ESS notes
Topic 1
Environmental history
-originated in the 1960s – romans reported air and water pollution – waste was associated
with epidemic disease spread in the late 14s and 16s
Today’s environment is cause from: how individuals groups agreements and international
organization like the UN respond to these concerns. (Media now plays a vital role in world
influence). People who influence the environment -independent pressure groups “using
awareness campaigns”– corporate business negatively influence the environment (MNC and
TNC) supplying consumer demand eg mining materials. Governments make policy decisions
eg permission for land use or regulations to meet with international agreements.
Environmental viewpoints are influenced by – culture – education – background – beliefs
EVS classifications: Ecocentric – anthropocentric – technocentric | Ecocentric viewpoint,
self-efficiency, respect the rights of nature they are deep ecologists. Anthropocentric
viewpoint, humans must sustainably manage the global system. Technocentric viewpoint,
believe in all out technology and advancement blind eye to environmental considerations.
World environment viewpoints: Capitalists and communism in Germany. After the berlin war
collapsed pollution increased. However, capitalism could lead to cleaner industries and
responsibility to the environment.
Systems and models: a system can be living or non-living. materials and energy undergo
transfers and transformations in flowing from one storage to the next. | three types of
systems:
Open system: a system in which both material and energy can be exchanged across the
boundaries of the systems - Most common systems rain forest/ecosystems.
Closed system in which energy is exchanged across boundaries but matter is rare – very rare
system.
Isolated system: a system that does not exchange matter or energy – this cannot occur in any
environment – there is not matter or energy exchange
Transfers and transformations both matter or energy move or flow through ecosystems. The
movement of material through living organisms eating other animals. The movement of
material is a non-living process (water being carried by a stream). The movement of energy
(ocean currents moving heat)
Transformations liquid to gas, light to chemical energy. Energy to energy (light converted to
heat by radiating surfaces. Matter to energy (burning fossil fuels). Energy to matter
(photosynthesis)
Transfers are more efficient than transformations as they require less energy.
Transfers occur when energy or matter flows and changes location but does not change its
state
Flows and storges: both energy and matter (as inputs and outputs) through ecosystem but, at
times, they are also stored (as storages or stock within the ecosystem.
Open systems: In forest ecosystems, plants fix energy from light entering the system during
photosynthesis. Water is lost through evaporation and transportation from plants.
Closed systems are artificial, and are constructed for experimental purposes (eg an aquarium)
Model of systems: - a system is a simplified version of a real thing – models help predict
what happens in the real thing. A model could be a physical model a software model,
illustrating potential for life and potential environmentally critical statistics.
Strengths of models: easier to work with than complex reality. – can be applied to other
similar situations. – can be used to predict the effect of a change of input. – help us see
patterns. – can be used to visualize really small things cartoons and large things (solar
system) Weaknesses of models: accuracy is lost because the model is simplified. If our
assumptions are wrong the model will be wrong. Prediction may be inaccurate.
Energy and equilibria
Energy in systems. The first law of thermodynamics (law of conservation of energy) – energy
is an isolated system can be transformed but cannot be created or destroyed. Energy is
constant.
In our body food provides chemical energy which you convert into heat or kinetic energy
The second law of thermodynamics states that the entropy of an isolated system not in
equilibrium will tent to increase over time. Entropy is a measure of disorder of a system, and
it refers to the spreading out of energy. More entropy = less energy.
Plants convert solar energy to stored sugars is 1-2% efficient. There will always be energy
distribution when moving through trophic levels.
Negative feedback (good) :
Counteracts any deviation, results in self-regulation of a system
Examples of steady state equilibrium: people maintaining a constant body weight thus
burning all the calories, no change in mass.
Feedback loop: when information that starts a reaction in turn may input more information
which may start another reaction.
Positive feedback loop: Change a system to a new state, destabilizing as they increase
change.
Negative feedback loop: return in its original form. Stabilizing as they reduce change.
Examples of negative feedback loops
1- Global temperatures rise, leading to melting ice caps, more water, leads to more
clouds more solar radiation is reflected by clouds. So global temperature’s falls.
