SLIDES PREPARED BY MR.

EGABILE ALFRED
CONTACT: 0786612648/ 0751885436
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Competency

The learner appreciates that animals have special systems for the efficient transport of
materials around their bodies, and understand the principles of how these systems operate

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 Learning outcomes
The learner should be able to;
a) understand the principle of the surface area to volume ratio (s)
b) know the need for a transport system, and identify the components
involved in the transport system in mammals.
c) describe the structure of the heart and how it functions.
d) understand how structure of blood vessels are related to their function by
comparing arteries, veins and capillaries.
e) identify the major functions of blood, and relate the functions to the
components of blood.
f) understand the causes and prevention of diseases associated with the heart
(high blood pressure, coronary heart disease and stroke).
g) understand the importance of knowledge of blood groups for blood
transfusion.

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h) appreciate the role of blood in the defence of the human body (u)
i) know how immunity is weakened by various infections including HIV.
j) understand the process of the formation of lymph and its flow
around the body.
k) appreciate the function of the lymphatic system in maintaining a
healthy body (u)

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 TRANSPORT IN ANIMALS
❖ Transport is the movement of materials from one part of the organism to
another.
❖ Materials transported include oxygen, carbon dioxide, soluble food
substances, hormones, waste products such as urea, etc.
❖ Transport in organisms involves processes like diffusion, osmosis, and
active transport.
❖ In unicellular and simple multicellular organisms the above processes are
enough to meet the transport requirements since materials are only
transported over very short distances.
❖ Larger and more complex animals require transport systems (circulatory
system) for effective transport over long distances

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 The principle of the surface area to volume
ratio

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 Consider;
➢ A cube that is 1 cm on a side (top) has
a volume of 1cm3 and because it has 6
sides, a surface area of 6cm3.
➢ 8 such cubes (middle) will, of course
have both 8 times the surface area, so
the ratio of the surface area to the
volume of the cubes, or surface-to-
volume (S/V) ratio, will stay the same:
6:1.
➢ If the 8 cubes are combined into a
single large one (bottom) , half the
surface are hidden in the interior.
➢The (S/V) ratio, like the surface area is
reduced by half, to 3:1.
➢A large cube, therefore, has a lower
S/V ratio than a small one.
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 The principle of the surface area to volume
ratio in relation to organisms
❖ Organisms and cells exchange nutrients, waste products, and gasses
(O2, CO2) with the environment.
❖ Such materials have to move across the surface of a cell, so the
amount of surface area is very important. More precisely, it is the
amount of surface area relative to the total volume of the cell.
❖This is called the surface to volume ratio, or the S/V ratio. The S/V
ratio determines how rapidly materials can flow into and out of a cell
or how rapidly heat can be lost from a large mammal.

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❖ The illustration on the previous page shows that a larger cube has less
surface area exposed in proportion to volume. Functionally this means that
as an object becomes larger, it has less surface area relative to volume.
❖ Cell size is limited by surface to volume ratios. A single cell or a single
celled organism relies on diffusion across the cell surface for exchange of
materials.
❖ Beyond a certain volume, a cell would not have enough surface area to
import and export all the materials it needs. This effectively sets an upper
limit of how big cells can be and helps explain why most cells in an
elephant are no bigger than those in a mouse, although an elephant has
more cells than a mouse.
❖ Larger organisms must develop supplementary mechanisms, like
respiratory, circulatory, and excretory systems to transport oxygen and
nutrients to cells and remove wastes
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8/18/2024 10
 The need for a transport system in larger
organisms
✓ Large organisms require a lot of materials and produce large amounts
metabolic wastes. A transport system is therefore important in these
organisms for bulk transport of the materials.
✓ The larger the organism, the longer the distance from the outer body
surface/surfaces to the center/middle of the body. Thus materials have to
be moved over long distances between the inner cells and the body
surfaces for exchange with environment for which simple processes such as
diffusion are not effective over long distances. Thus a transport system is
required for the transport of materials.
✓ The larger an organism becomes, the smaller the surface area to volume
ratio which reduces the rate of diffusion of materials from the body surface
to the cells in the middle of the organism. Thus a transport system is
required for faster transfer of materials from the body surface to the cells
in the middle of the organism.
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 COMPONENTS INVOLVED IN THE
TRANSPORT SYSTEM IN MAMMAL
• Larger animals require a circulatory system to distribute materials
efficiently. A circulatory system typically has the following
components:
❖ blood, a connective tissue consisting of cells and cell fragments
dispersed in fluid, usually called plasma.
❖ A pumping organ, generally a heart with valves; and
❖ A system of blood vessels or spaces through which blood circulates.
systems are open and closed systems.

