production of oxygen, water filtration, waste
assimilation, nutrient recycling, flood control. This value is estimated to be US$16-54 trillion per
year.
■ Non-Utilitarian: Intrinsic value, the right of a species to exist (biorights), an ethical based reason
also supported by deep ecologist.
■ Non-Utilitarian: Existence value, knowing the species exist. For example, many of us may never
visit the Amazon rainforest but we gain satisfaction from knowing it exists.
○ Economic Reasons: species and habitats provide financial income, (they should be mantained to keep
genetic diversity, so that genetic resources will be available in the future). There may also be commercial
uses (eg new medicine). Ecotourism is also successful in high diversity habitats since they are attractive
to visit (eg galapagus island)
○ Ethical Reasons: Very broad and often include intrisic vaue of species → everypne has a responsability
to protect resoures for future generations. Ethical reasons also include the idea that every species has a
right to survive
○ Social Reasons: Many ecosystems around the world provide places to çive for indegneous communities.
Loss of habitat would also mean loss of shelter, source of livelihood & culture. In addition, many areas of
great biodiversity provide an income for local people such as wildlife protection. It is more difficult to
give value to ecosystem services than it is to resources such as timber, although this does not mean that
these are not equally worth preserving.

Responsibility

● International, governmental and non-governmental organisations (NGOs) are involved in conserving and
restoring ecosystems and biodiversity, with varying levels of effectiveness due to their use of media, speed of
respose, diplomatic constraints, financial resources and political influence.
● NGOs: Non-governmental organisations (NGOs) are non-profit, voluntary organisations usually funded by
charitable donations and membership fees. EG WWF, Birdlife International, Greenpeace and Friends of the
Earth.
● IGOs: Intergovernmental organisations (IGOs) consist of members from different countries. They are funded by
its members, such as the United Nations (UN).
● Similarities Include
○ Use of media: both provide environmental information to the public on global trends, publishing official
scientific documents and technical reports gathering data from a variety of sources
○ Public Images: both lead and encourage partnership between nations and organisations to conserve and
restore ecosystems and biodiversity
○ Legislation: both seek to ensure that decisions are applied
○ Agenda: both collaborate in global, transnational scientific research projects, both provde forums for
discussions
○ Geographical Influence. IGOs monitor regional and global trends, NGOs also monitor species and
conservation areas at a variet of levels from local to global

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International Cooperation

● Recent international conventions on biodiversity aim to create collaboration between nations for biodiversity
conservation
● The IUCN (World Conservation Union) was founded in 1948. It is concerned with the importance of
conservation of resources for sustainable economic development → it
○ 1980→ World Conservation Strategy (WCS) along with the UNEP and WWF. It has outlined a series of
global priorities for action and recommended that each country prepare its own national strategy as a
developing plan that would take into account the conservation of natural resources for long-term
welfare. It also drew attention to the importance of making the users of natural resources become their
guardians. It stressed that local community support is crucial and those wqhose lives are most
dependent on said resources must manage them correctly. It consisted of three factors:
■ Mantaining essential life support systems (climate, water cycle, soils) and ecological processes
■ Preserving genetic diversity
■ Using species and ecosystems in a sustainable way
○ 1991→ Updated version of WCS: Caring for the earth, a strategy launched in 65 countries, stating the
benefits of sustainable use of natural resources, and the benefits of sharing resources more equally
among the world population
● Some environmental problems are global, so it makes sense that international cooperation is used in addressing
them. International agreements can help to motivate governments to take action and honour their
commitments (e.g. to cut carbon dioxide emissions – such action was taken to establish the Kyoto Protocol, page
390).

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 ● UNEP (United Nations Environment Program) has the resources to mobilize and coordinate action (e.g.
environmental research) when individual nations, especially LEDCs, might not have access to funds or expertise.
When problems cross borders (e.g. smuggling endangered species), international cooperation is vital
● On the other hand, problems are often local, so local people should be involved in providing a local solution. This
is recognized by the WCS. The motivation for addressing problems often starts at local level, when individuals
feel passionately about an issue. Issues such as recycling and landfill are local ones, so a global strategy would be
bureaucratic, and inappropriate.
● Global summits and the conventions that come out of them have shaped attitudes towards sustainability. The
UN Conference on Human Environment (Stockholm, 1972) was the first meeting of the international
community to consider global environment and development needs . Summits play a pivotal role in setting
targets and shaping action at both an international and local level.
● The 2000 UN Millennium Summit agreed a set of Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). However, should
countries break these agreements, there is little the international community can do about it, unless they are
legally binding. Even when conventions do not achieve their initial goals, they may act as a catalyst in changing
the attitudes of governments, organizations, and individuals.

Habitat-Based Conservation: Protected Areas

● Most countries have large areas of land that have been cleared of native habitat for development purposes (e.g.
cities). The remaining areas of native habitat can be made into protected areas.
● Protected areas are often isolated and in danger of becoming islands within areas of disturbance, such as
cleared land. When protected areas become islands, they lose some of their diversity due to increased edge
effects (the impact of changed environmental conditions at the edge of the reserves) and localized extinctions.
● ‘Island biogeography’ theory was developed in the 1960s by Robert MacArthur and Edward Wilson. They
showed that smaller conservation areas contain comparatively fewer species and lower diversity than larger
areas. Ever since, reserve designers have been using these ideas to ensure maximum preservation of species
within conservation areas.
● Well-designed protected areas: Are large because this promotes large population sizes and high biodiversity;
enables protection of large vertebrates/top carnivores; reduces perimeter relative to area, so edge effects and
disturbance are minimized. Are unfragmented and connected to other reserves (by corridors) to allow
movement and migration between reserves. Do not have roads that can act as barriers to migration and increase
disturbance and edge effects.
● Area: SLOSS (single large or several small?): Area will much depend on the location of the habitat → if the
habitats to be preserved are not all close together, then several smaller ones may be more adequate. Bigger in
generally better because on large area can support more species than several smaller ones. The best indicator of
species survivor and success of the reserve’s area is the population size of individual species.
● Buffer Zone: areas around conservation zones. They contain habitats that may either be managed on
undisturbed (theese areas minimize disturbance from outside infleucnes such as agriculture, people and
invasion of pests and disease. Most successful protected areas are surrounded by buffer zones
● Community support: adequate funding and proper research increases the chance of success for conservation
efforts.
● Edge Effects: at the edge of the protected area there is a change of abiotic factors (eg more wind /less or mor
ehumid conditions) etc. Edge effects may attract other species, leading to competition with protected species
and a reduction in diversity

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 ● Shape: The best shape is a circle as it has the lowest edge effects, long thin reserves have large edge effects. The
shape is determined by what is available and where the habitats to be conserved are located, parks tend to be
irregularly shaped
● Corridors: strips of land within parks connection two protected areas

Advantages of Corridors Disadvantages of Corridors

allowing gene flow by immigration and/or emigration some species may breed outside the protected area
rather than in it leading to reduction in numbers (this is
called ‘outbreeding depression’)

- allowing seasonal movements corridors may be narrow (30–200 m wide) – this means a
big increase in edge conditions rendering the corridors
unsuitable for the dispersal of species from the centre of
reserves, which normally avoid edge habitat

- having fewer or no roads as these can act as a barrier to invasion of exotic pests or disease from connected
some species. reserves

- reducing collisions between cars and animals poachers can easily move from one reserve to another

Species Conservation

● In-Situ Conservation: conservation of species in their natural habitat (not only are the animals protected, but
the habitat and its resources). Works within the boundaries of conservation areas of natural reserves
● Ex Situ Conservation: preservation of species outside their natural habitats. This usually takes place in botanic
gardens and zoos, which carry out captive breeding and reintroduction programmes. Focuses on specific
individuals (usually animals) that are vulnerable. The aim is to attract interest in the conservation and therefore
funding and public pressure for conservation.
● Habitats Approach: Focus on habitats protects all species, not just the most charismatic flagships. Generally In
Situ conservation: on site

Species-Based Conservation Strategies

1) CITES: Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species

● Established in 1973 is is an international agreement aimed at regulating trade in nedangered species
● The trade of species is worth billions of dollars yearly and can seriously reduce wild populations and
cause extinction.
● CITIEs aims to ensure that international trade of wild species doesn’t threaten wild species survival.
● It provides varying drgreees of proyecyion to 35k species
● Species under threat from enxtcintion are classified under APPENDIX I → Commercial trade in
wild-caught specimens of these species is illegal (permitted only in exceptional licensed circumstances
● ‘Appendix II’. CITES aims to ensure that trade of Appendix II species remains sustainable and does not
endanger wild populations, so as to safeguard these species for the future.

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 ● Countries who sign up are agreeing to monitor trade in threatened species and their products that are
exported and imported. Illegal imports and exports can result in seizures, fines and imprisonment, which
discourages illegal trade.
● It is a voluntary membership → import/export/introduction of specimens or species covered by CITEs
must be authorized through a licensing system and permits are necessary
● Limitations: voluntary meaning countries can enter reservations of species when they join and penalties
may not match seriousness of the crime. In addition, unlike other international agreements CITES lacks
its own financial support for national implementation and memeber states must contribute their own
resources.
● CITES has been responsible for ensuring that the international trade in wild animals and plants remains
sustainable (Appendix II species), and for protecting species at risk of extinction (Appendix I).
● CITES in numbers:
○ 180: the number of countries (‘contracted parties’) signed up to the agreement
○ 5500: the number of listed animals
○ 29 500: the number of listed plants
○ 35 000: the number of listed species.
2) Captive Breeding & Zoos
● Zoos have become increasingly focused on conservation and many now lead the way in the preservation
of species threatened with extinction. In prioritizing species for conservation, zoos have to answer many
crucial questions.
○ How to choose what to conserve:
○ In Site vs Ex Situ: size of animal, if habitat loss is occuring (e.g. Livingstone fruit bat – where 90
per cent of the habitat was lost due to cyclone damage), if disease has occurred, if zoo has
physical and financial capacity to take on this species, if community is willing to help, is species is
attractuve to public (eg lemurs and tigers) to bring in visitors and provide funds.
○ Is Intervention Helping: usefulness of intervention is tracked to study whether numbers are
improving in the wild. Local expertise can assess whether the conservation effort is effective
(e.g. in February 2015, a giant panda census was carried out in China, indicating that populations
had grown by 268 to a total of 1864 since the last survey in 2003).
● How are the Populations Managed?
○ Ex-Situ species must have their welfare taken into account to not place species under
unecessary stress. The zoo should consider the five freedoms (established in ´65 and
modernized zoo standards)
■ Freedom from thirst, hunger, and malnutrition through ready access to fresh water and
a diet to maintain full health and vigour.
■ Freedom from thermal and physical discomfort by providing an appropriate shelter and
a comfortable resting area.
■ Freedom from pain, injury, and disease by prevention or rapid diagnosis and treatment.
■ Freedom to express normal behaviour by providing sufficient space, proper facilities,
and company of the animal’s own kind.
■ Freedom from fear and distress by ensuring conditions and treatment avoid mental
suffering.

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 Advantages Disadvantages

Educating public about conservation and providing Some animals have problems re-adapting to the wild and
empathy with wildlife may becone easy prey for others

Increased genetic diversity (genetic monitoring) Not all species breed easily in captivity (eg pandas).

Increased genetic diversity (genetic monitoring) People may normalize zoos and prevent animals from
being moved to their natural habitat

May be educational and provide a close-by research Habitats in zoos are very different from natural habitats,
opportunity for related fields (marine biology eg) especially for animals that have complex interactions with
their environment such as orang-utans.

How are Breeding Programs Managed

For effective conservation and re-establishment of species in the wild, breeding programmes can be used. To be
effective, details of the species’ natural breeding behaviour must be known.

● Is it acceptable to choose the mate? Do you allow mate choice?

● The zoo may want to look at genes and the genetic compatibility of mates so as to avoid inbreeding. Leaving it to
chance may lead to an animal choosing an unsuitable partner.
● Is artificial insemination a possibility? This will get round the problem of shipping in a mate.
● Birth control may be needed as the zoo may not want to have animals breeding (if zoo capacity is full).
● Keeper intervention may be needed – females sometimes reject young.
● Latest knowledge of reproductive biology and genetics is needed. Research is used (e.g. DNA testing by
establishing parentage within a population).
● Correct enclosure design and enrichment schemes mean that a species is more likely to breed.

CONSERVATION AREA: Malasyian, Borneo: Danum Valley Conservation Area

● The Danum Valley Conservation Area (DVCA) is a protected area located in the Malaysian state of Sabah on
the island of Borneo, at latitude 5° North. The DVCA and surrounding areas is a model of how effective
conservation can be matched with local economic needs.
● In north-eastern Borneo, the third largest island in the world, a large area of commercial forest is owned by
the Sabah Foundation. The Yayasan Sabah Forest Management Area (YSFMA) is an extensive area of
commercial hardwood forest containing within it protected areas of undisturbed forest, areas that are being
rehabilitated with ‘enrichment planting’ (adding seedlings to heavily disturbed logged forest), and areas of
commercial softwood forestry.
● Research of the primary rainforest within the DVCA has established the biological importance of the native
forest and acted as a focus for conservation in the region. DVCA covers 43800 hectares, comprising almost
entirely lowland dipterocarp forest (dipterocarps are valuable hardwood trees). The DVCA is the largest
expanse of pristine forest of this type remaining in Sabah.

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● The establishment of research between Sabah and the Royal Society in the UK has created local awarness for
the value and need for conservation of the area.
● Danum Valley is controlled by a management whom represent all relevant local institutions .
● Two other conservation areas (Maliau Basin and Imbak Canyon) are connected to Borneo through corridors.
● The east of DVCA is the 30000 hectare Innoprise-FACE Foundation Rainforest Rehabilitation Project
(INFAPRO), one of the largest forest rehabilitation projects in South East Asia, which is replanting areas of
heavily disturbed logged forest. The Innoprise–IKEA project (INIKEA) to the west of DVCA, is a similar
rehabilitation project.
● This project has widely increased the value of the area and created a flow of species between the areas which
has contributed towards their survival such as the Sumatran Rhino and the orang-utan and Borneo Elephant
● In the late 1990s a hotel was built on the North Eastern edge of the DVCA, leading to ecoutourism and
increased revenue fot the area, as well as international awarness of the area and the importance of its
reserach and conservation center.
● Such projects require significant funding which has come from Yayasan Sabah (a state foundation funded by
the Sabah Government and Federal Government of Malaysia) and companies such as the the Royal Society,
and others. The now high international profile of the Danum Valley, and key research over a long period of
time, have helped establish the area as one of the most important conservation areas in the region, if not the
world.