Positive feedback loops: your body temperature goes below 37 degrees; you begin to shiver
your body enzymes slowdown from the cold weather you die of hyperthermia.
Resilience of systems is the ability of a system to return to its original state after a
disturbance. The more resilient a system is, the more disturbance it can deal with.
Resilience isn’t always good, eg photogenic bacteria causing fatal disease, resilient to
antibiotics therefore kills people.
Topic 5 introduction to soil systems
Soil: is a mixture of mineral particles and organic material that covers the land, and in which
terrestrial plants grow. It is made up of minerals, organic material, gases. And liquid.
Pedosphere: soil sphere
Storages: organic matter, organisms, nutrients, minerals, air and water
Transfers within the soil: biological mixing, (movements of soil particles)
Soil model:
Translocation: materials are sorted, and layers are formed by water carrying particles either
up or down
Soil horizons
O Horizon: organic matter
A Horizon: mineral matter mixed with humus
E Horizon: mineral particles
B Horizon: accumulation of clay from above
C horizon: partially altered parent material
Unweather parent material
Types of soil texture
1. Sandy: Grainy and fall apart easily
2. Silty: slippery and wet hold together better than sandy soil
3. Clay: sticky and be rolled into a ball easily
4. Loam soil: ideal for agriculture
Porosity: Amount of space between particles
Permeability: the ease at which gases and liquids pass through soil
Acidification of soil: Acid rain causing pollution, affecting soil and causing damage to
evergreen forestry.
5.2 terrestrial food production systems and choices
Types of farming systems:
1. Subsistence farming
- Provision of food by farmers for their community or family
- Low inputs of energy
2. commercial farming
- large, profit making
- high levels of technology
3. Extensive and intensive
- Extensive: more use of land with lower density
- Intensive: uses intensive amount with higher output
Basic food facts
- World food production is concentrated through the northern hemisphere temperate
zone
- Africa: only 7% of land area is cultivated
- LEDCs have 80% of the world’s population
Factors that influence choice of food eaten and grown:
-climate
-cultural religious
-politics
-socio economic
Harvesting
- Requires the removal of biomass from the field
- Net loss of biomass, nutrients, minerals
Example of rice production is California
- Hight inputs of chemical and energy
- Low labor intensity
- High productivity
Factors causing decrease in agricultural land
- Soil erosion
- Salinization
- Desertification
- Urbanization
How to increase sustainability of food supplies
1. Maximizing yield: improve technology, alter what we grow or a green revolution
2. Reduce food waste: improve storage
LEDC: waste mostly in production and storage (no refrigeration, lack of good storage
severe weather)
MEDC: mostly in consumption buying more than what’s needed, stricter standards in
supermarkets
3. Monitoring and control: regulate imports and exports to reduce unsustainable
agricultural practices
4. Change attitudes towards diet and food: eat less meat, eat different crops, increase
insect consumption
5. Reduce food processing: decrease us of transport and packaging (ex, plastic, fuel, etc
overall decrease in energy use)
Predictions
-More people will eat meat
-Population to grow by 8 billion by 2030
-Decrease in hungry people to about 440 million
-Extra billion tonnes of cereal will be needed
5.3 Soil Degradation
2 types of processes (which give rise to soil degradation):
1. Taking away soil (erosion): occurs when there is no vegetation in the soil
2. Making soil less suitable for use:
- Chemicals entering soil which render soil useless in the long run
- Human activities: overgrazing, deforestation, unsuitable agriculture
Overgrazing:
- When too many animals graze in the same area
- Leaves bare patches where roots don’t hold soil together
Sahel region: Africa occurs there (1970-80s)
Overcropping:
- Depletes soil nutrients and makes soil dry
- Reduced soil fertility
Deforestation: Removal of forests
- Removal of vegetation leads to erosion
Unsustainable agriculture techniques
- Total removal of crops after harvest
- Excessive use of pesticide
- Irrigation
- Monocropping: nutrients are depleted, and soil loses fertility
Urbanization: refers to the increasing number of people that live in urban areas
- More people live in urban regions than in rural for the first time in human history
- A lot of potential agriculturally suitable land is used for cities
Soil conservation
- Insert soil conditioners, crushed limestone counters soil acidification
- Contour farming: the process of planting across a slope on different elevations
following the contour lines
- Improve irrigation techniques: drip irrigation most water efficient wat the water is
applied slowly
Topic 6
6.1 introduction to the atmosphere: dynamic system with inputs, outputs, storages and flows
%78 nitrogen 21% oxygen, rest (Co2, argon, ozone ….)