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 THE MAMMALIAN HEART
❖The heart is a muscular pump
with valves, which sends blood
around the circulatory system.
❖ The heart pumps blood
through the circulatory system
to all the major organs of the
body.
❖ Since the heart is seen as if in a
dissection of a person facing
you, the left side is drawn on the
right.

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 THE STRUCTURE OF THE MAMMALIAN HEART
❖ The whole heart is surrounded by the
pericardium which has two layers between
which is the pericardial fluid that reduce friction
between them.
❖ The heart is made of tissues called cardiac
muscles which have the potential to contract
rapidly.
❖ It’s divided in to four chambers. The upper
chambers are called atrium / auricle and the
lower chambers are each called ventricle.
❖ The heart is divided into sections i.e. left and
right by a muscular septum whose function is to
prevent mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated
blood.
❖ Movement of blood in the heart is maintained in
a single direction i.e. from the auricle to ventricle
and then to blood vessels.

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❖ The heart has four valves that ensure
the one-way flow of blood.
❖ The atrioventricular (AV) valves
separate the atria from the ventricles.
❖ The tricuspid valve is located
between the right atrium and right
ventricle, while the bicuspid valve is
located between the left atrium and
left ventricle.
❖ The semilunar valves, including the
aortic valve and the pulmonary valve,
are located between the ventricles and
major blood vessels.
❖ These valves open and close to allow
blood to flow in one direction and
prevent backflow.

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The heart is connected to major blood
vessels that transport blood throughout
the body.
➢ The aorta is the largest artery that
carries oxygenated blood from the left
ventricle to the rest of the body.
➢ The pulmonary artery carries
deoxygenated blood from the right
ventricle to the lungs for oxygenation.
➢ The pulmonary veins carry oxygenated
blood from the lungs to the left atrium.
➢ The superior and inferior vena cavae
bring deoxygenated blood from the
body to the right atrium.

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➢ The ventricle walls are more
muscular (have thicker walls) than
those or the auricles because the
auricle pump blood to shorter
distance i.e. to the ventricle while
the ventricles pump blood longer
distances i.e. to body and lungs.
➢ The walls of the left ventricle that
pump blood in to the systemic
circulation are thicker than those
of the right ventricle which pump
blood to pulmonary circulation.

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8/18/2024 18
How the heart functions (How blood
flows through the mammalian heart
➢ The heart functions as a pump to circulate
blood throughout the body. The process
can be summarized in the following steps
➢ Blood enters the heart through the
superior and inferior vena cavae, which
bring deoxygenated blood from the body
to the right atrium.
➢ The right atrium contracts, pushing blood
through the tricuspid valve into the right
ventricle.
➢ The right ventricle contracts, forcing blood
through the pulmonary valve and into the
pulmonary artery.

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➢ The pulmonary artery carries the
deoxygenated blood to the lungs,
where it picks up oxygen and releases
carbon dioxide.
➢ Oxygenated blood returns from the
lungs to the left atrium via the
pulmonary veins.
➢ The left atrium contracts, pushing
blood through the mitral valve into
the left ventricle.
➢ The left ventricle contracts, pumping
oxygenated blood through the aortic
valve and into the aorta, the largest
artery in the body.

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➢ The aorta branches into smaller
arteries, which carry the
oxygenated blood to the rest of
the body.
➢ Capillaries, the smallest blood
vessels, facilitate the exchange
of oxygen and nutrients with
tissues.
➢ Deoxygenated blood returns to
the heart through veins, starting
the process again.

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8/18/2024 22
 THE CARDIC CYCLE
❖ The cardiac cycle refers to the sequence of events that occur during
one complete heartbeat.
❖ It can be divided into two phases:
1. diastole and
2. systole.
➢ During diastole, the heart muscle relaxes and fills with blood, while
➢ During systole, the heart contracts and pumps blood out.

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 What happens during the
cardiac cycle?
❖Blood returns to the resting
heart through veins that
empty into the right and left
atria.
❖As the atria fill and the
pressure in them rises, the
AV valves open to admit the
blood into the ventricles.
❖The ventricles become
about 80% filled during this
time.

