THEORY - PARAGRAPH WRITING 2

PARAGRAPH WRITING 2

TYPES OF PARAGRAPHS
● Narrative Paragraph - tells a story about an event, adventure, scene, or happening

● Descriptive Paragraph - describes specific sensory details about a person, place, or thing

● Expository Paragraph - gives information, explains directions, or shows how something happens

● Persuasive Paragraph - tries to convince the reader of the author’s point of view

Read each paragraph carefully and decide whether it is a narrative, descriptive, expository, or persuasive paragraph.
Label it appropriately in the blank.
1. Paragraph Type (narrative, descriptive, expository, or persuasive) _______________________
To be healthy, teens can exercise, eat nutritious foods, and keep themselves safe. First, participating in various kinds of fitness can
keep them in shape. This can include walking, riding their bikes, and playing sports. Next, maintaining a nutrient-rich diet can
help teens stay well. Three balanced meals and two wholesome snacks a day can keep their health on track. Finally, staying out of
dangerous situations can keep teens healthy. Avoiding strangers, wearing seatbelts in cars, and checking smoke detectors are all
great ways to accomplish this task. Teens who follow these
tips will keep their bodies unharmed and in good physical shape.

2. Paragraph Type (narrative, descriptive, expository, or persuasive) _______________________

One of the oddest coincidences in my life happened when I left America to visit Seoul, South Korea. A friend and I wanted to visit
a castle in Seoul, so we found some locals who agreed to take us to see it. As we were walking up some steps from one part of the
grounds to another, I saw some people watching us from the top of the steps. When I got to the top, someone I had never seen
before mentioned my sister’s name and asked if I was her sister. I almost couldn’t talk! How could these people know my sister,
who lived in Australia? They explained that they were my sister’s neighbors in Australia and that I looked just like her. It was the
strangest experience in my life!

3. Paragraph Type (narrative, descriptive, expository, or persuasive) _______________________

Pets should be allowed in school for a number of reasons. First, they help students feel more comfortable. Some students feel very
uncomfortable in a school setting, but taking along a pet gerbil or gecko might help students relax. Also, students can make
friends more easily with a pet. A pet frog or tarantula can gather quite a crowd; and when students see what pets they have in
common, they can unite around their common interests. Finally, pets can keep students safe. Who wants to bully a student who
has a protective dog with him? For all of these reasons, students should be allowed to take their pets to school.

4. Paragraph Type (narrative, descriptive, expository, or persuasive) _______________________

Hanging on my bedroom wall is a picture of a train. Sometimes, when I’m lying on my bed, I take a closer look. The front of the
train has a number of flags, but they don’t look like today’s American flag. Instead, these flags have stripes and a circle of stars.
The train is at a station, and the conductor is walking toward the tracks in front of the train. Is he preparing to speak to all of the
hat-wearing men and children behind him, or is he checking out the tracks? I can’t decide. The clock on the post outside the
station says it is about six fifteen, and I’m guessing that it’s evening and not morning since it doesn’t look dark. I can just imagine
the smell of coal and hear the sound of the
train as it snorts and breathes, chomping at the bit to get moving. The picture always makes me think about life in the past.

5. Paragraph Type (narrative, descriptive, expository, or persuasive) _______________________

All students should be required to learn how to use the internet. First, because the web gives students access to a tremendous
amount of research from the comfort of school or home, they can save time doing research if they learn to use this resource. For
example, if students want to write about poodles, they can easily go to a search engine and find all of the resources they could
possibly want or need on the topic. Next, the internet allows instant communication with access to everything from email to
Skype. Students who have access to the web can communicate with parents and friends during breaks, resolving issues or letting
parents know about a schedule
change. Finally, learning to use the internet will help students compete in the highly-competitive and technologically savvy world.
Many jobs today require employees to use the internet, and if students don’t know how to do this, they will be stuck in lower-
paying jobs. Clearly, the internet is a necessity in today’s world, so all students should learn how to use it.

Compare/Contrast paragraph
What Is Comparison and Contrast?

When you buy something — for example, an air conditioner, a car, a hair drier, or a computer — you often
comparison-shop, looking at various models to determine how they are alike and how they are different.

Eventually, you decide which one you want to buy. In other words, you compare and contrast. When you

compare, you look at how two things are similar. When you contrast, you look at how they are different.

Comparison-and-contrast paragraphs can examine just similarities, just differences, or both. When you write a
comparison-and-contrast paragraph, keep the following guidelines in mind:

■ A comparison-and-contrast paragraph should begin with a topic sentence that tells readers whether the
paragraph is going to discuss similarities or differences. The topic sentence should also make clear the focus of
the comparison (for example, “Toni Morrison and Maya Angelou have similar ideas about race and society” or
“My parents and I have different ideas about success”).
■ A comparison-and-contrast paragraph should discuss the same or similar points for both subjects, one by
one. Points should be arranged in logical order—for example, from least important to most important.
■ A comparison-and-contrast paragraph should end with a concluding statement that reinforces the main point of
the comparison.
There are two kinds of comparison-and-contrast paragraphs: subject-by-subject comparisons and point-by-point
comparisons.

Subject-by-Subject Comparisons
In a subject-by-subject comparison, you divide your comparison into two parts and discuss one subject at a time.
In the first part of the paragraph, you discuss all your points about one subject. Then, in the second part, you
discuss all your points about the other subject, comparing it to the first. (In each part of the paragraph, you discuss
the points in the same order.)

A subject-by-subject comparison is best for short paragraphs in which you do not discuss too many points. Because
readers are not asked to remember a great many points, they will have little difficulty keeping track of the
comparison as they read.

A subject-by-subject comparison generally has the following structure.