Stratosphere (space) and Troposphere (earth) are where most reactions that affect our life
occur.
Factors influencing climate: - Abiotic factors – temperature and precipitation, Biotic -plants
and animals
Greenhouse effect: natural and essential phenomenon for maintaining suitable temperatures
for living systems – good thing for life on earth (no life without it)
Caused by trapping gases in the atmosphere reducing heat loss by radiation back into space.
Solar radiation – nearly 50% is absorbed, scattered, or reflected by the atmosphere before it
reaches earths surface.
Main gases involved: water vapor, methane, Co2
6.2 stratospheric ozone
Ozone: found in two layers of the atmosphere (stratosphere = good, troposphere = bad)
Ozone is a molecule made of three oxygen atoms
Stratospheric ozone blocks incoming UV radiation from the sun
Ozone is also a GHG which is reactive + found in lower stratosphere
Ozone layer: example of dynamic equilibrium as it is continuously made of oxygen atoms
and converted back to oxygen
UV radiation is absorbed in formation and destruction of ozone
Three types of UV radiation
UV-B, UV-C most harmful UV-A least harmful
Damaging: genetic mutation, skin cancer, damage to photosynthetic organism
(Phytoplankton)
Benefits: vitamin D production is stimulated, used as a sterilizer, lasers
ODS- Ozone depleting substances
1. Chloflourocarbons: Extremely stable, persist in the atmosphere for up to 100 years,
spray cans, released chlorine atoms leading to ozone destruction
2. Hydrochlorofluorocarbons: replacement for CFCs (stronger GHGs)
3. Halons: fire extinguishers, releases bromine atoms
1 chlorine atom can destroy many
Reducing ODS:
1. Before – Alter human activity
-Replace CFCs with Co2
2. During – regulate and reduce pollutants
-recover and recycle CFCs from refrigerators/AC units or capture CFC from scrap car
AC units
3. After – clean up and restore
-add ozone to or remove chlorine from stratosphere
Montreal protocol
- Agreement to phase out the production of ozone-depleting substances
- Best example of international cooperation on environmental issue
- Many researchers came together to research and solve problems
- First tie regulations were carefully monitored
6.3 photochemical smog
Urban air pollution
- 1 billion people are exposed to outdoor air pollution p/year
- 1 million people die prematurely due to air pollution
Primary pollutants: emitted directly from a process and produced:
- Carbon monoxide/dioxide
- Nitrogen oxides
- Sulphur oxides
Other sources: building sites and forest fires
secondary pollutants: when primary pollutants undergo reactions with other chemicals
-tropospheric ozone
-particles produced from gaseous primary pollutants
Tropospheric ozone: 10% of atmosphere zone is in troposphere
- Ozone = GHG with GW potential of 2000x more than CO2
Possible effects of ozone
- Toxic gas
- Breathing issues
- Attack rubber, plastics
Formation of particles
- Burning fossil fuels releases small particles of carbon and other substances
Dangers of particulates
- Our respiratory filters (nose) cannot filter them out resulting in asthma, and other
problems
Formation of photochemical smog
- sunny days with a lot of traffic can led to photochemical smog
- burning of forests can contribute
- mainly composed of nitrogen dioxide and ozone
occurrence of photochemical smog is influenced by factors such as local topography, climate,
density, fossil fuel use
pollution management model for reducing urban air pollution
before:
- consume less, burn less fossil fuel
- lobby governments to increase renewable energy use
During:
- government regulation/taxation
After:
- Regreening of cities (more trees + parks to absorb Co2)
- Afforestation to filter air
6.4 Acid Deposition
Acid coming down from the air
Wet: rain or snow form
Dry: ash/dry particles
Acidity: no acid rain until pH is below 5.6
Acid deposition pollutants
- Sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides react with water in the atmosphere forming
sulphuric and nitric acids
Acid deposition sources:
- Sulphur dioxide: produced by volcanic eruptions
- Sulfur is common in oil and coal, but usually absent in natural gas
- Nitrogen oxides
- Emitted by human activities such as combustion of fossil fuels