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COMMUNITY SUPPORT

● The Danum Valley Field Centre is managed and maintained by a large staff of local people. Many are from the
nearest town (Lahad Datu) or from east-coast kampongs (villages) such as Kampong Kinabatangan.
● The field centre and surrounding conservation area provides opportunities for employment, education, and
training. Support from the local community in running the various facilities on site (e.g. field centre office,
accommodation, research support, and education centre) and in local towns, and much interest from nature
groups in schools, have been important to the success of the project. Danum Valley does have some
limitations:
● Oil palm plantations are being grown near to the northern border of the DVCA. This could affect the
ecotourism potential of Danum Valley as tourists do not want to see agricultural areas so close to a protected
area. The presence of people so near to the conservation area may also lead to increased poaching activity or
illegal logging activity.
● The funding that supports the DVCA has been raised by logging and conversion of land once covered by
rainforest to forest plantation. Some conservationists may see a conflict between the activities that have
provided revenue for the DVCA and the aims of a protected area.
● The DVCA and surrounding area is currently designated a conservation area, but a change of leadership within
those involved with the DVCA could see this designation changed. The establishment of the DVCA as a World
Heritage Site would give international protection to the DVCA and ensure its long-lasting protection.
● Overall, however, the impacts of the DVCA have been overwhelmingly positive. In June 2013, the Sabah state
Assembly reclassified several forests as protected areas in the YSFMA, creating an unbroken stretch of
continuous unbroken forest, including Maliau Basin, Imbak Canyon, and Danum Valley. This created the single
largest protected area in Malaysia, covering nearly 500000 hectares

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 4. Water and Aquatic Food Production Systems and Societies

4.1 Introduction to Water Systems

● 70% of Earth's surface is covered by water

● 2.6% of water on Earth is freshwater
● 68.7% in glaciers + ice caps, 30.1% groundwater, surface water (lakes, rivers) 0.3% 97% is saltwater

● The global hydrological cycle refers to the movement of water between atmosphere, lithosphere , biosphere
and pedosphere.
● Solar radiation drives the hydrological cycle
● Storages in the hydrological cycle include organisms, soil water and the atmosphere, and various water bodies
such as oceans, groundwater (aquifers), lakes, rivers, glaciers, and ice caps
● Flows in the hydrological cycle include evapotranspiration (EVT), sublimation, evaporation, condensation,
advection (windblown movement), precipitation, melting, freezing, flooding, surface run-off, infiltration,
percolation, and stream-flow/ currents.

Human impacts on Hydrological Cycle

○ Agriculture: irrigation can reduce the earth’s albedo by as much as 10%, large scale irrigation has been
linked with increased rainfall, tornadoes and hail storms. Evaporation rates can increase.
○ Deforestation: Lower interception rate of mature forests, increased overland-run off beneath mature
forest, lower infiltration rate beneath forests, shallower soils beneath a cover of trees
○ Urbanization: increase in impermeable structures means no more overland run-off, temperatures are
higher increasing evaporation and flash floods may occur due to rapid run-off, little absorption and lack
of storage
■ Withdrawals (domestic use)
■ Discharge ( pollutants to water)
■ Changing speed of water flow and where it flows (canals, dams)

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 ■ Diverting river sections to avoid flood damage
● Ocean circulation systems are driven by differences in temperature and salinity that affect water density. the
resulting difference in water density drives the ocean conveyor belt which distributes heat around the world, so
affecting climate
● Ocean Currents: movements of water horizontally and vertically.
○ Surface currents are called Gyres and are moved by wind
○ Deep water currents: cause the oceanic conveyor belt
■ Due to differences in water density caused by salt and temperature
■ Warm water holds less salt and is less dense so it rises
■ Cold water holds more salt and sinks because it is denser
■ When warm water rises, cold water uasto come up to replace it (upwellings)
■ When cold water rises, it has to be replaced by warm water (downwellings)
■ In this way, water circulates.

4.2 Access to Freshwater

● Access to an adequate supply of freshwater varied widely

● Climate change may disrupt rainfall patterns and further affect access to fresh water
● As population, irrigation and industrialization increase, the demand for fresh water increases
● Freshwater supplies may become limited through contamination and unsustainable extraction

Ways to increase freshwater supply:

● Reservoir: a large natural or artificial lake used as a source of water supply.

○ Advantages: helps flood control and can be used all year round
○ Disadvantages: costly to build and maintain, may damage habitats of local wildlife
● Aquifer: The saturated area beneath the water table is called an aquifer, and aquifers are huge storehouses of
water.
○ Advantages: naturally filter groundwaters, provides 99% of our groundwater
○ Disadvantages: may not remove all of our contaminants (aquifers)
● Desalination is a process that takes away mineral components from saline water. More generally, desalination
refers to the removal of salts and minerals from a target substance, as in soil desalination, which is an issue for
agriculture.
○ Advantages: Removes harmful metals, chemicals and bacteria, provides accessible drinking water,
quality and habitat protection
○ Disadvantages: High-costs to build and operate, environmental impact, Creates pollution, The return in
minimal
● Rainwater harvesting: is collection and storage of rainwater that runs off from rooftops, parks, roads, open
grounds, etc. This water runoff can be either stored or recharged into the groundwater.
○ Advantages: Protects watershed, Reduces carbon footprint, Cheap alternative to others, No pollution,
accessible method to all
○ Disadvantages: Regular maintenance required, some technical skills for installation, limited rainfall can
limit the supply of rainwater

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● Grey-water recycling: system uses water primarily from showers and bathtubs. It can also capture water from
the bathroom or wastewater from the utility sink and washing machine.
○ Advantages: Reduced freshwater extraction from rivers and aquifers, less impact from wastewater
treatment plant infrastructure, reduced energy use and chemical pollution from treatments,
replenishment of groundwater
○ Disadvantages: Must prevent inappropriate substance going down drains, health risks, dual plumbing is
required to accommodate reuse and source separation

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 CASE STUDY: Nile

● Eleven African countries are in it and 280 million people live there.
● Only major river that flows south to north
● One of the river’s tributaries, the Blue Nile starts off in Lake Tana in Ethiopia and converges the White Nile in
Sudan’s capital Khartoum.
● From there the Nile flows downstream to Egypt.
● There are several dams along the way, including Egypt’ cs Aswan dam.

Causes:

● Dam being built in Ethiopia which will be the most powerful dam in Africa
● However, Egypt says its supply of water is drying up
● The dams official name is the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam
● Cover almost 1700sq km
○ Largest government project
○ Cost around 5 billion
● Ethiopia is building its power plant upstream right here on the border with Sudan. This dam is supposed to
revive Ethiopia’s economy. It’ll provide electricity to millions of Ethiopians.
● And that’s big because right now more than two-thirds of the population aren’t connected to the grid. That’s
about 75 million people.
● Over several years it will produce 6,000 megawatts. Ethiopia's current generating capacity is only 4,000
megawatts.
● So this dam is also going to generate more power for Ethiopia than it needs meaning it can export electricity.

Impacts

● The Nile has been at the centre of Egyptian life for millenia.
● An entire ancient civilisation was built around it and relied on the river for transport and irrigation.
● The country relies on the Nile for almost all of its water.
● It’s a rain-starved, largely desert country.
● Military conflict: “Last year, Ethiopia accused Egypt of sending rebels to neighbouring Eritrea to sabotage the
dam, prompting another Nile-sharing country Sudan, to send its troops to its border.”
● In 2018 the operating manager of the Ethiopian dam Simegnew Bekele, was found dead.
● It's Egypt's concern that if it moves into It's Egypt's concern that if it moves into then it will be left short of water
resources and also its control over the situation will be massively reduced.

Solutions:

● Egypt is Sudan’s political ally but the government supports the Renaissance dam because it’ll be a source of
affordable energy and it will help regulate flooding. The good news is that Egypt, Ethiopia and Sudan are in talks
with one another.

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 ● Improving water sources: The first focuses on using solar-powered irrigation to boost water, energy and food
security. The second is to treat and reuse wastewater. This largely untapped resource can be productively used in
forestry, agriculture, landscaping and replenishing aquifers.

4.3 Aquatic Food Production

● Demand for aquatic food resources continues to increase due to

○ Human population growth
○ Diet changes
○ Fashion and trends
● Aquaculture is the farming of aquatic organisms in both coastal and inland areas that involves intervention in
the rearing process to enhance production.
● The highest rates of productivity are found near coastlines or in shallow seas, where upwellings and nutrient
enrichment of surface waters occur.
● Photosynthesis by phytoplankton supports a highly diverse range of food webs.
● Aquatic (freshwater and marine) flora and fauna are harvested by humans.
● developments in fishing equipment and changes to fishing methods, couples with over capacity in fleets and
inadequate international management, have to lead to dwindling fish stocks and damage to habitats
● Fish stocks sustainable yields: calculated as he rate of increase in natural capital that can be exploited without
depleting the original stock or its potential for replenishment
● Maximum sustainable yield: the largest yield that can be taken from the stock of a species over an indefinite
period, optimum population size for harvesting has been fully fished
● Unsustainable exploitation of aquatic systems can be mitigated at a variety of levels (international, national,
local, and individual) through policy, legislation, and changes in consumer behavior.
● Phytoplankton: single celled organisms that can photosynthesize (produce 99% of primary productivity)
● Zooplankton: single-celled animals that eat phytoplankton and their waste Fishery: exists when fish are
harvested in some way (capture of wild fish, aquaculture, fish farming)
● 90% happens in oceans and 10% in freshwater
● 70% of world 's fisheries are exploited
● Each person on average eats 20kg of fish and 8kg of meat annually
● Aquaculture: farming of aquatic organisms in both coastal and inland areas involving interventions in the rearing
process to enhance production.
● Example: China produces 62% of farmed fish worldwide (carp/catfish): grown in rice paddies and their waste
provides fertilizer for the rice

Advantages of Aquaculture Disadvantages of Aquaculture

Produces food without physical damage to habitats that Spread of disease

can be caused by fishing methods such as beam trawling

It does not have the problems of bycatch, and discarded Destruction of habitats
fishing material caused by wild capture fisheries

Farmers can use agricultural waste products for Escape of GM fish that interbred with others
aquaculture

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 - Contamination with antibiotics

- Generation of sediments and nutrients

● Impacts of fish farms: loss of habitats, pollution, spread of diseases.

● Tragedy of the commons: Idea of overexploiting a resource that seems to belong to everyone

MANAGING OVER-FISHING

Scale Action How does it work to Evaluation - how

manage fisheries? successful is it?

International Quotas Definition: a limited Advantage: discourage

quantity of a particular fishermen from
Policy/ Legislation product which under overfishing certain kinds
official controls can be of fish.
produced, exported, or
imported.” Limitation: bycatch,
non-target species are
A quota works by accidentally caught.
allowing Fish biologists to
estimate the maximum
sustainable yield based
on current stock levels
and rates of
replenishment. This
information can be used
by politicians to agree on
catch limits called the
Total Allowable Catches
(TAC).

National Reduction in fishing National Policy: Advantage: this prevents

Effort restricting the type of small fish from being
Policy/ Legislation fishing gear used, caught and reduces the
including limits on the problem of bycatch.
size of nets and mesh
size. Large mesh sizes are Limitation: hard to
used to reduce the catch manage.
of juvenile fish

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Local Educating on overfishing Local action: making Advantage: giving the
sure people are aware population the tools
Action that overfishing is an necessary to combat this
issue and the causes and issue.
effects. Due to this,
people can make smarter
choices or create plans of
action. Limitation: not everyone
is willing to learn or will
see this as a problem.

Individual Purchasing smartly Individual consumer Advantage: according to

behaviour: being the law of demand, if
conscious of where our demand decreases so will
fish come from, and the fishing.
Consumer Behaviour possibly opting for more
sustainable methods Limitation: this is up to
such as aquaculture. each individual and their
ethics, no promise of
improvement

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 MANAGING EUROPEAN FISHERIES

Action Types of Measure Objectives

Conservation of Resources

Technical Measures small meshed nets; , boxes,minimum protects juveniles and encourages
landing sizes breeding

Restrit catches total allowable catches (TACS and match supply to demand, protect
quotas) sensitive stocks

Limit number of vessels fishing permits (tradable within restrict number of EU and other
countries) countrie’s vessels fishing in EU waters

Markets

Tarrif Policies minimum import prices; restriction ensure EU preference bound by WTO
on imports

Individual Action

Increase accountability of fishermen rights to fishieries auctions to specific regions to limit

excessive fishing thus reducing
bycatch

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 CONTROVERSIAL FISHING PRACTISES: FISHING

Stakeholders Explanation

Often their source of income

Hunters
Based off tradition and generational practises

Whaling is a central part of Inuit culture and provides a

Indigenous people (Inuits) vital source of protein in their diet, still maintain
sustainable hunting

State that whales have rights and should not be killed,

especially in a way that causes the, great pain and
Conservationists suffering (cruelty). Highly sentient animals. Also defend
them from other threats eg by-catch, pollution, collision
with ships, habitat degradation and noise pollution

Majority of countries are against eg Australia due to

ethical reasons (public) and represents public will,
Government However, due to profit reasons and cultural reasons,
countries such as Japan and Iceland still allow and
condone whale hunting

Majorly against whale hunting due to ethical reasons as

Public well as moral reasoning

Advocate for a total ban on commercial whaling, and

their campaigns have shone a spotlight on the cruel and
Campaigners unnecessary hunting of whales, resulting in the 1986
commercial ban of all whale hunting (not every country
accepted this eg Iceland and Norway)

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 4.4 Water Pollution

● Pollutants can be: anthropogenic or natural; point or non point; organic or inorganic, direct or indirect

● Freshwater pollution: Agricultural runoff, sewage, solid domestic waste

● Marine pollution: Rivers, pipelines, human activities

Measuring water pollution:

● BOD: the amount of dissolved oxygen required to break down organic material in a given volume of water.
● Indicator species: plants and animals that show something about the environment by their presence, absence,
abundance, or scarcity.
● Biotic Index: indirectly measures pollution by assaying the impact on species within the community according to
their tolerance, diversity, and relative abundance.