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❖Contraction of the atria
wrings out the final 20% of
the 80 milliliters of blood
the ventricles will receive,
on average, in a resting
person.
❖ These events occur while
the ventricles are relaxing, a
period called ventricular
diastole.
❖After a slight delay, the
ventricles contract; this
period of contraction is
known as ventricular
systole.
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❖Contraction of each ventricle
increases the pressure within each
chamber, causing the AV valves to
forcefully close (the “lub” sound),
thereby preventing blood from
backing up into the atria.
❖Immediately after the AV valves
close, the pressure in the ventricles
forces the semilunar valves open so
that blood can be pushed out into
the arterial system.
❖ As the ventricles relax, closing of
the semilunar valves prevents back
flow (the “dub” sound).

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❖The right and left
pulmonary arteries deliver
oxygen-depleted blood to
the right and left lungs.
❖ As previously mentioned,
these return blood to the
left atrium of the heart via
the pulmonary veins.
❖The aorta and all its
branches are systemic
arteries carrying oxygen-
rich blood from the left
ventricle to all parts of the
body.
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❖The coronary arteries are
the first branches off the
aorta; these supply the
heart muscle itself.
❖Other systemic arteries
branch from the aorta as it
makes an arch above the
heart, and as it descends
and traverses the thoracic
and abdominal cavities.
❖These branches provide all
body organs with
oxygenated blood.
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❖The blood from the body
organs, now lower in
oxygen, returns to the heart
in the systemic veins.
❖ These eventually empty
into two major veins: the
superior vena cava, which
drains the upper body, and
the inferior vena cava,
which drains the lower
body.
❖These veins empty into the
right atrium and thereby
complete the systemic
circulation.

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 THE BLOOD VESSELS

❖ blood vessels are closed tubular network responsible for transport

of blood from the heart to every part of the body and to bring it back.
❖If all the blood vessels in a human body were laid end to end, they
would stretch about 100,000 km (over 60,000 miles).
Types of blood vessels
• Blood vessels are classified as follows:
✓ Arteries (carry blood away from the heart)
✓ Veins ( carry blood to the heart)
✓ Capillaries (joins arteries to veins)
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 1. Arteries
➢ Carry blood away from the heart
➢ Designed to withstand pressure during systole

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 Characteristics of arteries
❖ Located deep in the muscle
❖ Have very thick walls
❖ Carry blood from the heart
to the organs
❖ Carry oxygenated blood
(except for the pulmonary
artery)
❖ Has a thick layer of muscle
tissue inside
❖ Have narrow lumens.
❖ Have no valves (except for
the pulmonary artery)
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Adaptations of arteries to their functions
• Arteries have a thick, muscular wall that allows them to withstand the
high pressure of blood flow from the heart.
• Arteries, especially the large elastic arteries like the aorta, possess a
high degree of elasticity that allows them to expand and
accommodate the volume of blood pumped out by the heart during
systole (contraction).
• The smooth muscle cells in the arterial walls can contract
(vasoconstriction) or relax (vasodilation) in response to various stimuli
which allows them to adjust the diameter of the arteries allows for
the regulation of blood flow and pressure to different body tissues.
• They posses narrower lumens to maintain blood flow at a high to
reach far parts of the body.

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 2. Veins
❖ Veins carry deoxygenated blood
towards your heart and are
often located close to your skin.
❖ Veins don’t have a muscular
layer like arteries do, so they rely
on valves to keep your blood
moving.
❖ Veins start as tiny blood vessels
called venules, which become
full-size veins as they come
closer to your heart.

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Characteristics of Veins.
✓ Are located closer to the
surface of your body.
✓ Have thin walls.
✓ Carry blood towards your
heart.
✓ Carry deoxygenated blood
(except the pulmonary vein)
✓ Have wider lumens.
✓ Has a thin layer of muscle
tissue inside.
✓ Contain valves to keep
blood flowing.

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Adaptations of veins to their function

❖ The elastic layer is relatively thin because blood is under low pressure,
cant cause them to burst and the pressure is too low to create a recoil
action
❖ The muscular wall is relatively thin because veins carry blood away from
tissues and therefore their dilation and constriction cannot control the flow
of blood to the tissues
❖ The collagen fibres provide a tough outer layer in order to prevent the
veins bursting from the external forces
❖ There are semilunar valves throughout to ensure that blood does not flow
backwards, which it might otherwise do because the pressure is so low.
❖ The overall thickness of the wall is small because there’s no need for a
thick wall as the pressure within the veins is too low to create any risk of
bursting.