Topic Sentence ____________________________________

Subject A ________________________________________

Point 1 _________________________________________

Point 2 _________________________________________

Point 3 _________________________________________

Subject B ________________________________________

Point 1 _________________________________________

Point 2 _________________________________________

Point 3 _________________________________________

Concluding Statement _____________________________

Point-by-Point Comparisons

When you write a point-by-point comparison, you discuss a point about one subject and then discuss the same
point for the second subject. You use this alternating pattern throughout the paragraph.
A point-by-point comparison is a better strategy for paragraphs in which you discuss many points. It is also a
better choice if the points you are discussing are technical or complicated. Because you compare the two subjects
one point at a time, readers will able to see each point of comparison before moving on to the next point.
A point-by-point comparison generally has the following structure.

Topic Sentence ____________________________________

Point 1 __________________________________________

Subject A ________________________________________

Subject B ________________________________________
 Point 2 __________________________________________

Subject A ________________________________________

Subject B ________________________________________

Point 3 __________________________________________

Subject A ________________________________________

Subject B ________________________________________

Concluding Statement _____________________________

A summary

Comparison Paragraphs
Purpose: A comparison paragraph shows the similarities and/or differences between two people, things, or ideas.
Key Features: A comparison paragraph has the following features:

● two subjects

● compared similarities or contrasted differences

● similarities or differences that are not so obvious

● point-by-point method or block method

Uses: A comparison paragraph may show the following:

● similarities between two things

● differences between two things

● strengths and weaknesses of something

● advantages and disadvantages of something

Thesis Statements for Comparison/Contrast

The topic sentence of a paragraph or the thesis of an essay should name the subjects (A and B) and
announce the focus on contrast and/or comparison.

● In a blueprinted thesis, the writer spells out the main points the essay will cover.

● In a general thesis, the writer states a general opinion but leaves the enumeration of points to the body of
the essay.
 Examples of General Thesis Statements
1. Fred Flintstone of The Flintstones and Ralph Kramden of The Honeymooners are remarkably
similar.
The topic sentence names the subjects of the comparison, Fred and Ralph, and announces the focus
on similarities.
2. When we moved from Chapel Hill to Richmond, I discovered my new and old neighborhoods were
not as different as I had expected.
This topic sentence names the subjects, Chapel Hill and Richmond, and announces comparison as
the focus.
3. My neighborhoods in Chapel Hill and Richmond had similar kinds of kids and similar activities.
(Blueprinted thesis)
Notice how this topic sentence names the subjects, Chapel Hill and Richmond, and spells out the
areas of similarity.
Contrast Thesis Examples
1. Although football and soccer are both popular sports for kids, football is more expensive and more
dangerous than soccer.
The topic sentence names the subjects, football and soccer, and spells out the areas of difference.
2. My junior and senior years in high school were as different as night and day.
This topic sentence names the subjects, junior and senior years, and announces contrast as the focus.
3. My junior and senior years in high school differed in the amount of work expected of me and the
amount of freedom I had. (Blueprinted thesis)
Notice that the main idea statement names the two subjects to be compared, junior and senior years,
and spells out the differences that the writer will develop.

Comparison/Contrast Thesis Examples

1. Despite the two shows’ obvious differences in form and setting, the main characters of each share a
number of similarities. Fred Flintstone of The Flintstones and Ralph Kramden of The
Honeymooners are similar in appearance, habits, and occupations.
The thesis names the subjects of the comparison, Fred and Ralph, and lists their similarities.
2. Although ultralight and single-engine planes are visually similar, their flight characteristics differ
in speed, flight requirements, and cost.
The thesis announces the subjects of the essay, ultralight and single-engine planes, and spells out
their differences.
3. Although Shakespeare’s Hamlet and Tom Stoppard’s Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead are
from different periods and are different genres, they are similar in plot, theme, and
 characterization. (Blueprinted thesis)
This essay will emphasize similarities.
Deciding which of these two methods of organization to use is largely a personal choice, though there are
several factors to consider. The one-side-at-a-time method/block method tends to convey a more unified feeling
because it highlights broad similarities and differences. It is, therefore, an effective approach for subjects that are
fairly uncomplicated. This strategy also works well when essays are brief; the reader won‟t find it difficult to
remember what has been said about subject A when reading about subject B.
Because the point-by-point method permits more extensive coverage of similarities and differences, it is
often a wise choice when subjects are complex. This pattern is also useful for lengthy essays because readers would
probably find it difficult to remember, let‟s say, ten pages of information about subject A while reading the next ten
pages about subject B. The point-by-point approach, however, may cause readers to lose sight of the broader
picture, so remember to keep them focused on your central point

Transitions Commonly Used in Comparison:

1. in the same way

2. in a similar way

3. and, also, in addition

4. as well as

5. both, neither

6. each of

7. just as…so

8. similar to

9. similarly

10. like

11. moreover

12. too

13. the same

Transitions Commonly Used in contrast:

1. although

2. whereas

3. but

4. however
5. conversely

6. on the other hand

7. on the contrary

8. in contrast

9. while

10. yet

11. unlike

12. different from

13. in contrast with

14. as opposed to
 ADVANTAGES OR DISADVANTAGES PARAGRAPH

STEP-BY-STEP EXAMPLE 1 TOPIC: What are the advantages OR disadvantages of riding a bike?

Step 1. ADVANTAGES of riding a bike.

Write down your ideas. (You need two or three ideas for a paragraph)
· healthy
· economical
· good for the environment

Step 2. Let’s put our ideas together and make sentences.

Riding a bike is healthy. Riding a bike is economical. Riding a bike is good for the environment.

Is this a paragraph? No, not yet!

Step 3. What can we do to turn our sentences into a paragraph? We can add a sentence to the beginning of your paragraph. We
call such a sentence a “topic sentence”.

Riding a bike has three advantages. Riding a bike is healthy. Riding a bike is economical. Riding a bike is good for the
environment.

Is this a paragraph? Not yet! It is not well structured.

Step 4. We can add some transition words to our sentences.

Riding a bike has three advantages. Firstly, riding a bike is healthy. Secondly, riding a bike is economical. Finally, riding a bike is
good for the environment.

Is this a paragraph? Not yet!