Eutrophication

● Eutrophication: when lakes, estuaries, and coastal waters receive inputs of nutrients (nitrates and phosphates)
that result in excess growth of plants and phytoplankton.
○ When severe = dead zones; too less oxygen to support life
○ Anaerobic water
○ Loss of biodiversity and shorter food chains
○ Increased turbidity of water
○ Death of higher plants Excess nutrients come from:
○ Detergents and fertilizers
○ Drainage (intensive livestock rearing units)
○ Sewage
○ Increased erosion of topsoil into water

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Process of eutrophication:

1. Fertilizer enter river/lake

2. High level of phosphate lets algae grow faster
3. Algae blooms form; blocks out light to plants that thus die
4. More algae = more food for zooplankton/small animals that feed on them. They are food to fish, hence there
becomes a lack of zooplankton/small animals, thus less are there to eat algae.
5. Algae die and are decomposed by aerobic bacteria.
6. Not enough oxygen nonetheless, hence everything dies as the food chain collapses.
7. Oxygen levels fall lower. Dead organic material forms sediments on the lake or river bed and turbidity increases.
8. All life is gone and sediment settles to leave a clear blue lake.

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 FRESHWATER EUTROPHICATION POLLUTION MANAGEMENT

Management Strategy Example of Pollution Management Evaluation of Strategy

Campaigns: ‘Oceana’ protecting the Reaches worldwide and provides

world’s oceans, campaigns education for people in a cheap and
organization. Focuses on everything effective way (due to the use of
ranging from plastics to responsible technology and globalization)
Altering Human Activity feeding and climate (and energy)
Education and altering human
Campaigns relating to responsible activity is a long term commitment
product usage such as non phosphate and short term it is unlikely to be any
detergents (and nitrates) improvement

Technologies to extract pollutants Sustainable biological alternative

from emissions: In lake Washigton, plants get integrated into the
additional plants species have been ecosystem rather then artificial or
Controlling release of pollutant added to the lake to consume mechanical technologies that would
unwanted excess nutrients have to be extracted later (requiring
even more resources and capital)
Tarrifs and quotas on how much
phosphates and nitrates can be in Adding more organisms to the
detergents and fertilizers ecosystem could further increase
BOD

Not a fast solution

Depends on political priorities and

may suffer from time-lags

Extracting or removing pollutants Expensive

from the ecosystem. US EPAs
watershed approach focuses on Decrease in excess unwanted
aquatic plant biomass harvests, nutrients
floating plant treatment systems
(which contain various types of
Cleaning up after Pollutant vegetation such as seaweed and
water hyacinths), which can be
planted within a damaged aea or
clogged water channel, where water
can be diverted (treated) and then
later retired to its usual watershed

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 5. Soil Systems and Terrestrial Food Production Systems and Societies

5.1 Introduction to Soil Systems

● What is soil: mixture of mineral particles and organic material that covers the land, and in which terrestrial
plants grow. It is made up of minerals, organic material, gases, and liquid.
○ Considered open system in a steady-state equilibrium
● Types of soil: sand (large particles), silt (medium particles), clay (small particles), loam (balanced mix and
hummus)
● Importance: plant growth, agriculture, bricks, pottery and paints, medicine

Inputs Outputs

Dead organic matter Energy (thermal)

Water from precipitation Eroded material
Energy from kinetic and solar radiation Leached material eg NO3
Rocks and Minerals Some gases eg nitrogen
Oxygen Eutrophication

Transformations Tranfer

Decomposition Leaching
Weathering Translocation
Nutrient Cycling Biological Fixing
Absorption and radiation Erosion

● Soil Profile: vertical section through a soil, and is divided into horizons.
● Soil system storages include organic matter, organisms, nutrients, minerals, air, and water
● Supports our planet’s biodiversity
● Fertile soil is considered non-renewable as it takes a long time to develop. Its preservation is essential for food
security and our sustainable future.

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Soil-forming processes:

● Gains and losses of material to and from the profile

○ There are inputs or organic material eg leaf litter and inorganic matter from parent material,
precipitation and energy. Outputs such as soil erosion + pant uptake
● Movement of water between the horizons
○ Biological mixing, leaching, translocation (mainly downward movement of the water), calcification.
● Chemical transformations within each horizon
○ Decomposition: changes leaf litter into hummus: mostly occurs near the surface, leaf litter is
decomposed into a dark mass, further degraded by decomposers and detrivores.
○ Weathering:
■ Physical/mechanical: disintegration produces smaller angular fragments of the same rock
■ Chemical decomposition: created altered rock substances
■ Biological weathering: process in which plants and animals chemically alter rocks through their
growth and movement
● Nutrient Cycling
○ Interaction between in soil, plants animals and the atmosphere, Can be sedimentary (source of nutrients
is rocks) or atmospheric (eh nitrogen cycle)

Characteristics of Soil:

● Porosity: Amount of space between particles

● Permeability: The ease at which gases and liquids and pass through the soil
● Acidification of soil: Acid rain causing pollution, adversely affecting soil and causing damage to evergreen
forestry

Benefits of Soil to plants:

● anchorage for roots

● supply of water and oxygen
● mineral nutrients
● Protection against ph and Temperature changes

Conditions that Restrict Root Growth

Physical Mechanical

Mechanical Barriers High aluminium concentration

Absence of cracks Low pH

Shortage of 02 due to waterlogging Toxic chemicals in anaerobic soil

Dryness and extreme temps -

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 ● Soil structure: refers to shape and arrangement of individual soil particles (called peds).
● Agriculture potential of soil depends on porosity and permeability of the soil, as well as surface area of the soil
peds

Soil Properties:

● Drainage and water holding:

○ Pore spaces in soil determines the rate at which water drains through a soil
○ Surface area of the peds determines amount of water and nutrients in solution that can be retained
against the force of gravity
○ light, medium, heavy refer to the workability of soil
● Air Spaces:
○ ideal soil structure is a crumb structure in which peds are small
○ soil structural condition can also be measured by porosity- determines air capacity and water availability
● Primary Productivity:
○ sandy soil: low, due to poor water holding capacity and low nutrient status
○ Clay soil: quite low due to poor aeration and low water filtration
○ Loam soil: High due to medium infiltration rate, water holding capacity, nutrient status, aeration and
ease of working
● Sustainability of soil production:
○ Main limiting factor for light soils is drought, poor nutrient and water-holding capacity
○ Heavy soils that have over 28% clay are hardest of arable cultivation

5.2 Terrestrial Food Production Systems

● The sustainability of terrestrial food production systems is influenced by a number of factors including scale,
industrialization, mechanization, fossil fuel use, seed/ crop/livestock choices, water use, fertilizers, pest control,
pollinators, antibiotics, legislation, and levels of commercial versus subsistence food production
● Inequalities exist in food production and distribution around the world.
● Organic farming – prohibits GMOs and chemical pesticides.
● Cash crops for market only
● Arable farms will focus on crops such as corn
● pastoral farms focus on rearing animals
● ‘mixed’ farms that produce both

The type of farming chosen and levels of food production will dependent on:

● Environmental conditions e.g. weather (precipitation, sunlight, temperature), topography and soil conditions
● Access to vehicles and technology, such as tractors and animal feeding systems.
● Available financial funds to purchase land, seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, equipment and labor.
● Cultural and environmental value systems
● Government and political initiatives

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Food waste LEDCs vs MEDCs:

● Socio-economic, cultural, ecological, political, and economic

● Factors can be seen to influence societies in their choices of food production systems.

MEDCs LEDCs

Food waste through retail an consumer behavior Inadequate local transportation

Reject food that doesn’t meet marketing standrds Inefficient harvesting

Consumerism Mainly at the farmer

Excess wealth Poor infrastructure

Mass marketing Stored in unsuitable conditions

In LEDCs waste production is lower because:

● Less is bought because people are typically on lower incomes

● Less packaging is used on products
● Disposable items (eg razors, plastic plates and diapers) are used less
● Lower literacy levels means there is less production of written material

Causes in imbalance of food distribution:

● Ecological: some climate and soils are better for food production
● Economic: advance technology and money can overcome ecological limitation (transportation of water)
● Socio-political: underinvestment in rural area and rapid area in LEDC; poor human health weaken available labor
force

Efficiency of terrestrial production systems:

● The yield of food per unit area from lower trophic levels is greater in quantity, lower in cost and may require
fewer resources
● Most food chains do not have a fourth or fifth trophic level, because energy is not sufficient to sustain fourth or
fifth trophic level. As you progress a trophic level only a percentage is passed on to the next organism
(approximately 10%- as a result of the energy required to maintain homeostasis), so it would not be efficient to
eat an animal that would give you a small biomass.
● More people on Earth could be supported for a given area of land farmed if individuals eat lower on the food
chain. Eating primary producers instead of eating herbivores could support the same number of people as at
present, but with less land degradation because we wouldn't need to have so much land in production.

55
Eating lower on the food chain, one or more of the following benefits would be likely:

● Not as much land and other resources raising grain to feed to animals.
● Overgrazing on public and private range lands could decrease.
● Would not have to farm or graze marginal lands as intensively
● More people in the world could receive an adequate diet
● Less fossil fuel energy (and associated emissions of CO2) would be required to produce our food

Terrestrial Aquatic

Consume from lower trophic level (cow/rice) due to taste Consume from higher trophic level (salmon) due to taste
and cultural demand and cultural demand

Less Efficient Higher efficiency, however, the initial available solar

energy is slower due to reflection and absorption of light
by water

● Cultural choices may influence societies to harvest food from higher trophic levels.
● Subsistence farms producers only enough to feed the farmer and his or her family with no profit
● Commercial farms: farming for profit- often a single crop
● Intensive farms take up small area and have high levels of output
● Extensive farms: large in comparison to money made and only have a few people responsible

Inputs of food production Outputs of food production

Fertilizers (artificial or organic) Food quality

Water (irrigation of precipitation) Food quantity

Pest control (pesticides or natural predators) Pollutants

Labour Consumer health

Seed (GM or conventional) Soil quality (erosion, degradation and fertility)

Breeding stock (domestic or wild) -

Environmental impacts of food production in systems:

● Soil degradation from erosion

● desertification
● eutrophication
● Pollution
● Salinization from over-irrigation
● Loss of valuable habitats
● Disease epidemics from high intensity livestock farming and monoculture

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Increasing sustainability:

● Altering human activity to reduce meat consumption

● Increasing consumption of organically grown, seasonal, and locally produced food products
● Planting buffer zones
● Monitor and control standards of practice

Comparing Location Inputs Outputs Impacts

Farming Systems

High use of tech and High environmental

fertilizers. High outputs per impact
farmer
Extensive North American Low labour needed Threatens habitats
commercial farming Cereal Farm
High mechinization Medium Efficiency Loss of biodiversity, +
causes soil erosion

Animals which can be

fed and raised on Low impact on
farm, polyculture environment, may
Subsistence South East Asia (many crops), crop Enough food for deplete soil of
rotation to mantain family nutrients, high
fertility and animal efficiency
feaces as fertilizers

Intensive Beef production MEDC vs Maasai tribal use of livestock

MEDC INTENSIVE PRODUCTION

● In intensive beef production, cattle is housed all year round and fed diet high on proteins and nutrients (+
minerals and vitamins)
○ Animals fed for max growth + with use of GM and selective breeding
● Cattle is stored in pens and movement is restricted- less energy used and less food needed, leading to cheaper
product
● Intensive beef production is an inefficient form of farming as yield is low
● Cost efficient
● Inputs: high in tech and machinery and food.
● Outputs: also high (cost productive efficiency), however there may be hidden costs such as transport
● Environmental Impacts: high, release of greenhouse gases, ethical implications + soil erosion due to intense
grazing

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MAASAI LIVESTOCK EXTENSIVE SUBSISTENCE FARMING

● Indegenous tribe in Kenya and parts of tanzania

● Livestock wanders freely (nomadic way of farming ).
● Diet of tribe includes meat, milk and blood supplied by cattle
● All tribal social roles and status derive from relationship with cattle
● Inputs: low, only human labour used
● Outputs: also low, enough food for community
● Environmental Impact: low (only natural resources used to raise animals) and high efficiency

5.3 Soil Degradation and Conservation

● Soil ecosystems change through succession, fertile soils contain a community of organisms that work to mantain
functioning nutrient cycles and are resistant to soil erosion eg earth worms represent 50-70% of all weight of
animals in arable soils (soil is ingested as passed to the top layer)

Other animals:

● Decomposers: break down litter releasing nutrients into soil

● Animal burrows: help aerate soil
● Animal feaces: return nutrient to soil
● Bacteria: fix atmospheric nitrogen comverting it into usable form for plant roots

Impact of Human activities in soil fertility:

● Deforestation: removal of some of cover of trees means les interception and more soil erosion
● Intensive grazing: more intense the grazing is, the more vegetation cover is removed (large herds may destroy
vegetation and increase soil erosion, as well as compacting soil making it impermeable
● Urbanization: rates of soil erosion are greatest during urbanization, due to removal of vegetation and machinery
which compacs soil making it impermeable (no filtration)
● Irrigation: leads to increase in amount of soil
● Monoculture: leads to exhaustion of soil, where soil lacks one specific type of nutrient, happens when a single
crop is grown repetitively

Commercialised food production systems

● Commercial food production systems: tend to reduce soil fertility more than small-scale subsistence farming
methods

Results of reduced fertility

● Soil erosion: gradual destruction of the top layer of dirt, known as topsoil (fertile material crucial to life). Not
sustainable as soils are a non renewable resource and are currently being damanged at an unsustainable rate
● Soil toxification: worsening of soil condition due to toxins
● Salination: due to increased irrigation

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 ● Desertification: dry soils may lead to desertification and alter ecosystems

Conversation Strategy Conservation Method Explanation of how it works

Changing the crops grown on a plot

each season on a 3 or 4 year cycle to
Crop rotation prevent depletion of particular
Managing soil condition and nutrients and mantain soil fertility
nutrient level
Avoiding over watering, not watering
Reducing salinisation at certain times of day (to avoid
evaporation), incorporating good
drainage

Permanent vegetation, can be

Buffer strips located at edge of field eg grassland
strips that intercept run offs
Wind and water erosion reduction
Shelter belts Block off trees or strips planted at
right angles to the prevailing wind to
deflect and reduce its velocity

Rearanging farmlands or turning hills

into farmland by constructing specific
Terracing ridged platforms (terraces). Captures
water as it flows down hill and
Cultivation techniques prevents soil erosion

Form of conservation tillage without

No-tillage farming plaughing. Results in an open and
loose soil structure which is well
aerated and moist

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 6. Atmospheric Systems and Societies

6.1 Introduction to the Atmosphere

● The atmosphere is a dynamic system (with inputs, outputs, flows and storages) which has undergone changes
throughout geological time.