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3. Capillaries
❖ Capillaries connect your arteries
to your veins.
❖ Capillaries are the smallest type of
blood vessel.
❖They can be as tiny as 5
micrometers, which is less than a
third of a hair's width.
❖ A capillary wall is only one cell in
thickness.
❖The capillary wall is made of
endothelial cells and allows
oxygen, nutrients, and waste to
pass to and from tissue cells.
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Characteristics of Capillaries.
❖ Are located inside all
tissues
❖ Have a very thin wall
❖ Carry blood between veins
and arteries
❖ Carry both oxygenated and
deoxygenated blood
❖ Don't have muscle tissue
❖ Don't have valves

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Adaptations of blood capillaries
1. They possess the capillary sphincter muscles which contract and relax so
as to regulate the amount of blood entering into the capillary network.
2. Capillaries have walls that are one cell thick (short diffusion distance) so
substances can easily diffuse in and out of them
3. The ‘leaky’ walls allow blood plasma to leak out and form tissue
fluid surrounding cells
4. They are numerous in number to provide a large surface area which
increases the rate of diffusion and allows rapid exchange of materials
between blood and the tissue fluid.

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Assignment
Using different reading materials such as text books and internet,
Compare (differences and similarities)
1. arteries and veins
2. Arteries and capillaries
3. Veins and capillaries

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8/18/2024 43
 BLOOD

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❖Blood consists of red cells, white cells and platelets floating in a liquid
called plasma.
❖There are between 5 and 6 litres of blood in the body of an adult,
and each cubic centimetre contains about 5 billion red cells.

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 Functions of blood
Blood carries out several function in the body which include the following.
➢ Transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide. Red blood cells carry oxygen from the
lungs to the body's tissues and removes carbon dioxide, a waste product of cellular
respiration, from the tissues to be exhaled by the lungs.
➢ Transports of digested food nutrient. Blood also carries nutrients such as glucose,
amino acids, and fatty acids from the digestive system to the body's cells for
energy and growth.
➢ Transport of hormones. Blood transports hormones in the plasma, which are
chemical messengers that regulate various body functions.
➢ Thermo regulation. Blood also helps regulate body temperature by absorbing and
redistributing heat.
➢ Provides immunity to the body. Blood plays a crucial role in the body's defense
against infections by carrying white blood cells that help fight pathogens and by
transporting antibodies, which are proteins that target and neutralize specific
pathogens.
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 The components of blood and their functions

Red blood cells

❖ These are tiny, disc-like cells to easily
pass through the narrow blood vessels.
❖Lack nuclei to offer more space for
oxygen loading .
❖They are made of spongy cytoplasm
enclosed in an elastic cell membrane
to enable then squeeze through the
narrow blood vessels.
❖In their cytoplasm is the red pigment
haemoglobin, a protein combined with
iron which combine with oxygen.
❖Red cells are made by the red bone
marrow of certain bones
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 White blood cells (leukocytes)
❑They have a nucleus even at maturity to
enable them carry out complex activities.
❑They are relatively few in blood but their
number increases when the body is
attached by an infection
❑White blood cells are divided into two
major categories. These are;
1. Phagocytes. These are white blood cells
with a lobed nucleus. They ingest and destroy
germs by phagocytes. White blood cells are involved with phagocytosis
❑They have no definite shape (they are and antibody production for body defense
amoeboid) allowing them to squeeze
through blood vessel walls and move
towards infection sites
2. Lymphocytes. These are white blood cells,
which defend the body by producing
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antibodies.
• Plateletes (thrombocytes)
➢ Are small, colorless cell fragments
found in the blood.
➢Platelets have a sticky surface that
allows them to stick to the walls of
blood vessels when there is an injury.
This helps them form a clot and
prevent more blood from flowing out.
➢Platelets have special parts inside
them called granules. These granules
contain helpful substances that are
released when platelets are activated.
These substances help heal the injury
and make the blood clot stronger.
➢They play a crucial role in the process
of blood clotting, which is essential for
stopping bleeding and promoting
wound healing

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 Blood plasma

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➢It is the liquid part of the blood.
➢It is water with a large number of substances dissolved in it.
➢The ions of sodium, potassium, calcium, chloride, hydrogen carbonate, are
present.
➢Proteins such as fibrinogen, albumin and globulins make up an important part of
the plasma. Fibrinogen is needed for clotting and the globulin proteins include
antibodies, which combat bacteria and other foreign matter.
➢The plasma will also contain varying amounts of food substances such as amino
acids, glucose and lipids (fats).
➢There may also be hormones present, depending on the activities taking place in
the body.
➢The excretory product, urea, is dissolved in the plasma, along with carbon
dioxide.
➢The liver and kidneys keep the composition of the plasma more or less constant,
but the amount of digested food, salts and water will vary within narrow limits
according to food intake and body activities.