It is still very short, and does not have any details or explanation.

Step 5. Let’s add some details and explanation.

Riding a bike has three advantages. Firstly, riding a bike is healthy. It is a great form of exercise for everyone. It helps us to
keep fit and have an active life. Secondly, riding a bike is economical. When we ride our bikes, we don’t need to drive, pay for
gas, or pay for public transportation. It is free, so we don’t spend any money. It is a great choice if we want to save money.
Finally, riding a bike is good for the environment. Bicycles do not cause any air pollution because there is no CO2 emission.
Also, bikes do not cause any noise pollution. When we ride a bike, we also protect our planet.

Step 6. Our paragraph is almost complete. It has a topic sentence, three advantages, transition words, and enough details and
explanation. It has 118 words. Now we add one final sentence to make our paragraph even better. We call such a sentence a
“concluding sentence”.

Riding a bike has three advantages. Firstly, riding a bike is healthy. It is a great form of exercise for everyone. It also helps us to
keep fit, and have an active life. Secondly, riding a bike is economical. When we ride our bikes, we don’t need to drive, pay for
gas, or pay for public transportation. It is free, so we don’t spend any money. It is a great choice if we want to save money. Finally,
riding a bike is good for the environment. Bicycles do not cause any air pollution because there is no CO2 emission. Also, bikes do
not cause any noise pollution. When we ride a bike, we also protect our planet from. To summarize, riding a bike is very
advantageous.

STEP-BY-STEP EXAMPLE 2 TOPIC: What are the advantages OR disadvantages of riding a bike?

Step 1. DISADVANTAGES of riding a bike.

· dangerous
· expensive
· not fast enough

Step 2. Write full sentences with your ideas.

Riding a bike can be dangerous. Riding a bike is expensive. Bikes are not fast enough.

Step 3. Add the “topic sentence”.

There are three disadvantages of riding a bike. Riding a bike can be dangerous. Riding a bike is expensive. Bikes are not fast
enough.

Step 4. Add transition words.

There are three disadvantages of riding a bike. Firstly, riding a bike can be dangerous. Secondly, riding a bike is expensive. Finally,
bikes are not fast enough.

Step 5. Add details and explanation.

There are three disadvantages of riding a bike. Firstly, riding a bike can be dangerous. There are a lot of cars and big vehicles in
traffic. Sometimes drivers are not careful, so bikers can have accidents on busy roads. Secondly, riding a bike is expensive. A good
quality bike is very expensive nowadays. Also, bikers need helmets and protective gear. All these items are also very expensive.
Finally, bikes are not fast enough. Bikes are slower than cars, buses, and metros. In big cities, people don’t have a lot of time, so
bikes are not an ideal form of transportation for them.
Step 6. Add the “concluding sentence”.

There are three disadvantages of riding a bike. Firstly, riding a bike can be dangerous. There are a lot of cars and big vehicles in
traffic. Sometimes drivers are not careful, so bikers can have accidents on busy roads. Secondly, riding a bike is expensive. A good
quality bike is very expensive nowadays. Also, bikers need helmets and protective gear. All these items are also very expensive.
Finally, bikes are not fast
enough. Bikes are slower than cars, buses, and metros. In big cities, people don’t have a lot of time, so bikes are not an ideal
form of transportation for them. To summarize, riding a bike is disadvantageous for many reasons.

OPINION PARAGRAPH
What’s an opinion paragraph?
An opinion paragraph has three main parts.
- The topic sentence states the opinion.
- The body sentences support the opinion with reasons.
- The ending sentence restates or emphasizes the opinion.
How to Write an Opinion Paragraph
In order to write a paragraph with a good opinion, there are several things you should do, namely:
1. Write your opinion in the topic of sentence clearly
2. Explain each reason in logical order
3. Use facts to support each reason
4. Finish your paragraph with a concluding sentence at the end.
The Difference Between Facts and Opinions
Opinions are statements that come from a person’s beliefs/thoughts about something. Expressions such as, “I believe …“, “I think
that …“, or “According to me, …” are being used to express your opinion.
Opinions is different from facts. Opinion could or couldn’t be approved people, while they couldn’t deny facts, because facts are
true statements that don’t come from someone’s thoughts.
Read a few sentences below so you can understand the difference between opinions and facts better:

Facts Opinion

The sun rises in the east The sunrise was beautiful this morning

This lake’s temperature is under 10oC The lake is too cold for swimming

Based on the police reports, it is dangerous to use cell phone while

Using a cell phone while driving is dangerous
driving.

It was forbidden for women to vote in the United States until 1920 Everyone should vote
 Mr. Vance said, “I am a bad father.” Mr. Vance is a bad father

When you write an opinion paragraph, you can write about something in your mind, but it will give a stronger reason for people to
believe it if you add some facts that will support your opinion.

Example 1
According to my research, violent video games are harmful to young people.
First, playing these games can cause changes in the behavior of young people. Frequent players have poorer grades in school,
according to studies by psychologists.
The next reason is that violent video games make young people less sensitive to violence in the real world. The games are toxic to
children that make it looks fun to shoot and kill, and the line between play violence and real violence becomes very thin or
disappears entirely.
The last reason is that violent video games teach players to use violence to solve problems. Classmates usually tease each other, but
don’t make this anger you and do something that you will regret.
In short, I feel that violent video games are harmful to young people and should be controlled – or, even better, banned.

Example 2
In my opinion, the Internet has three major drawbacks.
Firstly, when you surf the Internet, your personal information, such as name, address and account can be accessed by hackers. For
instance, if you use credit cards to shop online, your card information can be stolen, and then money in your account may be used
up.
Secondly, pornography is another serious issue, especially for teenage users. Due to the easy access to pornographic websites,
teenagers may be incited to act out sexually. According to Dr. Jennings Bryant, 31 percent of male and 18 percent of female high
school students admitted imitating some acts in pornography.
Lastly, computers with Internet connection are likely to be infected with viruses which disrupt their normal function. It is hard to
prevent virus infection although we use anti-virus programs.
To sum up, information leakage, negative influences of pornography on teenagers and virus threat are three main disadvantages of
using the Internet.
Requirements of an Opinion Paragraph

1. Avoid Going Off-Topic: Always write within relevance to the assigned question. This is also known as “beating around
the bush” and should not be included in any opinion paragraph as it may lower your grade.