History of the Atmosphere

● Volcanic Era: formed 6.4mil of years ago, earth was showered with debris from outer space, which together with
radioactive elements + volcanic activity lead to unsustainable temps for life. Known as Hadean era (god of the
underground)
○ Atmosphere consisted mainly of hydrogen and helium gases. Low density gases escaped into space due
to solar winds + weak magnetic field within earth. 02 was absent during this period
● Formation of Oceans & Early Life: Heat radiated into space and earth began to cool, creating condensed water
to form oceans. signalling the end of the hadean era and the start of the Archaen era → 4 to 2.5bn of years ago
○ Life first appeared of earth 3.8bn of years ago in the form of simple celled bacteria (prokaryotes). They
were anaerobic and included methane producing bacteria that used up carbon and created 02 →
overtime resulted in photosynthesizing organisms
○ The group of cyanobacteria (also referred to as blue-green algae) is responsible for increasing the levels
of atmospheric oxygen from less than 1% to almost 21% today. Fossil evidence found in Western
Australia dates the existence of cyanobacteria to 3.5 billion years ago.
○ Any oxygen formed during Archean era quickly reacted with other gases and iron sulphide in the oceans
to form red iron oxide, which then precipitated out onto the seabed. Over time this led to the formation
of sedimentary rocks containing red bands of oxidised iron.
○ The levels of carbon dioxide decreased.
○ Higher up in the atmosphere, oxygen molecules were split by sunlight energy into atomic oxygen which
lead to the formation of ozone.
○ More complex single celled organisms (eukaryotes) appeared about two billion years ago, followed by
multicellular organisms about one billion years ago.
○ Life was restricted to the oceans until the ozone layer had developed to shield the earth’s surface from
the harmful effects of UV light. The first green plants appeared on land about 500 million years ago
● Current Composition of the Earth: Nitrogen and oxygen are the main components of our atmosphere, with
smaller amounts of argon, neon, carbon dioxide, water vapour and other trace elements

Structure & Function

● The atmosphere is maintained by the earth’s gravitational forces which creates air pressure. A barometer can be
used to measure air pressure. The lowest pressure on land in the peak of Mount Evarest
● Pressure does not change with altitude, rather it changes with the 4 earth layers
○ Troposhpere
○ Stratosphere
○ Mesosphere
○ Thermosphere

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 ● Not all energy from the sun entering the earth’s atmosphere reaches the ground. Some of the solar energy is
reflectedback into space by clouds, particles in the area and surfaces such as ice and snow. This reflection is
known as the albedo effect.

Troposphere

● Layer closests to earth, 10km abv sea levels. Characteristics include:

○ Earth absorbs heat from sun (earth heats up atmosphere through conduction and is the warmest layer
with temps dropping 6.5 degrees per km)
○ Wind speeds increases with height (jet stream blows wind towards east at top os troposphere)
○ Where most atmospheric mass is found (all water vapour clouds and pollutants)
○ Most of weather occurs here
○ where most human interactions occur

Greenhouse Effect

● Greenhouse effect: when energy from sun enters atmosphere as short waves of radiation and some of it is
absorbed by earth → as ground warms heat energy is radiated back into atmosphere through long waves
○ In absence of GHGS (greenhouse gases): heat is radiated back to space and there would be an avg temp
of -18 degrees
○ In presence of GHGs: long wave radiation is absorbed, warming the earth and resulting in an avg temp
of 18 → reffered to as natural greenhouse effect
● Sources of GHGs:
○ Water vapour: most abundant, creates positive feedback loop (more warming more vapour more
vapour more warming)
○ Carbon dioxide: concetration increases through bruning fossil fuelds, volcanic activity, respiration &
deforestation). Removing trees removes carbon sinks
○ Methane: arises from emissions from livestock, anaerobic decomposition of waste, rice cultivation and
fossil fuels
○ Nitrous oxide: sources include fertilizers, combustion and industrial processes.
○ CFCs (**chloroflueorcarbons) and HCFC (hydrofluorocarbons) : used as liquid coolants (in refrigerators
and air conditioning systems), in the production of plastic foam and as industrial solvents.
○ Perflurocarbon: production of aluminium
○ Sulphur hexa-fluoride: used in prodctuon of magnesium

Stratosphere

● Stratosphere: 10 to 50km abv sea level. Characteristics include:

○ Ozone absorbs ultra violet radiation, temp is around -60 degrees in lower part (shieled by ozone layer)
but then increases with altitude
○ Dry air
○ Wind increases with height
● The stratopause marks the end of the stratosphere and is where the temperature remains constants with
altitude.

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 Mesosphere

● Mesosphere: 50-80km abv sea level. Characteristics include:

○ temp declines with height (temps fall to -100 degrees)
○ Strong winds of 3000km/h
● The mesopause occurs at the end of the mesosphere and is where the temperature does not change.Dictionary

Thermosphere

● Thermosphere: layer extends about 80 to 500/1000km abv sea level. Characteristics include:
○ UV and X-radiation from the sun is absorbed which breaks apart molecules into atoms (oxygen, nitrogen
and helium atoms are the main components in the upper thermosphere).
○ The temperature increases with height and can reach beyond 2,000°C. This heat can cause the layer to
expand causing variation in depth overtime from 500 to 1,000km.
● Ionsphere is also located within thermosphere and is where particles are electrically charged.
○ The ability of shortwave radio waves to bounce off these ions back to Earth is used by amateur radio
enthusiasts to communicate over large distances.
○ Where aurorae polaris (polar lights consisting of both the Northern lights in the northern hemisphere
and Southern lights in the southern hemisphere) occur as a result of electrically charged particles from
the sun colliding with ions in the ionosphere.
● Karman Line: is where earth’s atmosphere ends and space begins →100km abv sea level

Human Activities Impacting the Atmosphere:

● Burning Fossil Fuels

● Deforestation
● Urbanisation: cement roads, more surface run-off
● Increasing ocean temperates decreases the ocean’s ability to act as a carbon sink
● Agriculture

6.2 Stratospheric Ozone

● Ozone within the stratospheric layer absorbs most of UV radiation

Formation of Ozone

● The UV radiation that reaches the atmosphere is enough to lead to the formation of ozone.
● Ozone is formed by sunlight energy breaking the bonds within diatomic oxygen moleculus (two molecules of
oxygen → 02) to form atomic oxygen which in turn reacts with oxygen molecules to form ozone.
● At the same time, ozone molecules react with oxygen atoms to reform oxygen molecules.
● Without the influence of pollutants, the rate of ozone formation is usually the same as the rate of ozone
destruction, leading to a constant level of ozone.

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Effects of Stratospheric Ozone:

● UV is categorized according to its wavelength either as: (ozone has the ability to abosrb some but not all UV
wavelengths)
○ UV-A: (longest wavelength between 315-400nm): ozone is unable to absorb this radiation and it passes
through to the ground level.
○ UV-B: (wavelength between 280-315nm): ozone absorbs most of this radiation but some passes down
into the troposphere layer below.
■ Highly detrimental to humans & life.
○ UV-C: UV-C (shortest wavelength with highest energy 100-280nm): ozone and atmosphere is able to
absorb all the UV-C radiation, preventing it from reaching the earth’s surface.
● Without stratospheric ozone, there is increased exposure to UV-B radiation leading to:
○ Sunburns + premature aging of skin → Skin cancer
■ Non melanomas (such as basal or squamous cancers (both can usually be treated if found early))
■ Malignant Melanomas that spread quicly + fatal
○ Cataracts (coloursing of lens reduces vision can lead to blindness)
○ Immune-suppression: immune system function is impaired and can increase risk of infections
○ Health problems in animals
○ Reduction in crop production
○ Reduced phytoplanketon growth
○ Reduction in forest productivity
● Many countries worldwide have been seeing increased numbers of skin cancer due to increased UV exposure

Measuring Ozone Levels

● Measured in Dobson units (DU)

○ which is the depth the ozone molecules would occupy at standard temperature and pressure (STP) of
0°C (273 Kelvin) and 1 Atmosphere.
○ When ozone concentration falls, the ozone molecules become more dispersed within the same area
which is sometimes referred to as "ozone thinning".
○ Ozone levels are often measured using:
■ Lasers
■ Dobson spectrophotometer: measures the intensity of certain wavelengths. Measurements can
be taken from the ground, from aircraft, balloon sondes (weather balloon) or using satellites.
Normal levels range from 300 to 500 Dobson Units (that is the equivalent of 3mm to 5mm
thickness of ozone). Due to levels of insolation ozone production is highest in the tropical
stratosphere and is moved by prevailing atmospheric circulation systems towards the poles.

Threats to Stratopheric Ozone:

● Chloroflourocarbons
○ Family of chemicals discovered in the 30s
○ Very stable coumpounds (life times of 65 to 110 depending on compound)
○ Initially considered non-problematic due to their high stability and cost to produce (low), and were
widely used as

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 ■ Coolants in refrigerators and air conditioning systems
■ Propellants in aerosol cans
■ Cleaning agents for electrical parts
■ Blowing agents in plastic foam.
○ Once in the atmosphere CFCs dissipate in the air, they are non soluble and gradually migrate upwards
from the troposphere (0-10km) to the stratosphere over a period of 10-20 years
○ Once in the stratosphere, UV light breaks CFC molecules down producing Cl (chlorine) atoms that start a
chain recation:
■ Cl atoms react with ozone molecules breaking it down and reforming chlorine atoms
■ More ozone is destroyed than formed resulting in ozone depletion → CFC molecules can destroy
about 100k molecules of ozone
■ Eventually, Cl atoms form Hydrogen chloride which diffuces out of the stratosphere into the
troposphere where it is washed out by rain
● Ozone Depleting Substances:
● Natural Emissions of ODSs mostly arise from volcanoes eg eruption of Mount Pinatubo in 1991 released
sulphate particles and nitrogen oxides which reacted with stratospheric ozone resulting in a decline in ozone
levels. Anthropogenic sources may include:
● Methyl bromide, lifespan 2 years: used as a soil fumigator to eradicate pests, natural sources include
emissions from the ocean and the burning of biomass. It releases bromine in the stratosphere that is
estimated to be about 50 times more effective than chlorine at destroying ozone.
● Halons: similar to CFCs but contain bromide instead of chlorine, used as fire suppressants in fire
extinguishers.
● Hydrobromofluorocarbons (HBFCs): Similar properties to CFCs and contain either or both bromine and
fluorine. They are used as solvents, cleaning agents and as suppressants in fire extinguishers.
● Carbon tetrachloride: used as a solvent, dry cleaning agent, refrigerant and as a propellant for aerosol
cans.
● Methyl chloroform: Used in industrial solvents, degreasing agent, correction fluid, spray adhesive and in
aerosols.

Ozone Depletion in History

● 1970s ozone levels began being recorded and a reduction in levels of between 5 to 15% was recorded during the
1980s.
● Seasonal Loss of ozone: occured over the polar, in the 80s, polar regions saw a large reduction of ozone during
spring and the summer. In the Antarctic (baixo), this period spanned from September to December and in the
arctic (cima) from February to June.
● Polar Vertex: during dark cold days the polar vertex prevents air from lower latitudes from entering. Cold winter
temps lead to PSCs (polar stratospheric clouds) within the polar vertex.
● CFCs and ODS molecules react in the PSC and from Cl atoms and other ozone depleting chemicals
● Without light they are unable to react and accumulate within the PSC, then, when days become lighter, sunlight
will release the Cl and other atoms that cause the ozone destruction, rapidly reducing levels of ozone which
reflects the seasonal changes observed.

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 ● Sunlight gradually breaks up the polar vortex which allows movement of air containing ozone into the area.
● In the Antarctic, this can temporarily push the ozone depleted mass of air northwards over parts of Australia,
New Zealand, South America or South Africa and similarly in the Arctic, ozone depleted air mass can be pushed
over parts of Europe, Asia and North America.
● Over the summer and autumn within the Polar Regions, sunlight facilitates the production of more ozone and
levels subsequently increase.

Management

● Vienna Convention: acts as a framework to protect the ozone layer. Its key objects are:
○ 2009: became first UN treaty to be ratified by all 197 nations.
“…for parties to promote cooperation by means of systematic observations, research and information
exchange on the effects of human activities on the ozone layer and to adopt legislative or administrative
measures against activities likely to have adverse effects on the ozone layer.” - United Nations
Environment Programme (UNEP)
● Montreal Protocol: Originally created in 87 to prevent the use of CFCs it targets production and consumption of
CFCs and ither ODSs, deadlines vary from diff countries. Protocol has been ratified by all 197 nations, some
examples of targets include:
○ Montreal Protocol (1987) set out a timetable to reduce production of chlorofluorocarbon by 50% and
freeze production of halons.
○ London Amendment (1990) set targets to phase out production and consumption of the main ODS with
deadline of 2000 (extended to 2010 for developing countries).
○ Copenhagen (1992) moved the deadline to 1996 (except for developing countries).
○ Beijing (1999) added more stringent controls on HCFCs and included additional ODS (e.g.
bromochloromethane) to be phased out by 2004.

Challenges

● Long Life Span of ODSs

● Lack of Policing and Enforcement
● Lack of alternatives: cheaper and equally effective susbtitutes are hard to find
● ODS present in discarded equipment: old, leaky or discarded refrigerates and air conditioners containing CFCs
that may leak CFCs into the environment. Although effort is being made to recover and destroy the CFCs, some
still remain in old or disused materials**.**
● Illegal Trade: people opt for illegal trade due to higher cost of alternatives, cost of altering existing air
conditioning systems and refrigerators to use alternative chemicals, Less effective replacements.
● Replacements: Chemicals used to replace CFC include HCFCs. However, they have a shorter life span (about 2 to
20 years) than CFCs (up to about 110 years) and cause approximately 2.5% of ozone depletion compare to the
same amount of CFCs.
○ Nevertheless, if used in large amounts they could still reduce ozone levels dramatically. Both CFCs and
HCFCs are also greenhouse gases. Under the Montreal Protocol, production and use of HCFCs is to be
phased out by 2030.