If primary pollutants remain in the atmosphere for too long a variety of secondary pollutants
can be formed
Effects of acid deposition on soil, plants, water:
- Direct: weaking forest growth, reducing pH of water in lakes
- Indirect: toxic effects and leaching of nutrients
- Yk this from IA
Effects of acid deposition on forests:
- Leaves and buds become yellow
- Reduced growth
- Releases toxic aluminum ions from soil particles which damages root hairs
Toxic effects of acid deposition
1. Aluminum ions: effects on aquatic organisms
- Fish are sensitive to aluminum in water
- Low concentrations: aluminum disturbs ability to regulate the amount of salt in
the body
- High concentrations: solid is formed on gills leading to death
2. Lichens
- Sensitive to gaseous pollutants (like Sulphur dioxide)
- Indicator species of high levels of air pollution (indirect measure of pollution)
3. Buildings
- Limestone buildings reach with acid and dissolve
Regional effect of acid rain deposition
- Dry: closer to source of acidic substances, consists of Sulphur dioxide, Sulphur
trioxide and nitrogen oxides.
- Wet: slightly longer distances than source, consists of Sulphur acid, nitric acid and
sulphuric acid.
Role of international agreements in reducing acid deposition
Clean air act (1995) to reduce Sulphur dioxide
- 50% reductions on average achieved in 2000 (Europe)
- Due to clean technology and changes in lifestyle
Reducing effect of acid depositions
Before:
- Reducing emissions (renewable energy sources)
- Reduce demand for electricity through education campaigns
- Reducing Sulphur emissions by removing Sulphur
During
- End of pipe measures (removes Sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxide from waste
gases)
After
- Liming lakes to balance acidity, Expensive and only treats symptoms not the
cause
- International agreements (difficult to establish + monitor)
Topic 7 climate change and energy security
Energy security: ability to secure affordable, reliable, efficient energy for needs of a
country.
Depends on: availability of supply, technological developments, politics, economics,
sustainability, environmental consideration
Coal= 230 Years Gas= 170 years Oil= 100 years
Nuclear fusion: extracting heavy water from water and fusing 2 hydrogen atoms to make
helium.
There is low investment in renewables:
- TNCs are committed to carbon economy
- Fossils are cheaper (ignore environmental cost_
- Countries are locked into trade agreements
- Renewables are location dependent
Bridge fuel: promoting natural gas consumption through oil/gas companies convincing
governments to get the country off coal until renewables are developed.
Co2 emissions: China, USA, EU (industrial) Per capita: USA, Singapore
Coal +cheap to burn -co2 (non-renewable)
+plentiful supply -smog + lung disease
Oil +high heat of combustion -oil spill danger
+once found = cheap -co2 emitted when burned
Natural gas +cheap -leaks are dangerous
+cleaner than oil/coal -30% cleaner than oil/coal
Nuclear fission +no co2 -high extraction costs
+small amount of uranium -reactors are expensive to
produces a lot build
Hydroelectric +good safety record -dams (ecological impacts)
+creates water reserves - costly to build + run
Biomass +cheap/ readily available -not replanted: unsustainable
+if crops replanted: -burned = GHG
sustainable
Wood +cheap/ readily available -low heat of combustion
+trees replaced = sustainable -high transportation costs
Solar photovoltaic +can be distributed -costly maintenance
+infinite and safe -needs sunshine
Concentrated solar +renewable -new so still improving
+cost same s fossil stations -tropics
Solar passive +minimal cost if properly -needs good architects
designed
Wind +green jobs -noise pollution
+clean energy -needs wind to blow
Tidal +ideal for island countries -construction is costly
+prevent flooding -impact on wildlife
Wave +island countries -storms damage them
+small operations -construction is costly
Geothermal +infinite supply -expensive to set up
+used successfully in NZ -only volcanic activity areas
7.2 climate change: causes and impacts
Weather: daily result of changes in temperature, pressure, and precipitation in the
atmosphere.