2. A Well-Thought Topic sentence: The paragraph must include the main idea stated in a single sentence.

3. Supporting points: The strongest supporting point should come first. Each point should include an example or some other
additional support. An effeective opinion paragraph also includes a refutation, or a statement of the opposing viewpoint.
Clark College suggests putting the refutation near the end of the paragraph, which is then finished with a concluding
statement that answers the refutation

4. The Use of Formal Language: Although it is okay to write in an informal manner, keep a wide range of professional and
formal words. This includes: “Furthermore,” “As Stated By,” “However,” & “Thus.”
 5. Avoid Internet Slang: In the opinion paper, avoid writing using slang words. Don’t include words like “LOL,” “OMG,”
“LMAO,” etc.

6. The Use of First-Person Language (Optional): For the reason of providing personal thought, it is acceptable to write
your opinion paragraph in the first person.

7. Avoid Informal Punctuation: Although the requirements allow for the first-person language, they do not permit informal
punctuation. This includes dashes, exclamation marks, and emojis.

8. Editing: Paragraph Organizer suggests checking the paragraph right away for grammar and spelling mistakes as well as
ensuring the style and organization is optimal. It is often a good idea to wait some time before completing the final edit of
the paragraph.

TOPICS
1. Is social media damaging to our personal relationships?
Social media lets us connect with more people, but some believe it detracts from our real life interactions.
0. Does travelling benefit young people?
Many people go straight from high school to university, but others think travelling provides a better education.
0. Should primary schools still teach handwriting?
Since most people now only write on smartphones or laptops, do we still need to know how to write?
0. Are high school dress codes biased against female students?
Lately, students have been protesting school dress codes, claiming that they are sexist.
0. Should soft drinks like Coke or Pepsi be sold in school vending machines?
Because pop is bad for our health, some school boards want to keep it out of our schools.
0. Should public transportation be free for city residents?
Some believe that this would help decrease our carbon footprint.
0. Should college and university be free?
Many argue that education is a human right.
 Cause Effect paragraph
When you write a cause-and-effect paragraph, keep the following guidelines in mind:

● A cause-and-effect paragraph should begin with a topic sentence that tells readers whether the paragraph is
focusing on causes or on effects (for example, “There are several reasons why the cost of gas is so high” or
“Going to the writing center has given me confidence as well as skills”).

● A cause-and-effect paragraph should discuss every important cause or effect, one at a time. The causes or
effects should be arranged in some kind of logical order—for example, from least important to most important.

● A cause-and-effect paragraph should end with a concluding statement that sums up the main idea stated in the
topic sentence.
A cause-and-effect paragraph generally has the following structure.
Topic Sentence ____________________________________

Cause (or effect) #1 ______________________________

Cause (or effect) #2 ______________________________

Cause (or effect) #3 ______________________________

Concluding Statement _____________________________

Argumentative/Persuasive paragraph
What is an argument?
When most people hear the word argument, they think of the heated exchanges on television interview programs.
These discussions, however, are more like shouting matches than arguments. True argument involves taking a
well-thought-out position on a debatable topic — a topic about which reasonable
people may disagree (for example, “Should intelligent design be taught in high school classrooms?” or “Should
 teenagers who commit felonies be tried as adults?”).
In an argument paragraph, your purpose is to persuade readers that your position has merit. You attempt to
convince people of the strength of your ideas not by shouting but by presenting evidence — facts and examples. In
the process, you address opposing ideas, and if they are strong, you acknowledge their strengths. If your evidence
is solid and your logic is sound, you will present a convincing argument.
An argument paragraph should begin with a topic sentence that states your position. Using words like
should, should not, or ought to in your topic sentence will make your position clear to readers.

The federal government should lower the tax on gasoline.

The city should not build a new sports stadium.

■ An argument paragraph should present points that support the topic sentence. For example, if your purpose is
to argue in favor of placing warning labels on unhealthy snack foods, you should give several reasons why this
policy should be instituted.
■ An argument paragraph should support each point with evidence (facts and examples).
■ An argument paragraph should address and refute (argue against) opposing arguments. By showing that an
opponent‟s arguments are weak or inaccurate, you strengthen your own position.
■ An argument paragraph should end with a strong concluding statement that summarizes the main idea of the
paragraph.
An argument paragraph generally has the following structure.

Topic Sentence

Point #1

Point #2

Point #3

Opposing Argument #1 (plus refutation)

Opposing Argument #2 (plus refutation)