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 ● Overall there has been a reduction in ODS emissions and although ozone is still declining, the rate of loss has
slowed down.
● Over the last few years, NASA has recorded some improvements in the ozone layer above the Antarctic.
Although due to the long life span of CFCs, full recovery is not expected until towards the end of the century.

6.3 Photochemical Smog

● The increasing use of fossil fuels has lead to an increase in urban air pollution and incidents of photochemical
smog.
● Air pollution is linked to health problems which can result in premature death (death that occurs at an earlier
age than expected and is often preventable)

Urban Air Pollution

● Fossil Fuels can lead to emissions of C02, H20 vapour, Sulphur Oxide and Nitrogen oxides
● If combustion is incomplete there may also be emissions of carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons. These air
pollutants which are directly emitted from their source are referred to as primary pollutants.
● Secondary Pollutants: pollutants formed when they reaxt in the atmosphere eg Acid rain (sulphur oxide with
water), ozone

Nitrogen dioxide can be either a primary pollutant or secondary pollutant:

● If formed during combustion of fossil fuel and emitted into the atmosphere, it is a primary pollutant.
● If formed from nitrogen oxide in the air reacting with oxygen, it is a secondary pollutant.

Impacts of Primary Pollutants

● Carbon dioxide and Water vapour: both greenhouse gases and can contribute to global warming and lead to
higher global temps

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 ● Sulphur Dioxide: can act as a potent respiratory irritant which causes inflammation of the lungs. It can trigger
asthma attacks, chronic bronchitis and also increase the risk of lung infection, as well as a
○ eye irritant.
○ A principal component of acid rain
● Nitrogen Oxides: made up of nitrogen dioxide and nitrogen oxide, formed during cumbustion of fossil fuels. It is
a yellow brown gas that can reduce visibility and appears as a haze over urban areas. It can also cause:
○ Respiratory irritants causing lung inflammation and triggering asthma.
○ A principal component of acid rain.
○ A precursor of photochemical smog and the formation of ozone.
● Particulates: produced during combustion of fossil fuel and emitted into the atmosphere. Suspended
particulates such as smoke and soot are often categorised according to size. Of particular concern are:
○ PM10 - particulate matter with a diameter of 10µm or less. Exposure to PM10 has also been associated
with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease.
○ PM2.5 - particulate matter with a diameter of 2.5µm or less. PM2.5 which can travel deep into the lungs,
increasing the risk of respiratory diseases and cancer.

Photochemical Smog

● Occurs when sunlight activates reactions between nitrogen oxides and organic compounds, resulting in the
formation of ozone and peroxylacyl nitrates (PAN). VOCs are carbon based compounds with a low boiling point
● The main sources of NOx are emissions from industry, power stations and vehicles.
● The main sources of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) include industry, vehicles and solvents (e.g. used in
paints and adhesives).
○ Forest fires, whether accidental or intentional (e.g. slash and burn), also increase levels of VOCs and
particulate matter (e.g. PM10). In addition forest fires leads to deforestation and loss of habitats.
● The formation of photochemical smog involves a series of complex reactions. The mixture of over 100 different
chemicals formed is dominated by ozone but also include other oxidants such as peroxyacyl nitrates (PAN) and
aldehydes.

Factors Affecting Production of Photochemical Smog

○ High emissions of pollutants from fossil fuels, this can be influenced by:
■ Amount of industry
■ Population size
■ Mode of transport used (eg private cars vs bicycles)
○ High levels of sunlight
○ Calm or light winds which reduce dispersion of ozone and cause accumulation at ground level
○ Dry weather conditions (rain doesn’t wash away pollutants)
○ Thermal inversion occurs (normally air at ground level warms and rises which dissipates air pollutants, this air
expands and coools resulting in a temp gradient)
■ Under a thermal inversion, cold air is below warm air eg during cold winters when earth surface cools
and chills the layer of air next to is.
■ This temp inversion if broken down when sun comes out, thus it only lasts a few hours
○ Topography
○ Population density

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Impacts on Tropospheric Ozone

● Nitrogen reacts with O2 creating nitrogen dioxide

● Nitrogen dioxide reacts with sunlight to release single, reactive oxygen atoms (01) which combine with 02 to
form tropospheric/ground level ozone
● Ozone is formed at ground level:
○ Is a highly reactive gas.
○ Causes inflammation of the lungs causing coughing, wheezing and contributing to asthma.
○ Reduces lung function, contributing to lung disease and premature death.
○ Irritates the eyes and nose.
○ Damages cells in the leaves disrupting photosynthesis and reducing plant growth which affects crops and
forest. In crops such as wheat, soya beans, tomatoes and cotton, smog has also been found to increase
risk of infection.
○ Damages fabrics such as rubber and plastics.

Management

● Clean up and restoration of damaged systems.

● Legislation to prevent or regulate the release of air pollutants.
● Altering human activity that produces air pollution. This can be achieved by changing human behaviour and
may:
○ Involve education and campaigns to inform the public of the effects of air pollution and ways in which
they can reduce emissions.
○ Be supported by economic instruments.
○ Involve the use of alternative technologies.
● European Union (EU) has adopted policies on air pollution that involve action at national governmental level
down though to local regional governmental level to be effective. Pollution reduction policies can employ the
following approaches:
● Technological Changes:
○ Catalytic Converters: reduce the amount of potential pollutants emitted by
■ Reducing NOx to form nitrogen gas and oxygen gas
■ Oxidising carbon monoxide to form carbon dioxide.
■ Oxidising VOCs to carbon dioxide and water.
○ Increase energy efficient: such as more energy efficient industrial processes, more efficient cars and
home appliances.
○ Alternative energy sources: eg renewable energies
● Legislation: variety of legislation can be used to reduce atmospheric pollution.
○ International Agreements: set goals that are adopted into national policies
■ 1999 Gothenburg Protocol to abate acidification, eutrophication and ground level ozone sets
minimum emission standards for sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, volatile organic compounds
and ammonia).
○ Legislation setting emission standards: can be used to set more stringent emission standards for
industry, power generation and vehicles. This can encourage use of low sulphur fuel, such as gas or
adoption of renewable energy sources such as solar or wind in order to meet the more stringent
standards.

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 ○ Building regulations: can set stringent standards that require improvements in the energy efficiency of
new and existing buildings.
○ Planning regulations: can be used to locate industry and power stations outside of urban areas and in
places where conditions are least likely to allow air pollutants to accumulate (for example, outside a
valley). Eg
■ Incorporation of cycle paths.
■ Road lanes restricted to public transport or those adopting vehicle-sharing (such as shared
transit or car-pooling).
■ Adoption of vehicle free zones and park and ride schemes.
○ Scrubbers: used by industry and power stations to filter emissions prior to discharge to remove primary
pollutants such as particulate matter and sulphur dioxide.
■ However, once the photochemical smog is formed, ozone and PAN are highly reactive and are
removed by reactions with other chemicals, hence are not long lasting.
■ In polluted areas, levels of ozone tend to fall overnight as it reacts with the nitrogen oxide to
form oxygen and nitrogen dioxide.
■ Restoration may involve reforestation and replanting of areas affected by the smog.

AIR QUALITY: BEINJING

Beijing has topographical and meteorological conditions that are favourable for the formation of photochemical smog.
A large population contributes to high air emissions from vehicle use and industry. Visibility in the city is often poor.

Prior to the Olympic games in 2008, a concerted effort was made to reduce air pollution. The strategy involved:

● Replacing coal burning power stations with gas powered stations that produce less air pollution.
● Limiting use of cars to alternative dates based on the car number plate. I.e. cars with odd number plates are
allowed to be used one day and those with even number plates on the next day. However, some people
brought a second car, so that they had access to a car with both types of number plates.
● Banning use of trucks and other heavy emission vehicles.
● Reducing emissions from factories and even closuring plants prior to and during the games.

The government has also made it very difficult to buy cars. In Beijing the number of new cars available each year is
limited. Only Beijing natives can buy a car and then they have to wait a very long time for the right to buy.

Industrial Smog

● Prior to large car ownership and when coal was heavily used, industrial smog was more common. Industrial
smog differs from photochemical smog. It is caused by smoke and sulphur dioxide emissions mixing with fog.
Historically, many industrial cities suffered from industrial smog. Eg:
○ In December 1952, London experienced industrial smog over a four day period which contributed to
around 4,000 deaths.
○ There was also a significant increase in the number of deaths from bronchitis and other respiratory
illnesses.
○ Perhaps surprisingly, there was also a rise in deaths from drowning. The lack of visibility caused by the
smog resulted in some people accidentally falling into the River Thames.

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○ This smog incident led to UK legislation focused on cutting air pollution emissions by reducing sulphur
dioxide and smoke emissions. It allowed regional governments to designate clean air areas where
smokeless fuel replaced traditional coal used in homes.
○ The levels of both smoke and sulphur dioxide emissions have fallen since The Clean Air Act of 1956.

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 6.4 Acid Deposition

● Acid deposition is an example of transboundary pollution, where pollution formed in one country can cause
damage in another country.
● Acidity: refers to the level of hydrogen ions present in a substance and is
expressed as pH.
○ Rain usually has a pH of between five and six due to the presence of
carbonic acid formed from carbon dioxide reacting with water in the
atmosphere.
● The pH of natural deposition is usually acidic at between pH 5 and 6.
● This is due to the presence of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere which forms carbonic acid.
● Acid deposition occurs as a result of primary pollutants of sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides reacting in the
atmosphere to form secondary pollutants of sulphuric acid and nitric acid respectively. This results in the pH
declining to below five.
● Deposition can occur as:
○ Wet deposition e.g. when pollutants are incorporated into the clouds or falling raindrops and result in
acidified rain or snow.
○ Dry deposition, when atmospheric pollutants are removed by gravity or direct contact under dry
conditions e.g. when emissions of ash or dry particles from power stations are absorbed directly onto
plants and buildings.

Dispersion & Distribution of Acid Deposition

● When sulphur and nitrous oxide are emitted into the air they may be dispersed through prevailing winds
● In the presence of strong winds the pollutants can be dispersed over a larger area compared to light winds that
allow pollutants to accumulate near the source and can result in more acute pollution.
● Tall smoke stacks have often been used to reduce local pollution by increasing dispersion of the pollutants.
○ Wind speeds are lower at ground level due to friction from the ground, vegetation and buildings.
○ Higher up there is less friction and wind speeds are greater. Prevailing winds can carry pollutants long
distances to areas otherwise unpolluted.
■ Majority of acid deposition in that occurs in Norway originates in other countries such as
Germany, UK and Poland.
● Impacts
○ Impacts of acid deposition depend on the capacity of the environment to netralize the acidic input. Eg
presence of alkaline calcium and magnesium compuds increase buffering capaciyt of soil + water.

Aquatic Ecosystems

● Acid deposition can enter aquatic systems through wet deposition or dry (surface run off).
● It can lower the pH of the ecosytems and make it so some species can’t survive eg phytoplankton, invertebrate
and fish can be sensitive to pH changes.
● Loss of species can cause a knock off effect through the food chain, and some species may suffer from
reproductive failure as most eggs cant hatch in pH environments below 5
● The decrease in pH also releases aluminium ions which are then leaches into the aqautic systems, which can
prevent oxygen uptake and lead to death by asphyxiation

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Terrestrial Ecosystems:

● Lowering pH of soils can lead to:

○ Leaching of plant nutrients such as calcium, magnesium and potassium. This reduces the nutrients
available for plant uptake.
○ Mobilisation of aluminum ions that can damage plant root systems and can also be leached into nearby
watercourses adversely affecting fish, as discussed above.
○ Mobilisation of other toxic metals from the soil such as cadmium, lead and mercury which can then be
leached into aquatic ecosystems adversely affecting aquatic organisms and potentially contaminating
drinking water supplies.
● Exposure to acidic pHs can further cause impacts on plants:
● Damage to the cuticle wax found on leaves which reduces plant photosynthesis.
● Lower tolerance to pests, disease and low temperatures.
● This results in:
● Reduction in crop yield in agricultural areas.
● Loss of biodiversity and reduction in forest areas.
● Acid deposition can lead to erosion of materials, eg
○ Stone erosion: Buildings and statues made of limestone and marble are particularly
vulnerable. Acid deposition reacts with calcium carbonate within the limestone and
marble forming gypsum, which can easily flake off.
○ Metal corrosion: Acid deposition increases corrosion of metals such as iron and steel
which could weaken the structure of buildings.

Management of Acid Deposition

● The primary pollutants that result in formation of acid rain include:

○ Stationary sources (i.e. fixed point sources) such as power station, industry and domestic boilers.
○ Mobile sources which are predominately vehicles.
● UN Geneva Convention: The Geneva Convention provides a platform for parties to share knowledge and
information and the latest scientific information is used to set and update emission targets.
○ Following growing recognition of the problem of acid deposition in 1972, the United Nations Conference
on Human Environment in Stockholm recommended that international effort was required to reduce
acid deposition.
○ This was followed by the Geneva Convention of Long Range Transboundary Air Pollution in 1979,
focused on reducing air pollution which included nitrogen oxide and sulphur dioxide. The Geneva
Convention has been extended over the years through protocols and associated amendments. The latest
amendment was in 2012 in which the 1999 Gothenburg Protocol to abate acidification, eutrophication
and ground-level ozone was reviewed and more stringent emission standards set.
● Regional Air Quality Agreement: The Canada-United States air quality agreement in 1991, recognised the
problem of transboundary pollution between the two countries and agreed to work together to reduce nitrogen
oxides and sulphur dioxide emissions. Emission levels of precursors to acid deposition have fallen significantly in
both countries.
● Cap and Trade System: The United States use cap-and-trade to encourage energy utilities to reduce emission
levels, involves allocating the utilities with permits which allow them to produce a set amount of emissions (e.g.
one tonne of emissions during the period of compliance). The utilities are then free to buy and sell emission

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 permits to each other. Those that do not use their emission permits can gain economically by selling their
surplus to others.
● In-Situ clean up & restoration: Clean up methods have primarily focused around neutralising the acidic water by
adding limestone (calcium carbonate) a process also referred to as liming. In Sweden, where thousands of lakes
were affected by acid deposition, liming has been used to restore the natural pH of about 7,500 lakes. This has
allowed some lakes to be restocked successfully with fish.
○ Raising the pH of water by liming causes aluminium ions to precipitate out of the water column.
However, if acid deposition continues the pH will fall again. At a low pH the aluminium ions are released
back into the water column which can have a detrimental effect on fish stocks

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 7. Climate Change and Energy Production

7.1 Energy Choices and Security

● Fossil fuels are formed from dead plants and animals under pressure over millions of years. They provide a finite
source of energy and if use continues they will eventually become exhausted.