Climate: average weather patterns over many years for a location on earth
Difference: timescale
Similarities: both are affected by clouds, forest fires, volcanic eruptions, human activities
climate change: long term change and has always happened
Factors that affect it:
- Fluctuations in solar insolation affecting temperature
- Changing proportions of gases in the atmosphere released by organisms
Gases include water vapor, Co2, methane, CFCs, HFCs, nitrous oxide, ozone
GWP: relative measure of how much heat a know mass of GHG traps over a number of years
compared to the same mass Co2
GWP of different gases
- Co2 is 1
- Methane is 21
- Nitrous oxide is 206
- CFC is 3500
- Ozone is 2000
Ozone in troposphere: GHG
Ozone is stratosphere: acts as a coolant
CFC: chemicals made by humans
Sources of methane:
- Swamps and bogs
- Tundra: permafrost melting releases methane (positive feedback loop)
Impacts of climate change:
- Ocean and sea levels: water expands and ice melting on land slips off into the sea
increasing the volume of seawater (thermal expansion) + ocean buffering
- Polar ice caps: melting of land ice (glaciers), could open trade routes, make travel
easier, allow exploitation of undersea resources GREENLAND ANTARTICA
- On glaciers: glacial summer melt provides a fresh water supply to people but also
causes flooding and landslides
- Weather patterns: more heat means more energy in climate so weather will be
more violent (Global weirding)
- Food production: warmer temperatures increase photosynthesis but there may be
no increase in NPP, small increase in temperature kills plankton
- Biodiversity and ecosystems: plants cannot move (can become extinct),
wildfires and droughts affect animals. Increase in temperature of water can kill
sensitive animals.
- Water supplies: increased evaporation rate can cause lakes/rivers to dry up
- Human health: algal blooms/red tides (asthma/chest infections)
Human migration: if people can’t grow food, they will migrate (environmental
refugees)
National Economies: gains and losses
Positive feedback Negative feedback
-more evaporation leads to more clous -more evaporation leads to more clouds
which traps more hear which reflects more hear
-ice has high albedo which means that -warmer air carries more water vapor so
when it melts, it has low albedo, and it more rainfall, some of which will be
absorbs more hear and more ice melts snow so more snow, more reflection,
-As temperature rises, permafrost melts lower temperature’s, more ice.
and methane are released -forests absorb Co2 and act as a carbon
sink to decrease temperature
7.3 climate change – mitigation and adaptation
Mitigation: reduction/stabilization of GHG emissions and their removal from the
atmosphere.
Adaptation: adjustment in natural or human systems in response to actual or expected
climatic affects. Reducing our vulnerability to the harmful effects of climate change.
Mitigation strategies:
- Reduce energy waste by using it more efficiently
- Changing lifestyles and business practices (public transport)
- Adopt carbon taxes and remove fossil fuel subsidy
- Improve efficiency of energy production
- Reduce methane production (change cow diets)
- Sustainable agriculture practices
B: remove Co2 from atmosphere
- Increase photosynthesis
- Carbon capture and storage
- Use more biomass as a source of fuel (if same crop is planted in the following
year, an = amount of Co2 to that is released by burning the fuel is then captured
by photosynthesis)
C: Geoengineering
- Release Sulphur dioxide from airplanes to increase global dimming
- Send mirrors to space between the earth and sun to deflect solar radiations
- Build with light colored roofs to increase albedo and reflect more sunlight
Adaptation strategies:
- Change land use through planning legislation
- Build to resist flooding
- Change agricultural production (rainwater harvesting, growing different crops,
drought tolerant crops)
- Managing the weather (planting trees)
- Migrating to other areas
- Managing water supplies (desalination, increasing reservoirs)
- Vaccination against water borne diseases
Topic 8 Human Population Dynamics
Demographics: study of dynamics of population change
Crude birth rate: (# of births/population)1000
Crude death rate: (# of deaths/ population) 1000
Natural increase rate: rate of human growth (CBR-CDR)/10
Doubling time: time it takes in years for a population to double in size
Total fertility rate: average # of children/women/lifetime
Human development index: a measure of well-being of a country
MEDCs LEDCs