Concluding Statement

Writing an Argument Paragraph

Peter was asked to write an argument paragraph on a topic that interested him. Because he was taking a
course in computer ethics, he decided to write about an issue that had been discussed in class: the way employers
have recently begun searching social networking sites, such as MySpace, to find information about job applicants.
Peter had already formed an opinion about this issue, and he knew something about the topic. For this reason, he
was able to write a topic sentence right away.
Employers should not use social networking sites to find information about job applicants.
1-Peter then listed the following ideas that he could use to support his topic sentence.
Social networking sites should be private People Employers can misinterpret what they
exaggerate on social networking sites Stuff meant to be find Employers going where they
funny don‟t belong Not an accurate picture
No one warns applicant Not fair
Need email address to register Expect limited Not meant to be seen by job recruiters
audience
2-Peter then arranged his ideas into an informal outline.
Social networking sites should be private Need email Not meant to be seen by job
address to register recruiters No one warns applicant
Expect limited audience Employers can misinterpret what they find
Employers going where they don‟t belong People Not an accurate picture
exaggerate on social networking sites Stuff meant to be Not fair
funny
3-Once Peter finished his informal outline, he tried to think of possible arguments against his
position because he knew he would have to consider and refute these opposing arguments in his
paragraph. He came up with two possible arguments against his position.
1. Employers should be able to find out as much as they can.
2. Applicants have only themselves to blame.
4- Phillip then wrote the following draft of his paragraph.
Employers should not use social networking sites to find information about job
applicants. For one thing, social networking sites should be private. By visiting these sites,
employers are going where they do not belong. People also exaggerate on social networking
sites. They say things that are not true, and they put things on the sites they would not want job
recruiters to see. No one ever tells applicants that recruiters search these sites, so they feel safe
posting all kinds of material. Employers can misinterpret what they read. Employers and
recruiters need to get as much information as they can. They should not use unfair ways to get
this information. Applicants have only themselves to blame for their problems. They need to be
more careful about what they put up online. This is true, but most applicants don’t know that
employers will search social networking sites.
5- After finishing his draft, Phillip scheduled a conference with his instructor. Together, they went
over his paragraph and decided that Peter needed to make the following changes.
■ He needed to make his topic sentence more specific and more forceful.
■ He needed to add more supporting evidence (facts and examples) to his discussion. For example,
what social networking sites is he talking about? Which ones are restricted? How do employers gain
access to these sites?
■ He needed to delete irrelevant discussion blaming job applicants for the problem.
■ He needed to add transitional words and phrases to clearly identify the points he is making in support of
his argument and also to identify the two opposing arguments he discusses and refutes.
■ He needed to add a strong concluding statement to sum up his argument.
6- After making these changes, Phillip revised and edited his paragraph. Here is his final draft.
 Common Errors in Writing

Misplaced and Dangling Modifiers Parallelism

Faulty Pronoun Reference Subject—Verb Agreement Agreement

Pronoun—Antecedent

Your/you're; To/two/too; There/their/they're Who or Whom

I. Fragments
The fragment is not a sentence, yet the writer mistakenly punctuates it as a complete sentence.

1. Although they are friends. (not a complete thought)

Although they are friends, they still occasionally argue. (now the thought is complete). Or,
remove although… They are friends. (again, a complete thought).

2. Since we live in an apartment. (yes… what comes next? See how the thought is incomplete?)
Since we live in an apartment, I can’t practice my electric guitar after 8 PM. (now the thought is
complete).
Or, remove since… We live in an apartment. (again, a complete thought).

II. The Run on is two or more sentences punctuated as a single sentence.

1. The bridge should be built that is the consensus of the town. (two sentences are joined. There
are several ways to fix this).
The bridge should be built. That is the consensus of the town. (make two sentences).
That the bridge should be built is the consensus of the town. (use noun clause as subject of single
sentence).

Or reverse it… The consensus of the town is that the bridge should be built. (now the noun clause is the
predicate nominative).

2. Sometimes writers join two or more sentences with a comma. This is a special run on called a
comma splice.
We studied all night, we still didn’t do well on the test. (there are many ways to fix this error).
We studied all night. We still didn’t do well on the test. (putting a period in place of the comma is one
way, but usually the sentences are closely related—that’s why the writer mistakenly used a comma to
join them).
We studied all night; we still didn’t do well on the test. (inserting a semicolon corrects the fault, but it
still doesn’t sound right, does it?)
We studied all night, yet we still didn’t do well on the test. (insert a coordinating conjunction
between the sentences adds that interpretation of one sentence to the next).
Although we studied all night, we still didn’t do well on the test. (inserting a subordinating conjunction
makes the first sentence an adverb clause. Notice again how this adds an interpretation of the first
clause—it subordinates it. That means it is not as important as the second clause).
Notice: By noticing errors like this, you can make your writing stronger.

III. Misplaced and Dangling Modifiers

1. The Misplaced Modifier is well-named because sometimes writers place modifying elements
(adjectives, adverbs) next to things they don’t modify. Look at these examples.

The concert was ridiculously long; the soprano almost sang for an hour. (if the concert was indeed too
long, the soprano obviously contributed. But in this sentence, the soprano never sings. She almost
sings. This is a misplaced modifier. The writer meant that the soprano sang for almost an hour. Notice the difference.

I love smelling the wildflowers running through the field. (Well, those are some wildflowers.

How fast do they run? The participial phrase modifies I, and should be placed near it: Running through
the field, I love smelling the wildflowers. )

We looked at the pictures he had taken on the living room sofa. (unless the photographer’s portfolio was
shot entirely from the sofa, this is an example of a misplaced modifier. The phrase should be moved
closer to the word it modifies: On the living room sofa we looked at the pictures he had taken.)

The committee gave a cake to the people that almost didn’t fit in the room. (if this is what the

writer meant, those people really didn’t need any more sweets. But, it is obvious that the CAKE almost
didn’t fit in the room, so move the modifier closer to the word it modifies: The committee gave the people
a cake that almost didn’t fit in the room.)

I couldn’t find my shoes which made me angry. (Those must be some shoes! But, the writer didn’t mean the
shoes made him angry, he meant: I was angry because I couldn’t find my shoes.).

Notice: Misplaced modifiers are often comical. Avoid them.

2. Dangling modifiers are similar to misplaced modifiers, but instead of being placed too far from the
words they modify, they don’t have the words they modify in the sentence.
Running through the forest, the wildflowers smell wonderful. (the introductory participial phrase is
modifying wildflowers. And unless this takes place in the merry old land of Oz, the wildflowers
were NOT running anywhere. But who was running through the forest? We don’t know. That’s a
dangling modifier. To fix it, add the word to be modified: Running through the forest, I love
smelling the wonderful wildflowers.

Having doused it with water, the fire was easily extinguished. (it is doubtful that the fire extinguished
itself. Having doused it with water, He easily extinguished the fire. Notice that you need something
for the participial phrase to modify.)

While sleeping, the covers fell to the floor. (poor covers… were they having bad dreams?
Obviously someone was sleeping: While sleeping, I somehow tossed the covers to the floor.)