● Coal: Abundant & composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur compounds. Top producers of
coal include China, USA and India, obtained through mines
○ Hazardous for human health + mining dangerous (respiratory problems, collapsed), can contaminate
aquatic systems with toxic metals
● Oil: pumped from underground reservoirs, Offshore extraction resulted in the Gulf of Mexico Deepwater Horizon
oil spill, can pollute aquifers
○ Oil produces less emission of carbon dioxide, NOx, SO2 and particulates than burning coal but
significantly more than natural gas.
● Natural Gas: comprised of mostly methane + ethane and others. Largest reserves in Russia, Iran, Qatar and
Turkmenistan. Top producers of natural gas include US, Russia & Iran
○ Hard to detect leaks due to colourless, odourless & tasteless→ hydrogen sulphide is added to aid leak
detection.
○ Low nitrogen and sulphur content than oil or coal resulting in less harmful emissions. Less C02 produced.
○ Recent expansion of hydraulic fracking to obtain shale gas. For example in the United States, shale gas
contributes to about a third of overall gas production. Fracking can potentially:
■ Contaminate groundwater.
■ Pollute surface waters with waste products.
■ Contribute to seismic activity.

Nuclear Power

● Plants concentrated in North America, Europe and parts of Asia. In France about 75% of all electricity generate is
from nuclear
○ Uranium: mined is Canada, Australia, Namibia & US → ore is processed and purified

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 ○ Neutrons start chain reaction in which energy is produced from splitting of uranium atoms → nuclear
fission
○ Heat generated used to turn water into steam → fed through steam turbine which rotates blades to
generate electricity.
○ Contains highly radioactive material hence is usually stored in lead containers immersed in cooling
ponds.
● Waste Management: generated at all stages of fuel cycle, material decay varies fro, fraction os seconds to
thousands of years.
○ Low level: filtered and disposed into environment
○ Solid Waste: burried underground/ stored in lead covered stainless steel container. Concerns include:
■ Chemical corrosion of container
■ Terrorism
■ Contamination of groundwater
■ geological change (earthquake or volcanic activity)
● Chernobyl, Ukraine: 1986→ unexpected power surge led to fire breaking out in the reactor and an explosion
which blew off the roof. Resulted in release of large amounts of radioactive contamination to Ukraine, Russia
and Belarus, and due to prevailing winds West to Norway, Sweden and UK.
○ Helicopters were used in the aftermath to drop material into the reactor to extinguish the fire and
prevent more radioactive material from escaping into the atmosphere.
○ The official death toll of the accident was 31, although there is still great debate about the number of
people that have died as a consequence of exposure to radioactive material.
○ More than 350,000 people from the contaminated region were relocated.
● Fukushima Daiichi nuclear accident: Due to 2011’s earthquake and Tsunami, high waves breached sea walls
near the Fukushima power plant. Seawater flooded the nuclear power plant including the main generator and
the rooms containing the emergency backup generators → generators couldn’t circulate cooling water resulting
in overheating reactors and leading to a meltdown and production of gas which led to several explosions.
○ Evacuation os people in the region minimised the impact in near-by areas. No direct deaths were
accounted for however the number of thyroid cancer cases in the area has risen.
○ After the accident, Germany closed eight out of 17 of its nuclear power reactors.

Renwable Energy

● Solar power: two main types of solar panels include solar

thermal panels (used to heat water and buildings) and
photovoltaic panels (used to convert sunlight to electrical
energy)
○ Solar Thermal Panels: fitted onto roof of buildings
and can be used to warm air and water can be
heated and stored until use or stored while
heating the walls.
○ Photovoltaic Panels: efficiency ranges from 10 to
20%, high cost of production but low running cost.
Production causes C02 emissions but once set up
there are no emissions.

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● Wind Power :windmills have been used historically to pump water or drive mechanical machinery eg grain flour
production. Wind turbines also produce electricity (called aero-generators)
○ Traditional windmill and therefore require stronger winds to get started. In Northern hemisphere
countries such as the UK, higher energy demand in the winter months is matched by greater number of
windy days and higher wind speeds.
○ Offshore wind power: windmills locaeted offshore due to stronger winds than on land. noise pollution is
less of an issue, there are other issues tho;
■ Visual impact on the seascape, especially when sited near the coast.
■ Corrosion of the aerogenerator.
■ Potential impact of vibrations from the aerogenerator on sea life.
■ Potential impact on seabirds.
■ Disruption to shipping routes.
■ Reduced fishing grounds for fishermen.

● Hydropower: most used renewable resource,

historically has been used to drive a variety of
machinery from grinding flour. HEP is produced when
flowing water drives turbines connected to a
generator which converts mechanical energy into
electrical energy.
○ HEP schemes are often also associated with
building reservoirs for water resources. The
dam wall built to maintain water in the
reservoir also raises the height of the water
prior to reaching the turbines, which
increases the amount of power generated
from the falling water.
○ The largest producers of hydropower are
China, Brazil and Canada.

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 ● Geothermal Power: energy from interior of earth that sometimes leaks through faults and fractures to the
surface of the earth. Groundwater is heated and can reach earth’s surface as hot springs and geysers.
○ Enhanced geothermal systems can also be created in which holes are drilled into heated areas called
‘hot dry rock’ through which pressurised water is passed and collected as steam used to drive turbines
that generate electricity.

Energy Security

● Energy Security: the uninterrupted availability of energy sources at an affordable price'.

○ Some countries such as Saudi Arabia, Russia and Canada are major exporters of fossil fuels. Also nations
which produce surplus electricity can sell this to other countries, such as Paraguay, produce electricity
form hydropower and exports surplus to its neighbours Brazil and Argentina.
● Energy security depends on:
○ An adequate supply of energy which matches demand.
○ Reliable supply, that is not interrupted e.g. by conflict.
○ Affordable supply to ensure access to all.
○ Scientific and technological developmenet
○ Cultural choices & customs
○ Politics
○ Economics & environmental priorities
● Threats to energy security include:
○ Political instability and /or conflict in exporting country.
○ Accidents or natural disasters e.g. Fukushima accident.
○ Risk of terrorist attacks on source or supply infrastructure.
○ Exhaustion of resource.
● Risk of these threats can be reduced by:
○ Reducing imports and becoming more self-sufficient in energy supply. This may involve:
○ Diversifying sources of energy, increasing alternatives to fossil fuels such as renewable sources.

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 ○ Exploiting indigenous resources.
○ Reducing demand by increasing energy efficiency and energy conservation measures.
● Reducing reliance on one or two exporting countries and using multiple exporters i.e. spreading out the risk.

● Iceland is an active volcanic island in Northern Europe. Its energy policy capitalises on its abundant natural
resources with the aim of using renewable resources to become energy independent by 2050.
○ Mostly renewable, 20% from hydropower & 66% from geothermal. Most homes are heated via
geothermal energy.
○ Fossil fuels are used for vehicles, boats and some industrial purposes. Iceland’s aim is to replace
imported fossil fuels with hydrogen fuel cells and electric vehicles.
● United States: Large consumer and producer of fossil fuels, overall still and importer of oil, The Clean power
plan (2015) is in place to reduce fossil fuel emisisions from coal and improving renwable such as wind and
solar.

7.2 Climate Change: Causes and Impacts

Climate & Weather

● Climate: average weather over time

● Weather: short term oscilattions in temperature, humidity, sunshine and wind
● Factors affecting climate:
○ Solar Radiation from the sun
○ Tilting and orbit of the earth
○ Atmospheric and ocean circulation
○ Greenhouse gases that trap heat and warm the land, oceans and atmosphere
○ Volcanic activity
○ Feedback cycles

Climate Feedback

● Positive feedbacks that impact climate change

○ Ice albedo: Ice and snow have a high albedo. If temperatures increase, ice and snow melts, reducing the
amount of solar radiation reflected back into space. Dark surfaces which replace the ice and snow
increase absorption of sunlight and contribute to global warming. Higher temperatures result in more
ice and snow melting.
○ Water Vapour: If temperatures rise, more water evaporates. Water is a greenhouse gas and therefore
further increases temperature resulting in positive feedback.
○ Permafrost: Increase in temperature results in melting of permafrost which releases methane. Methane
is a greenhouse gas which further increases global temperatures.
○ Carbon dioxide solubility: If temperatures increase, the solubility of carbon dioxide in the oceans
decreases. The release of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere results in further warming of the planet.
● Negative feedbacks that impact climate change
○ Plant photosynthesis: If temperatures increase, levels of plant photosynthesis can rise and more carbon
dioxide is absorbed. This reduction in overall atmospheric levels of carbon dioxide results in a reduction
in global temperature.

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 ○ Cloud cover:
■ Negative feedback tends to dominate in low clouds that reflect some of the incoming solar
radiation back into space increasing heat loss and causing global cooling.
■ Positive feedback tends to dominate in high cloud cover that acts as a blanket retaining heat
radiated from the earth’s surface which increases the temperature.

Impacts of Climate Change

● Higher Temperatures
● Sea Level rise
○ Through thermal expansion (water heats up and expands)
○ Through melting water storing surfaces such as ice caps
● Impact on Water Resources
○ Reduced water availability
○ Flooding
○ Lakes and river beds drying out, adversely affecting the aquatic ecosystems and biota such as fish.
○ Increase in arid areas and desertification.
○ Loss of crops or reduction in yield.
○ Loss of livestock due to lack of sufficient fodder, pasture areas and water to drink.
○ Migration of wildlife in search of water.
○ Increase mortality of wildlife.
○ Increased risk of wild fires due to dry environmental conditions resulting in loss of habitats and
biodiversity.
○ Conflict between people over the limited water resources.
○ Migration of people to other areas for employment and basic resources (i.e. water and food).
○ Reduced electricity generation from hydroelectric power schemes.
● Impact on agriculture and fishing
○ Death of some species unable to cope with higher temperature range leading to loss of biodiversity.
○ Migration of some fish towards the poles in search of cooler waters.
○ Increase in range of distribution of fish adapted to warmer waters.
○ Change in spawning period, potentially expanding the growth season for some fish.
○ Coral bleaching in which the coral expels zooxanthellae, a symbiotic algae. Zooxanthellae live inside the
coral polyp and provide the polyp with food. Without the algae, the coral becomes more susceptible to
disease. The loss of coral can lead to reduced shelter and food for many organisms and can have a
detrimental effect on fisheries.
● Impact on ecosystems & biodiversity
○ Range Shifts & Changing Migration Patterns
● Impact on Coastal & Low lying system
○ Storm intensity
○ Rising Sea Levels
● Impacts on Human Health
○ Heatwaves
○ Storms and intense rainfall
○ Disease
● Environmental Refugees

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 7.3 Climate Change: Mitigation and Adaptation

Mitigation

● Mitigation: A human intervention to reduce the sources or enhance the sinks of greenhouse gases (GHGs).
● Reducing Energy Use
● Use Low emissions energy sources
○ Reduce emissions from transports
● Reduce Emissions from agriculture
○ Using less fertilizer can reduce nitrous oxide (NO) emissions.
○ Adding nitrification inhibitors to the fertilizer to reduce nitrous oxide production.
○ Reducing methane generation from livestock by:
■ Selective breeding to have cattle that produce less methane.
■ Changing the feedstock.
○ Collecting and utilising methane emissions from biodegradation of animal waste as a source of energy.
○ Cultivating rice varieties that can be grown in drier conditions with higher yields to reduce methane
emissions.

Geo-Engineering

● Carbon Dioxide Removal:

○ Land Use Management: Carbon sinks can be protected and enhanced by:
■ Afforestation of land.
■ Restoration, such as reforestation of degraded land.
■ Reduced deforestation.
○ UN-REDD: The project recognises:
■ The economic value of forest as carbon sinks.
■ Potential of local people to effectively manage the forest.
○ Use of Biomass: When plant organisms die, the biomass degrades releasing carbon dioxide. An
alternative is to harvest and use the biomass to generate fuel (replace use of fossil fuel) or to bury the
material.
○ Carbon Capture & Storage: This method involves the removal of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere
followed by either:
■ Chemical process to form carbonates.
■ Compression and transport to a site of permanent storage.
○ Absorption by the Oceans & Ocean Fertilization: The biological pump could be further enhanced by:
■ Fertilising the oceans (with nitrates, phosphates and iron) to encourage photosynthesis by
phytoplankton.
■ Increasing upwellings e.g. using mechanical pumps to move cold nutrient rich waters from the
lower layers to the surface, encouraging photosynthesis and enhancing carbon dioxide uptake.
● Solar Radiation Management:
○ Increase the reflection from the earth’s surface by:
■ Painting roof tops with white reflective paint.
■ Growing plants with high reflectivity e.g. genetically engineered crops or grasses with high
albedo.

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 ■ Covering areas with reflective material e.g. covering deserts with reflective plastic sheets.
○ Use aerosols to increase albedo effect. However the effects of this are unknown including the potential
impacts on stratospheric ozone.
○ Enhance reflectivity of clouds by increasing particles that attract water molecules within the cloud.
○ Use solar deflectors in space to reduce sunlight reaching the earth.