Europe, North America, South Africa, Japan Sub-Saharan, Asian, South America
industrialized nations + high GDP Less industrialized/barley any industries
Rich population Natural capital processed in MEDCs
No poverty/starving Lower GDP: high poverty
High resource use per capita Low standards of living
Low population due to low CBR but high High population growth rates (failing CDR)
CDR Low ecological footprints
High ecological footprints
Why are we more flexible than other species: carrying capacity
- Import food reducing family size:
- Adaptation/mitigation -education, health enhance income
- Adopt to food choices
- resource management
-
Limitations:
Fall in death rate hasn’t been as steep
Death from AIDS-related diseases can affect this
Assumes increasing education and literacy for women
Malthusian theory
Food supply was a limit to population growth
Population can never increase beyond food supplies necessary to support it
Ignores reality (only poor go hungry)
Did not consider technology (globalization)
Boserup theory
Population size increase food production
Technology increase food production
Population growth leads to development
Migration happens in overpopulated areas
Overpopulation can lead to bad farming
Resource use in society
Renewable natural capital: can be generated/replaced as fast as it is being used
Non-renewable natural capital: either irreplaceable or only replaced over geological
timescales
natural capital: resource that has value to human
capital includes:
- Natural sources with value
- Natural sources that provide services
- Processes (water cycle)
Renewable natural capital Non-renewable natural capital
Living species and ecosystems that use solar Finite amounts: not renewed/replaced after
energy and photosynthesis they’ve been used/depleted
Groundwater and ozone layer Alternatives need to be found
Recyclable resources: iron ore is non-renewable
Steel and iron in cars in cars can be recycled
Artic:
- Mineral riches surrounding artic ocean (hydrocarbons)
- Climate change causing it to warm up (more ice-free days)
- Canada, Denmark, Iceland, Norway, Russia has artic ocean coastlines
- They are jostling for ownership of the region’s frozen seas
Antarctic:
- 98% covered in ice and snow
- Humans exploit it through tourism, fishing, and whaling
- Nobody owns it but seven have staked territorial claims via (The Antarctic treaty)
Changing value of natural capital
- Lithium production not enough to power electric cars if they were to replace cars
with petrol engines
Valuing natural capital
Use valuation – use natural capital we can put prices on
- Economic price of marketable goods
- Recreational functions (tourism
Non-use valuation natural capital that is impossible to put a price on
- If it has intrinsic value (right to exist)
- If it has future uses, we aren’t aware of (science, medicine)
- If it has existential value (amazon rain forest)
8.3 solid domestic waste:
-trash
-something is waste when there is no value for the producer
Strategies to minimize waste:
1. Reduce
- Change shopping habits, buy things that will last
- Buy energy efficient, recyclable goods
2. Reuse
- Compost food waste
- Use old clothes as cleaning rags
- read E books
3. recycle
strategies for waste disposal
1. landfills
+cheap initial cost
+away from highly populated areas
+methane used to generate electricity
-issues with leaking gases
-contaminate groundwater and corps
-cause health problems
2. incinerators
+Ash can be used in road building
+generates steam and powers heat by buildings nearby
-burning waste causes air pollution
-expensive
8.4 human systems and resource use
Carrying capacity: the maximum number of species or load that be sustainably supported by a
given area
Difficulties in measuring human carrying capacity
- greater range of resources used
- substitution of resources if another run out
- resource use varies person to person
- import resources from outside out immediate environment
ways to change human carrying capacity
1. eccentric
- try to reduce use of non-renewable resources
- use solar cells for electricity and rainwater for water supply
2. technocentric
- reuse, recycle and remanufacturing
ecological footprint: area of land and water required to support a defined human population
at a given standard of living
- the model estimates demand that human population place on the environment
- vary from country
depends on several factors
- area of land needed to absorb wastes (water, sewage, CO2)
- Population size
- Cropland to grow food
- World carrying capacity does not change but local does