After studying all afternoon, I must mop the kitchen floor, which I despise. (that’s pretty harsh to despise a
kitchen floor. The adjective clause is modifying the job of mopping the floor: After studying all
 afternoon, I must mop the kitchen floor, a job [that] I despise.)

Notice: Just like misplaced modifiers, dangling modifiers may be comical. Avoid them.

3. A special type of modifier called the two-way modifier is part dangling, part misplaced because the
reader can’t decide what word the modifier modifies.

The teacher said after class all the work must be turned in. (Does this mean that the teacher made
an announcement that said ― all work must be turned in after class,‖ or that the teacher made an
announcement after class that said, ―all work must be turned in.‖ Notice the difference. The first version
gives a definite time when work needs to be in. The second doesn’t. Writer must determine what he
means and restructure such sentences.

IV. Parallelism When listing elements in a series, you must be sure that each element is in the
same form.

1. Students today are proud, diligent, and not afraid to work hard. (Two of the three elements are
simple adjectives. Change the third to fit the parallel structure: students today are proud, diligent,
hardworking.

2. I like swimming, running, and to fish. (two gerunds and an infinitive… either say… I like to swim,
[to] run, and [to] fish. Or… I like swimming, running, and fishing. In the first example, you may
choose to omit the to in to run and to fish. But, be consistent. Use the first to only, or to with each
element. DON’T say … to swim, run, and to fish.

3. My report card shows a decrease in my QPA, but that my attendance had increased.
(The two elements need to be equal: My report card shows a decrease in my QPA and an increase in my attendance.
Or, more concisely, My report card shows my QPA down and my attendance up.

4. Fishing in the mountains is better than to swim at the beach. (elements in comparison must
be parallel: Fishing in the mountains is better than swimming at the beach.

V. Faulty Pronoun Reference occurs when the reader can’t detect the antecedent of a pronoun.
1. After Jane and Tammy talked, she made her choice. (who made the choice? Tammy or Jane?)
After talking to Jane, Tammy made her choice.
2. While Fred and Johnny were fighting, he bruised his elbow. (whose elbow? Who was bruised? While
fighting with Johnny, Fred bruised Johnny’s elbow.
3. In school, they often cause disturbances. (What is the antecedent for they? In school, the students,
the teachers, the lawnmowers, the bees, the neighbors often cause disturbances. See the problem?)

Notice: All pronouns must have a logical antecedent. Ask yourself what a pronoun refers to in your
sentences. Get into the habit.

4. The long papers we had to write, the research we had to do, the books we had to read, all this made
the class difficult. (Not this but these is needed. The pronoun is referring to three things; therefore, a
plural pronoun is needed.)

VI. Subject – Verb Agreement Subjects need to have the same number as the verb in a sentence.
This makes the subject and verb agree.

A. The boy runs to school. (Boy is singular; Runs is singular. Remember: to add –s or –es to a
noun makes the noun plural; to add an –s to a verb makes the verb singular.)
Notice: Here is a good way to remember this point. A subject and verb only have one ―s‖ between them.
The boy runs. The boys run. The bird sings. The birds sing.

B. Sometimes modifiers like prepositional phrases come between the subject and verb. Don’t let this fool
you. The subject agrees with the verb. Cross out the modifiers to help you.

The girls from Spain is/are coming to visit. The girls from Spain are coming to visit.
The boy who fell down the stairs is/are here. The boy who fell down the stairs is
here. The boy, along with his parents, is/are here. The boy, along with his parents,
is here.

C. Compound subjects with and take a plural verb.

1. Fred and Bill are going camping.

2. The director and producer usually talk about upcoming shows.

Exceptions words that even though they are joined by and, they act as a single element or refer to a single
element.

1. Bacon and eggs is my favorite breakfast. (it’s a single breakfast dish).

2. Macaroni and cheese is my favorite dinner. (again).
3. My friend and life-long buddy is visiting this weekend. (it’s the same person).
D. Compound subjects with or – If both elements are singular, use a singular verb. If both elements are
plural, use a plural verb. If one element is singular and one is plural, use the element closest to the
verb to determine agreement.

1. Beef or chicken is the choice in my home. (both elements singular – verb sing.).
2. Spiders or snakes are equally frightening to Suzie. (both elements plural – verb pl.).
3. Meat or potatoes are a staple of the American diet. (one singular, one plural – go with element
closest to the verb. Potatoes is plural – verb plural).
4. Potatoes or meat is a staple of the American diet. (opposite).
The same applies for compounds of or…
5. Either the geese or the ducks are making the noise. (both plural).
6. Neither the swan nor the ducks were in the pond today. (one of each, ducks is closer—plural verb)
7. Neither the ducks nor the swan was in the pond today. (one of each, swan is closer—singular verb)
E. Singular pronouns always take a singular verb. Remember them with this little ditty: ―each, either,
neither, -one, and –body.‖ -one, and –body refer to the words ―every, any, some‖ as in everyone,
everybody, anyone, anybody, someone, somebody. That’s an easy way to remember them.

1. Each of the students is/are here. Each of the students is here. (just like above, remove the modifiers
in between the subject each and the verb is. Another tip: insert the word ―one‖ after each to help
you. For example, Each [one] of the students is here.)

2. Neither of the teams was/were able to score. Neither of the teams was able to score. (remember,
these pronouns above are ALWAYS singular).

F. Plural Pronouns always take a plural verb. They are both, few, many, several, others.
1. Both of the clipboards of the director was/were missing. Both of the clipboards of
the director were missing. (remove modifiers in between to yield both were)

2. Several of the boys on the team is/are late. Several of the boys on the team are late.

3. Many of the rooms in school is/are crowded. Many of the rooms in school are crowded.

G. Singular or Plural Pronouns these pronouns are either singular or plural depending on the
antecedent of the pronoun: some, most, all, none, any.