Adaptation

● Water Resources
○ Ban on building on river flood plains or in areas prone to flooding.
○ Flood control though construction of flood barriers, improvements in drainage or diversion of
floodwaters e.g. through use of sustainable urban drainage (SUDS). The use of SUDS could be
incorporated into planning and building regulations.
○ Modifying infrastructure and buildings to withstand floods e.g. adapting drainage and sewage systems to
prevent sewage overflow.
● Agricultural Crops:
○ Using crops that have been developed to reflect changing local conditions, for example crops that:
■ Grow at higher temperatures.
■ Need less water.
■ Are salt resistant.
■ Are pest resistant.
■ Are flood resistant.
○ Changing to crop varieties with high yields.
○ Altering the time of planting and harvesting to match change in conditions and optimise yields.
○ Employing water conservation techniques to maximise use of limited water resource eg micro-irrigation
techniques.
○ Increasing retention of soil moisture and reduced soil erosion via use of winter crops, terracing and wind
breaks.
● Ecosystems
○ Adjusting to biome shifts by expanding conservation areas towards the poles.
○ Connecting protected areas with corridors to allow movement of species adapting to changing
conditions.
○ Greater protection of vulnerable areas such as coral reefs and mangroves. This includes protection from
pollution and over exploitation.
○ Development of forest fire management techniques e.g. wide breaks between areas of forest to prevent
wind spreading the fire from one area to another.
● Coastal & Low-Lying Areas
○ A ban on new developments in low lying coastal areas.
○ Building and re-enforcing sea walls and coastal defences e.g. groynes and beach replenishment
programmes which dissipate the energy of incoming waves, reducing their impact.
○ Preparing contingency plans on what to do in the event of a flood e.g. have access to alternative water
and food supply and shelter for people made homeless.
○ Moving potentially dangerous facilities away from low lying areas vulnerable to sea level rise or storm
surges e.g. nuclear power station or stores of hazardous materials.

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 ○ Managed retreat, which allows coastal areas to become flooded. It may involve compensation and
relocation of local residents
● Health
○ Use of monitoring and surveillance systems that raises an alarm when there may be increased risk of
health issues.
○ Being prepared for climate related events and treatment of likely types of injuries and diseases.
○ Use of vaccination programmes to reduce risk of certain diseases such as polio and cholera.
○ Public health education programme which covers:
■ What action to take during a heat wave.
■ What to do during floods.
■ How to avoid specific diseases.
■ What action to take if ill.

International Cooperation

● Kyoto Protocol
○ Kyoto protocol agreed there would be an overall global reduction in carbon dioxide emissions, of about
5% of 1990 levels, by 2012.
○ There were individual targets for each country with a final deadline of 2012
○ The second commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol runs from 1 January 2013 to 2020 and is covered
by the Doha Amendment. Under the Doha Amendment 38 countries are committed to reducing
emissions by at least 18% of the 1990 levels.
○ This amendment has yet to be accepted by a sufficient number of nations to come into force, although
70 developed and developing countries have committed to reducing or limiting GHG emissions. Notable
countries not taking part include Russia, Japan and New Zealand.
● Paris Agreement
○ Like the Kyoto Protocol, the Paris Agreement deals with mitigation of GHG emissions and adaptation to
the impact of climate change. The agreement was:
■ negotiated at COP 21, the 2015 Paris Climate Conference, by the representatives of 195
countries (Note: COP stands for Conference of the Parties.)
■ adopted on 12 December 2015
■ opened for signatories on 22 April 2016
■ signed by 195 and ratified by 143 countries by April 2017
■ ratified by enough countries in October 2016 for the agreement to come into effect November
2016.

Barriers to Management

● Barriers:
○ Insufficient knowledge of impacts of climate change and potential mitigation and adaptation.
○ Poor integration of mitigation and adaptation strategies into policy and planning at national to local
level.
○ Poor communication and sharing of information between governmental departments resulting in
departments working in isolation from each other on common project (e.g. on essential infrastructure
improvements involving energy, water and transport).

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 ○ Limited regulation and accountability of mitigation and adaptation measures.
○ Political instability and corruption.
○ Inertia and procrastination.
○ Insufficient funding and technology.
● Solutions to Barriers:
○ Sharing of knowledge involving education and public awareness campaigns.
○ Consideration of mitigation and adaptation as complementary approaches to each other.
○ Effective and efficient communication.
○ Commitment at all levels. Mitigation and adaptation strategies need to be fully embedded into the
political and economic decision making process at national to local level.
○ Ability for governments, businesses and communities to work together and support necessary action.
○ Setting of achievable goals within a set timescale.
○ Sufficient financial support.
○ Access to appropriate technology and expertise.

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 8. Human Systems and Resource Use

8.1 Human Population Dynamics

● Demoghraphy: study of populations of any organisms.

CALCULATIONS:
● CBR = number of births/total population × 1000
● CDR = number of death/total population × 1000
● NIR = (CBR – CDR)/10
● DT = 70/NIR

Fertility Rate

● Crude birth rate (CBR) is the number of births/1000/year

○ The lowest mean rates are in the most developed areas of the world, while the highest mean rates are in
sub-sarahan africa eg sierra leon
● Total fertility rate (TFR) is the number of children a woman is expected to have in her lifetime.
○ The critical value for TFR is 2.2 – this is known as the replacement rate.
● Factors Affecting Birth Rates
○ Role of Children in Education/Labour
○ Rates of Urban Living
○ Women’s Status
○ Life Style Choices & Cultural Norms
○ Infant Mortality Rates and Pensions
○ Family Planning & Abortions
○ Government Policy

Mortality

● Crude death rate (CDR) is the number of deaths/1000/year

● The mean global CDR is approximately 7.89/1000/year.
● Factors impacting death rates:
○ Income
○ Literacy/education
○ Access to food
○ Availability to health care
○ Water supply and sanitation
○ Access to shelter
● Fertility and mortality combine to determine population size and this is known as the natural increase rate
(NIR).

Population Growth

● Europe’s population decreased by 50% between the 6th and 8th century due to a plague.

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 ● The Mongol invasion, famine and plague decreased China’s population from 123 million in 1,200 to 65 million by
1393.
● The Black Death in of the 14th century decimated the global population from 450 million in 1340 to 350 million
by 1400.
● European settlers and explorers introduced diseases to other parts of the world to which the local populations
had no immunity. Diseases such as smallpox measles and the flu wiped out around 90% of the Native American
populations.
● The agricultural and industrial revolutions in Europe saw the death rates fall as a result of improvements in
health care, the introduction of vaccinations and better sanitation. Between 1700 and 1900 Europe’s population
quadrupled to over 40 million
● Future Predictions:
○ The high variant is the worst-case scenario. This would be the global population if death rates fall but
birth rates do not.
○ The median variant is the most likely scenario as it simply projects current trends into the future using
mathematical formulae.
○ The low variant is the best-case scenario. This may actually be realistic in view of the fact that the UN is
expecting death rates to increase.

Malthusian & Non-Malthusian Theories

● Malthusian Theory: predicted pop, growth is exponential whereas

food production is arithmetic → leading to disasters when human
pop exceeds capacity meaning famine and war.
● Malthus' view was reaffirmed by German scientist, Paul Ehrlich, in
1968 when he wrote The Population Bomb. He too predicted global
famine in the 1970s and 80s.
● Anti-Malthusian theory: Economists such as Ester Boserup argued
due to Green Revolution food production would increase faster→
Between 1950 and 1984, grain production increased by 250%, which kept pace with population increase

Necessity is the Mother of All Invention

● There is plenty of evidence to support this view:

○ There have been a number of agricultural revolutions – Green, Blue, hydroponics, aquaponics. All
increase our food production.
○ Medical advances have allowed us to improve life expectancy and life quality for many. The introduction
of reliable contraception is reducing population growth.
○ Technological advances are giving us solutions to our power requirements
○ Industrial advances allow industry to keep pace with demand.
● Our continued population growth will have far reaching consequences with regards to the human and natural
environment. These consequences include:
○ Grain prices are increasing as biofuel production replaces food production
○ Oil prices are increasing and we are turning to fracking
○ Impacts of Climate Change
○ Agricultural land is being lost to residential and industrial developments.

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 ○ There have been food riots in some countries. E.g. 2007, West Bengal, India.
○ Rising Sea Levels, decrease freshwater access/availability
○ Decreased air quality
○ Increased levels of pollution threaten terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems.
○ Depletion of stratospheric ozone
○ Deforestation for urban expansion, agriculture and mining destroys whole ecosystems.
○ Over Exploitation of wild fisheries
○ Depletion of Soil
○ According to the UN Food and Agricultural Organisation the world will need 70% more food by 2050 and
the absolute number of undernourished people is increasing annually.
○ The USA can sustainably feed 200 million people when it already has a population of 300 million.

Population Pyramids

● HICs:
○ MEDC pyramids tend to be narrow at the base (low birth rate) and remain a
similar shape up to the ages of 65+ due to a low death rate through these
ages.
○ The pyramid is often tall due to long life expectancy.
● HICs
○ LEDC pyramids typically have wide bases due to high birth rates.
○ A classic pyramid shape with sloping sides due to a high death rate at all
ages.
○ They are short due to relatively low life expectancy.

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Population Development Policies

● Indirect Policies:
○ SDGs
○ Millenium Goal 2: “Ensure that, by 2015, children everywhere, boys and girls alike, will be able to
complete a full course of primary schooling”.
○ Milenium Goal 3: "Eliminate gender disparity in primary and secondary education, preferably by 2005,
and in all levels of education no later than 2015".
● Direct Policies
○ Anti-Natalist: China One Child-Policy
■ Emancipation of Women
■ Educational campaigns
○ Pro-Natalist : Singapore’s ‘Have Three or More if you can Afford it’→ Russia’s ‘Russia Day’
■ Tax Cuts
■ Child Care
■ Increase maternity and paternity leave.
■ Provide free public transport (France).
■ Romania did manage to increase the fertility rate for a few years. The Romanian government
made contraception illegal and banned the import of all forms of artificial contraception.

8.2 Resource use in Society

● Natural capital is natural resources that produce sustainable natural income of goods and services
● Natural income is the yield from natural capital.

Economic Capital

● Things which are tangible and have a monetary value (eg gold, timber, fossil fuels). Things which can be sold in
global markets.
● The value of said things may sway with time and space. EG Lithium
● Lithium was discovered in 1800 by a Brazilian chemist and at the time had no use for anyone. Its value rose
during WWII due to the industrial application of lithium batteries.
● The value of a good may sway due to economic, environmental and technological factors. Eg Oil has been used
for 4000 years, asphalt was being used in the construction of the walls and towers of Babylon. This early
exploitation of oil would have been based on oil that was available at or close to the surface. Once these
reserves were exhausted it would have been necessary to develop technology to access the deeper reserves of
oil.
● Another example: North Sea oil reserves, during 20th century extraction was only possible close to shore. In the
late 1960s technology was developed that allowed drilling under water on the continental shelf.
● In addition to the lack of technology the North Sea presents serious environmental challenges due to high winds
and heavy seas. Nowadays the environmental and technological challenges are no longer a problem and the UK
alone has over 200 drilling operations in the North Sea.

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Intrinsic vs Aesthetic Capital

● Aesthetic value is the appreciation of the beauty of something, so aesthetic natural capital brings a sense of
wellbeing and inner peace Eg art
● Intrinsic value is closely linked to this, it is valued not because it can bring economic value but simply because it
exists eg Biodiversity
● This will sway as different cultures and locations have different ideas of beauty. The concept of beauty and what
is aesthetically pleasing changes with fashion trends and has thus changed over time. Consider how much
fashion has changed in your own lifetime. What is currently on Facebook, Twitter and Instagram may be
considered wonderful today but not tomorrow.

Cultural & Spiritual Capital

● Natural capital provides a range of cultural services that contain not only cultural value but spiritual value, this
may come in the form of religious buildings eg Sacre Coeur in Paris France/ spiritual places of indigenous people
e.g. Uluru (Northern Territory, Australia)
● It is hard to say if these change over time or location, though a cultural relevant site for a certain religion may
not be valuable for a other religions, they will always be valuable through time for that specific religion.
● Eg Uluru in Alice Springs, Australia, is an important spiritual site for the Aboriginal people of Australia so it is
spiritual natural capital. For the tour operators in Alice Springs, Uluru is economic natural capita

Natural Capital & Technology

● Technological developments value change with time and spatially

○ Time: becomes obsolete relatively quickly when a new piece of tech comes along of when it goes out of
fashion eg Ipods
○ Spatially: not everyone has access to technology such as telephones as it runs on electricity.
● Technological developments will affect the status of other resources - particularly the economic ones as
technological advances make some economic capital more or less useful and accessible.

Ethics & Natural Capital

● Ethics is a set of moral principles by which we live and culture is the set of attributes that a group or society
inherits from past generations, which perhaps play a role in determining why we make the decisions we make,
as well as our culture
● Our ethical and cultural codes are dynamic and have evolved over time and vary between regions. What was
once considered acceptable no longer is. Eg slavery and child labour
● Ethical principals and cultural attitudes play a large role in the status of some forms of natural capital.
○ Eg some feel nuclear power is acceptable because the risks associated with such power generation are
too high.

Social Aspects & Natural Capital:

● This is the network of relationships between people. These are very fluid as relationships come and go over
time. There is also a societal element to this as certain regions will value different relationships.

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Non-Renewable Natural Capital

● Non-renewable natural capital cannot be replaced at a rate faster than or equal to our consumption rates. It is
therefore also referred to as finite
● The non-renewable resources that can only be replaced over geological timescales.
○ Fossil fuels, minerals and rocks are all non-renewable. Technically ALL natural capital can become
non-renewable; all it takes is poor management.
○ Soil is non-renewable, as it takes more than a human-lifetime due to the slow breakdown of rocks with
organic matter added over time

SOIL DEGRADATION IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

● Three-quarters of Africa’s farmland does not have enough nutrients for the growth of crops.
● Crop yields will probably fall by up to 30% in the next 15 years.
● Africa will face more frequent famines and become more dependent on aid and imports.
● Savanna lands are being lost and this is impacting habitat areas for the unique African wildlife, which will
impact tourism.
● African grain yields are less than one third of that of Asia and South America.
● The worst soil degradation is in Guinea, Congo, Angola, Rwanda, Burundi and Uganda.
● About 500 million African people depend on agriculture for income and employment

Mismanagement

● Traditional farming methods have been abandoned. Farmers used to clear land to grow crops for a few years
then leave and move to another area. This gave the soil time to recover. This cycle would span about 15 years.
● Rapidly growing populations mean that the land cannot be left for long enough to recover fertility.
● Farmers do not have the money to buy fertilizers to replenish the soil nutrients.
● Fertilizers are two to six times more expensive in Africa than in the rest of the world.
● Poor infrastructure makes moving fertilizer around very difficult.
● Crops cannot grow in the impoverished soil so the topsoil is lost due to wind and water erosion.
● Forests and savanna are being cleared for farmland.