1. Some of the students is/are staying. Some of the students are staying. (Some refers to students which
is plural, so the plural verb are is needed).
2. Some of the food is/are left. Some of the food is left. (Some refers to food which is singular, so
the singular verb is is needed).

3. None of the men is/are happy with the decision. None of the men are happy with the
decision. (none means ―not any‖ of the men).

4. None of the men was/were willing to work overtime. None of the men was willing to work
overtime. (none means ―not one‖ of the men).

H. Some words are Plural in appearance yet singular

1. Diseases, for example, like mumps, measles are singular. The mumps is a common childhood disease.

2. School subjects are singular. Mathematics, economics, civics, statistics*, social studies…
Mathematics is my favorite class.
*exception. When statistics refers to numbers and not the class, statistics is plural. Example: The
statistics are misleading. Statistics is a difficult class.
I. Words that are singular but treated as plural These items all have to do with a ―pair‖ of something:
pants, trousers, pliers, scissors. Just think of ―a pair of‖ before these words, and you’ll be fine.

1. My [pair of] pants are stained.

2. The [pair of] pliers are never here when I need them. (notice, too, the plural pronoun reference them
is needed).

J. Linking verb agrees with the SUBJECT NOT the predicate nominative

1. My favorite food is beans.

2. My favorite present was the new glasses.

Notice: There cannot be the subject of the sentence; therefore, don’t be fooled into choosing the wrong
verb.

1. There is/are many exciting shows on TV. There are many exciting shows on TV. (Shows is the
subject of the sentence; therefore, the correct verb is are).
2. There is/are no food left. There is no food left. (Food is the subject; therefore, the correct verb is is).
VII. Agreement of Pronoun with Antecedent Pronoun must agree in number and person with
antecedent.
1. The boy needs to bring his glove to practice. (boy-his)
2. A student should always bring his book to class. (student-his [his does not distinguish gender in this
case. It is preferable to using ―its.‖).
3. A person looking for work must have his resumé in order. (person-his)
4. Workers should leave their equipment at the job sight. (workers-their)
5. Each of the boys owns his own glove. (each-his… remember each is always a singular
pronoun; therefore, it will take a singular pronoun).
6. If anybody wants his money, he needs to see the boss. (anybody is singular – sing. Pronouns)
7. Few of the people are coming for their checks. (Few is always plural, so it takes a
plural pronoun their).

VIII. Troublesome Homonyms

Your/ You're

Your is a possessive pronoun, so it acts as an adjective: Your pen is missing.

You're is a contraction of "you are." You're in trouble (i.e., You are in
trouble).

Test

When you use Your/ You're in a sentence, just replace it with "you are." If it makes sense, choose
"you're." If it doesn't, choose "your."

Their/ They're/There

Their is a possessive pronoun, so it acts as an adjective: Their money is missing.

They're is a contraction of "they are." They're in trouble (i.e., They are in trouble).
There is a weak pronoun (e.g., We left there at midnight), an adverb (e.g., There it is), and sometimes an interjection
(e.g., There, we made it).

Test

When you use Their/ They're/There in a sentence, just replace it with "they are." If it makes sense,
choose "they're." If it doesn't, replace it with "my." If that makes sense, choose "their." If neither of
those makes sense, choose "there."
Examples:
They're late for dinner (they are late for dinner).
Their dinner is getting cold (my dinner is getting cold. Just replace it with another possessive)
There is no way out of here. (they are is? My is no way? Must be there).

To/ Two/Too

To is a preposition or marker of an infinite: Give that to me. I'd love to fly.

Two is a number ONLY. (i.e., Bring me two eggs).
Too is an adverb meaning "also" (e.g., I like cheese, too.), and an intensifier (e.g., It is too cold).
Test

When you use To/ Two/Too in a sentence, just replace it with "the number 2" If it makes sense, choose
"two." If it doesn't, replace it with "also." If that makes sense, choose "too." If neither of those
makes sense, exaggerate your pronunciation of the word like tooooooo cold or toooooooo late. If
that makes sense, pick "too." If none of these works, choose "to."

IX. Who or Whom? The decision comes down to what case you are using. Who is nominative
form; whom is the objective form.

A. In questions use this simple test: replace who or whom with a name (like Fred). If it works, use who. If
it doesn’t, use whom.

1. Who/Whom do you prefer? (Whom – Fred do you prefer? Doesn’t make sense)
2. Who/Whom is going to win on Sunday? (Who – Fred is going to win…)
3. Who/Whom must open the store today? (Who – Fred must open…)
4. Who/Whom is the present for? (Whom – Fred is the present for???)
5. Who/Whom does the bag belong to? (Whom – Fred does the bag???)
B. In subordinate clauses, use this test: if the word following who or whom is a verb, use who; if the
word following who or whom is anything else, use whom.
1. Give me the man who/whom is not afraid to work. (who because the next word is a verb – is).
2. She is a lady who/whom I wouldn’t want to confront. (whom because the next word is not a verb).
3. She said she will sing to whoever/whomever will listen. (whoever because the next word is a verb –
will).

Notice: In the last example whoever is chosen even though the noun clause whoever will listen acts as the
object of the preposition to. The pronoun is governed by its function within the clause;
therefore, whoever, being the subject of the clause, is in the nominative case.

4. She will sing to whoever/whomever she chooses. (whomever because the next word is not a verb –
she).

Notice: For those who wish to know why this works, read on. For the rest who are happy that it does work,
skip this. If the word following who/whom is a verb, more than likely the pronoun will function as
the subject of the clause and will take the nominative form who. If the word following the
who/whom is anything else, the pronoun will most likely be a direct object, indirect object, or an
object of a preposition within the clause. Since all of these functions take the objective case, whom
will be the correct choice.
The only time this trick doesn’t work is in the following places:
1. Whoever he is, he will surely win. (Whoever functions as the predicate nominative in the clause
―he is whoever‖ and, therefore, takes the nominative form).
2. Whom do you believe to be the best candidate? (whom is the subject of the infinitive ―to be‖ and
is, therefore, in the objective case -- remember, the subject of the infinitive is in the objective case
[for example, She taught him to dance.]

Since those are rare, don’t worry about them. In the first sentence, few would say ―Whomever he is…‖
and in the second sentence, most would say ―Who is the best candidate
EXERCISES
 Compare/Contrast paragraph
In the following paragraph, the writer uses a point-by-point-comparison to compare baseball and football.

Read the paragraph above and complete the outline below.

Topic Sentence ____________________________________

Point 1 __________________________________________

Subject A ________________________________________

Subject B ________________________________________

Point 2 __________________________________________

Subject A ________________________________________

Subject B ________________________________________

Point 3 __________________________________________

Subject A ________________________________________

Subject B ________________________________________

Concluding Statement _____________________________

Read the paragraph above and answer the questions below.

1. What is the topic of this paragraph?

2. Underline the topic sentence. (Hint: It is not the first sentence.) Circle the controlling idea.
3. Underline the concluding sentence.
4. What type of concluding sentence is used?
☐ restatement
☐ suggestion
☐ opinion
☐ prediction
5. What is the writer’s purpose in writing this paragraph?
6. Write what you think the writer’s purpose statement was.
7. What features of a comparison paragraph do you see in this paragraph? Put a
check mark (✓) next to each feature you found and then explain your
answer.

a. two subjects ____________________________________________

b. compared similarities or contrasted differences ________________
c. showed similarities that are not so obvious ____________________

8. Which use of a comparison paragraph did the writer choose? Put a check
mark (✓) next to the correct answer and then explain your choice.

a. showed similarities between two things

b. showed differences between two things
c. showed strengths and weaknesses of something
d. showed advantages and disadvantages of something

Topic: Comparison Between E Mail and Postal Service. Write a paragraph about the topic with no
more than 150 words.

Suggestions: helping factors: compare and contrast speed, ease of use, reliability, and cost

I. Introduction
 II. Body

III. Conclusion

Topic: Compare and Contrast Individual Learning and Group Learning in Terms of Academic
Success

Outline:

ADVANTAGES OR DISADVANTAGES PARAGRAPH

Topic: What are the advantages OR disadvantages of living in a small town?
Step 1. _________________of living in a small town.
·
·
·
Step 2. Write full sentences with your ideas.
Step 3. Add the “topic sentence”.
Step 4. Add transition words.
Step 5 and 6. Add details and explanation, then add the “concluding sentence”.

Cause Effect paragraph

Read the two paragraphs and answer the following question
1-Which paragraph focuses on causes, and which one focuses on effects?
Read the paragraph below and complete the outline below.

Cause1

Cause2

Cause3
Read the paragraph above and complete the outline below

Effect 1+supporting details

Effect 2+supporting details

Effect 3+supporting details

Write X next to the sentence that does not relate to the statement.
1. Strong economic growth in a country achieves many desired goals.
___ a. More people buy houses.
___ b. Strong economic growth followed World War I.
___ c. There is less unemployment.
2. Weather can influence your life.
___ a. Weather conditions in the world are changing.
___ b. Cool climates promote hard work.
___ c. In rainy climates people are often depressed.
3. Automobiles have changed the way people live.
___ a. They offer increased mobility.
___ b. Many cars have air-conditioning.
___ c. They save commuting time.
4. Good parenting has many positive effects.
___ a. Children treat others with respect.
___ b. It promotes academic success.
___ c. Good parenting takes a lot of time.
5. Pet ownership offers many rewards.
___ a. Dogs, cats, and hamsters are popular household pets.
___ b. Having a pet prevents many common illnesses.
___ c. Children learn how to be responsible.
6. Listening to loud music has its consequences.
___ a. Stress levels can increase significantly.
___ b. The ability to concentrate is reduced.
___ c. Young people all over the world listen to loud music.

Fill in each blank with the word on the left that most naturally completes the phrase on the right.
1. an effect / a reason
→ to have ________________ on something

2. to / with
→ one thing is an alternative ________________ another thing

3. of / on
→ the benefit ________________ exercise

4. for / from
→ to derive satisfaction ________________ something

5. importantly / significantly
→ the new plan will ________________ reduce taxes

6. benefits / risks
→ to reap the ________________

7. shape / smile
→ a radiant ________________

8. furniture / reason
→ a specific ________________

9. for / with
→ to be diagnosed ________________ skin cancer

10. involved / participated

→ to be ________________ in an accident
Fill in the gaps with the appropriate word from the box above. Use the correct form.

1- His contract him from discussing his work with anyone outside the company.
2- They her to take the job by promising editorial freedom.
3- The under-18s nearly 25% of the town's population.
4- She is suing the company on of unfair dismissal.
5- You should try to your ambitions and be more realistic.
6- The current structure does not efficient work flow.
7- Falling export rates have (on) the country's economy quite
considerably.
8- Covid-19 is a disease which mainly older people.
9- The economy is regarded as the decisive/key which
will determine the outcome of the general election.
10- The government's reputation has already been by a series of
scandals.
11- Reducing speed limits has to fewer deaths on the roads.
 Argumentative/Persuasive paragraph
The following paragraph argues in favour of an emergency notification system for college
students. Read and complete the outline below.

Topic Sentence
Point #1
Point #2
Point #3
Opposing Argument #1 (plus refutation)
Opposing Argument #2 (plus refutation)
Concluding Statement

Read the paragraph above and answer the questions below.

1.Underline the topic sentence of the paragraph.

2.What issue is the subject of the paragraph?

3.What is the writer‟s position?

4.What specific points does the writer use to support his topic sentence?

5.List some of the evidence (facts and examples) that the writer uses to support his points.

6.What other evidence could the writer have used?

7.What opposing argument does the writer address?

8.How does the writer address this argument?

9.Circle the transitional words and phrases the writer uses to move readers through his argument.

10.Underline the paragraph‟s concluding statement.