Solutions

● Bring the green revolution to Africa, which would mean:

○ Agents/aid workers to teach the farmers new methods that would improve agricultural productivity.
○ Better road networks so that aid agencies can send aid workers to remote areas to educate the
farmers.
○ Credit for the farmers to be able to pay for better seeds, fertilizers.
○ Better irrigation.
● Make the fertilisers and seeds needed for the green revolution accessible and affordable. This would require
improved road networks for distribution.
● Combating corruption of official’s who take funds for personal gain.

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 8.3 Solid Domestic Waste

● SDW commonly called trash/garbage is everyday items we discard. Volume and composition of such has
changed with time.
● Waste over time: used to be ashes and biodegradable waste at low volume, due to minimal food waste and
tools passed down to later generations.
○ Growing urban populations had no formal waste disposal strategies, leading to rapid build up of waste.
○ UK 19th Century: public health issue in London were chronic and cholera outbreaks common. Such
outbreaks spurred public health debates and in 1846 the Nuisance Removal and Disease Prevention Act
kicked started regulated waste management in London.
● Major waste disposal methods:
○ Landfills
○ Incineration
○ Recycling
○ Composting
● Types of Waste:
○ Organic Material: garden waste, food/kitchen waste, wood, corks
○ Paper: newspaper, writing paper, packaging cardboard, milk cartons, printer paper
○ Plastics: drink bottles, plastic bags, plastic containers
○ Glass: jars, bottles, plate glass
○ Metals: steel cans, aluminium packaging and cans, copper pipes.
○ Hazardous: paint, dry cell batteries, car batteries, fluorescent light bulbs.
○ Others: ceramics, bricks, tiles, rock, ash, soil)
● Our economy is linear, meaning we retract things from ground, use them a few times and dispose of them.
Wasting money, resources and energy + damanging the environment.
● A circular economy is restorative, materials are designed to be re used and part of the natural system (recycling).
In a circular economy there are two types of material flows:
○ Biological nutrients – these are used and then can re-enter the biosphere harmlessly. If these nutrients
are managed correctly their use is sustainable.
○ Technical nutrients – circulate without re-entering the biosphere. That is they are reused again and
again.
● Non-biodegradable waste: anything that will not breakdown into simpler components eg plastic, which is in
almost everything we use. In 2013 plastic made up 13% of the SDW in the States, from 1% in 1960
○ Plastic is made from crude oil (not recyclable, renewable or infinite). Much of plastic can however be
recycled.
○ Batteries: common in everyday life, many are now re-usable however removable batteries often end up
disposed and contain toxic materials and acid substances eg mercury
○ E-waste: fastest growing SDW, includes anything electrical or electronic devices. once it reaches the end
of its life e-waste has many toxic components e.g. lead, cadmium, and brominated flame-retardants.

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Landfills

● Oldest and most common method of waste disposal. Ground where waste material is burried. Modern landfill
sites are no longer a simple hole in the ground – environmental protection agencies are ensuring higher
standards of protection for surrounding areas.
○ Must be lined either with clay of synthetic flexible membrane (avoids leachate aka water with waste
leaking into surrounding environment and groundwater)
○ dump site should be small to monitor site
○ Compacted and reduced regularly to minimize volume
○ waste covered with soil daily
● Other regulations are also put in place:
○ When vehicles arrive they are weighed and inspected (record amount of waste and prevent toxic waste
from entering)
○ The waste collection vehicles then drive along an existing road to the tipping face where they dump their
load. Bulldozers and compactors then spread and compact the waste before the next load is dropped
○ The compacted waste at the workface is covered with one of the following - soil, chipped wood,
spray-on foam products, chemical bio-solids and temporary blankets. Lifespan of landfill depends on
■ compressibility of the waste
■ thickness of the layers
■ how often waste is compacted
■ amount of waste added each day
● Landfill produces significant amounts of gas (methane) during decomposition, leading to explosions, fires. Most
MEDCs is a requirement that they are collected and disposed
● LFGs (landfill gases) must be burnt off and potentially stored to produce electricity. collection is achieved
through a series of interconnected wells drilled into the landfill. The landfill gas is then de-watered and used in
engines/gas turbines to generate electricity.

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Incineration

● Waste treatment that involves combustion of waste. Initially simply putting hole in ground and burning waste.
The waste material is combusted and converted into:
○ Ash: this is what is left after the burn.
○ Flue gas: this may contain particulate matter (ash) and pollutants so it is scrubbed before entering the
atmosphere.
○ Heat: which may be used to generate electricity e.g. waste to energy incinerators.

Country Choices

● North America: Incineration faces problems in the States because new inexpensive landfill sites are available.
People do not believe that incinerators are better for the greenhouse gas emissions or that pollution control is
effective in improving air quality.
○ 1885 – First incinerator on Governors Island, New York.
○ 1958 – First hazardous waste incinerator built.
○ 1975 – First large scale municipally owned incinerator built (Ames, Iowa).
○ 1975 – First commercial incineration plant.
○ In 1990 there were 186 municipal incinerators but by 2007 that number had dropped to 89.
○ 2004 – The US granted incineration renewable energy production tax credits – this has increased interest
in incineration.
● Europe: Incinerators are becoming a viable option in Europe due to:
○ A ban on the use of landfill for untreated waste.
○ Tax credits are given for electricity generated through waste because it is a renewable energy source.
○ Incinerators are equipped with waste recovery equipment. This allows for the recovery of many of the
recyclelable materials that end up in landfills.

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 ○ Sweden now imports waste to supply its energy to waste facilities.
● The UK: Historically, the UK had plenty of landfill sites available. This meant that until recently the UK lagged
behind the rest of Europe in waste management alternatives. A European Union directive (instruction) on landfill
pushed the UK government to impose landfill taxes in order to:
○ Reduce the release of greenhouse gases.
○ Reduce volume of waste disposed.
○ Encourage recycling.
○ Minimise waste.
● The government position is to increase the use of incinerators to tackle this problem. In 2008 there were plans
for 100 more incinerator sites. However, the following video shows this may not be that straightforward.

Composting

● Has been practised since early Roman Times, in early times ti was simply piling up organic material and leaving it
until the next growing season, where the waste would already be decomposed and ready to mix with the soil
where it continued to breakdown and give nutrients to plants
● Composting was initially modernised in the 1920s and went through a variety of changes since. It is mainly
advocated for in MICs and LICs as it promotes agriculture boom and biodegradable waste disposal.
● Modern composting has come a long way according to some authorities. It has been tweaked and science has
been applied to the process to speed it up. This is achieved by:
○ Reducing and standardizing the size and composition of the compost.
○ Controlling the carbon-to-nitrogen ratio.
○ Monitoring and controlling moisture levels.
● Composting is a very effective waste management strategy because it combines the three R’s. Removing organic
material from the waste stream reduces the amount going in to landfills. The decomposed organic matter is
reused and recycled as soil fertilizer. Composting is simply using natural decomposition processes as a waste
disposal method. It has risen in popularity again with the realisation that soil fertility is suffering under chemical
fertilizers and we need environmentally sound methods to deal with our ever-increasing food waste.

Recycling

● Several countries are now following the 3 Rs (reduce, re use , recycle)

○ Reduce the amount of waste being produced in the first place, that is alter the human activity that
produces the waste.
○ Reuse an item multiple times, either for the original purpose or for some other purpose.
○ Recycle the material of the object by transforming it into the raw material for a new object.
● Reduce: simply because by reducing the amount of waste produced you reduce the amount you have to reuse
or recycle. (design, manufacturing and consumption) Eg Aluminium cans unly use 60% of raw materials they did
20 years ago
○ Disposable nappies (diapers) now can abrdodb 800 tines its weight in water due to polymer absorbent
gel
○ It is a petroleum based chemical so we have replaced a renewable resource (wood) with a
non-renewable one (petroleum). This then is a mixed blessing – the amount of waste is reduced but
maybe not in a sustainable way.

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● Re-use: some products can be used for the same purpose again eg glass soda bottles. The bottles can then be
sent back to the bottling factory to be cleaned and re-filled. Such schemes do have drawbacks – collection and
cleaning of the original item
○ Jars and pots can be used as stationary holders, old tyres make great swings and in Tanzania they are
made into flip-flops
○ There is also a great way to reuse old books, they can be donated to libraries, schools or book clubs.
● Recycle: last stage is for you cant reduce or re-use aka transform old product into a new raw material that can be
used for another product. It has the following benefits:
○ Prevents the loss of useful raw materials.
○ Reduces the consumption of new raw materials.
○ Reduces energy usage in some areas (though collection and processing does use energy).
○ Reduces pollution at the extraction phase of the process - getting the raw materials out of the ground.
○ Lowers the release of greenhouse gases.

8.4 Human Population Carrying Capacity

● Carrying Capacity: maximum number of individuals of a species that the environment can sustainably support in
a given area.
● Certain species (r-strategists) will follow a J-shaped curve, they will exceed carrying capacity and there will be a
crash that brings numbers back to sustainable levels. Alternatively there are (k-strategists) that follow the
S-shaped curve and population growth slows down and stays just below carrying capacity.

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 ● Human pop. Carrying Capacity: It is hard to determine human carrying capacity than other species due the
following factors:
○ Production of non-biodegradable waste which causes environmental degradation
○ Human resource needs are far more varied and extensive (necessities vs luxuries)
○ Capacity to import goofs
○ Technology changes environment

Determinants of Human Carrying Capacity

● Waste Assimilation: Humans produce waste at a rate above that at which the local environment can assimilate
it. Therefore, this becomes an additional factors that must be considered when calculating the carrying capacity
for humans.
● Range of resources: The range of resources humans use is far more varied than those of other species and that
is largely due to the fact that we have necessities and luxuries.
○ EG The amount and range of resources varies enormously between regions too. A subsistence farmer in
Amazonia consumes a much smaller amount and range of resources than a commercial farmer in
Europe.
● Imports: Humans have the ability to move goods around the world. Thus the carrying capacity of a given country
is not a simple thing to establish
● Technology: Some technological developments have increased the carrying capacity, whereas other
developments have reduced it.
● Local vs Global : Due to the fact that many of these factors vary so much between regions and within regions it
is generally accepted that the carrying capacity for the human population is calculated globally.

Ecological Footprint

● Ecological footprint: model that can be used to estimate the demands that a human population places on the
environment
● It is the opposite of carrying capacity in that it is a measure of the amount of land that is needed to support a
population. The EF considers two aspects:
○ Biocapacity: the biological capacity of an area/region/country to generate the resources and absorb the
wastes of a given population.
○ Demand: considers the amount of bioproductive land we need to provide our resources and space for
infrastructure and absorb the waste.
● Energy, travel & Goods:
○ The main issues with energy are to do with what energy source is used to generate electricity, what
emissions controls are in place, the use of energy efficient devices and energy saving measures.
○ Travel includes public vs. private transport, type fuel used, emissions controls and air travel.
○ Goods is very diverse but it includes how many gadgets do people have, built in obsolescence of
industry, how often do they replace the devises, etc.
● Settlement & Infrastructure: more space for residential and commercial areas means less space for:
○ Natural ecosystems and that can impact biodiversity negatively.
○ Crops, pasture and forests – less food can be grown, also less biofuel and other useful crops such as
cotton and flax.

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 ○ The natural environment to deal with waste products. Forests and other green plants remove carbon
from the air during photosynthesis thus countering some of the carbon emissions by the combustion of
fossil fuels.
● Foods & Fiber: Cropland is now used for non-food items:
○ Corn, sugarcane and sweet sorghum are grown for the production of bioethanol – an alternative to
petrol for cars.
○ Cotton, flax (linen) and silk (silk-worms) are grown for textiles.
○ Pharmaceuticals – many plants have medicinal qualities.
○ Tobacco – economic crop in many LEDCs.
○ Tea and coffee – also an economic crop.

Seafood

● Seafood is a slightly narrow term as we eat fish and other items from the sea and freshwater. Some of our intake
is from wild catches (many of which are now facing serious problems) and some is from farmed fish.
● A major issue with wild catch is that we are eating higher up the food chain. Most the fish we watch are from
higher trophic levels.

Different Footprints

● Carbon footprint is the total amount of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions caused by an individual, city, event,
flight, country etc. GHG are emitted through transport, land clearance production and consumption of
everything (food, fuel, manufactured goods etc.).
● Water footprint is the amount is water in your EF. This includes the water you use directly (washing and
drinking) and indirectly such as the amount of water it takes to grow your food. Some estimates suggest that it
takes 800 liters of water to produce one liter of milk.
● Food footprint – you guessed it, a measure the way our food intake impacts the EF. This takes into account the
land used in food production (crops, grass, animal feed), the land needed to absorb carbon emissions produced
during food production and the sea area for fishing.

Earth Overshoot day: (Global biocapacity/world EF) × 365

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 CALCULATIONS

● Net Primary Productivity = Gross Primary Productivity - Respiration

● GSP (Gross Secondary productivity) = food eaten - fecal loss
● Net Secondary Productivity = Gross Secondary Productivity - Respiration
● Lincoln Index

N = (n1 x n2) / m2

n1 = number of animals first marked and released

n2 = number of animals captured in the second sample

m2 = number of animals marked in the second sample

N = Lincoln Index, or total population

● Simpson's Diversity Index (need to know how to apply)

● Total Fertility rate: births per 1000 women of childbearing age

○ Rate above 2.0 = increase, below 2.0 = decrease
● CBR = Births/Total Population x 1000
● Crude Death Rate (CDR): deaths per 1000 in a population per year.
● CDR = Deaths/Total Population x 1000
● Natural Increase Rate (NIR): rate of human growth as a percent change per year.
● NIR = (CBR - CDR)/10
● Doubling Time (DT): Time it takes for a population to double.
● DT = 70/NIR
● E.g., A population with an NIR of 1% will double every 70 years

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