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 Roles of blood plasma
❖Plasma transports blood cells, ions, soluble nutrients, e.g. glucose,
hormones and carbon dioxide.
❖To transport food nutrients from the gut to the other parts of the body.
❖To transport hormones from gland producing them to the target sites.
❖To transport antibodies to the infected parts of the body.
❖To transport Urea from the liver to the Kidneys for excretion.
❖To transport carbon dioxide from the body muscles to gaseous exchange
system.
❖To transport heat from the liver and body muscles to other body parts
hence maintaining a constant body temperature range.
❖To transport platelets to injured sites on the body so as to initiate blood
clotting.
❖To distribute salts around the body so as to maintain the body’s electrolytes
balance.

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 Diseases and disorders of the circulatory system

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• Failure of circulatory system to function properly leads to circulatory
disorders including heart diseases
• There are different types of circulatory disorders and heart diseases,
such as coronary artery disease, high blood pressure, stroke,
arrhythmias, and valvular heart disease.

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 Some of the key circulatory disorders and
heart diseases
1. Coronary heart disease
❖ In the lining of the large and
medium arteries, deposits of a
fatty substance, called atheroma,
are laid down in patches.
❖This happens to everyone and the
patches get more numerous and
extensive with age, but until one of
them actually blocks an important
artery the effects are not noticed.
❖The patches may join up to form a
continuous layer, which reduces
the internal diameter of the vessel

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❖ The surface of a patch of atheroma sometimes
becomes rough and causes fibrinogen in the
plasma to deposit fibrin on it, causing a blood clot
(a thrombus) to form.
❖If the blood clot blocks the coronary artery which
supplies the muscles of the ventricles with blood,
it starves the muscles of oxygenated blood and
the heart may stop beating. This is a severe heart
attack from coronary thrombosis.
❖A thrombus might form anywhere in the arterial
system, but its effects in the coronary artery and
in parts of the brain (strokes) are the most
drastic.
❖In the early stages of coronary heart disease, the
atheroma may partially block the coronary artery
and reduce the blood supply to the heart This can
lead to angina, i.e. a pain in the chest that occurs
during exercise or exertion.
❖This is a warning to the person that he or she is at
risk and should take precautions to avoid a heart
attack.

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 2. High blood pressure
• Sometimes fats accumulate in the blood vessels
making their rumens narrow. This increases blood
pressure and it is the major cause of high blood
pressure in fat people, however small people also
experience high blood pressure. This is due to
conditions like stress, anxiety, fear, etc.
• These conditions tend to increase the rate of
heartbeat and more blood is pumped to the
blood vessels causing high pressure in them.
• Although blood pressure varies with age and
activity, it is normally kept within specific limits
by negative feedback.
• The filtration process in the kidneys needs a
fairly consistent blood pressure. If blood pressure
falls significantly because, for example, of loss of
blood or shock, then the kidneys may fail.
• Blood pressure consistently higher than normal
increases the risk of heart disease or stroke

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 3. Stroke
• A stroke is a medical condition
that occurs when the blood
supply to the brain is disrupted,
leading to damage to brain cells.
• This disruption can be caused by
a blockage in a blood vessel or
bleeding into the brain

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CAUSES OF HEART DISEASES
Stress. Emotional stress often leads to raised blood pressure. High blood pressure
may increase the rate at which atheroma are formed in the arteries
Smoking. Smokers are two to three times more likely to die from a heart attack
than are non-smokers of a similar age The carbon monoxide and other chemicals in
cigarette smoke may damage the lining of the arteries, allowing atheroma to form.
Fatty diets. The atheroma deposits contain cholesterol, which is present, combined
with lipids and proteins, in the blood.
▪ It is known that people with high levels of blood cholesterol are more likely to
suffer from heart attacks than people with low cholesterol levels stress
▪ Blood cholesterol can be influenced, to some extent, by the amount and type of
fat in the diet.
▪ Many doctors and dieticians believe that animal fats (milk, cream, butter, cheese,
egg-yolk, fatty meat) are more likely to raise the blood cholesterol than are the
vegetable oils, which contain a high proportion of unsaturated fatty acids
▪ An unbalanced diet with too many calories can lead to obesity. Being overweight
puts extra strain on the heart and makes it more difficult for the person to
exercise.
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Age
As we get older our risk of suffering from coronary heart disease increases.
Gender
Males are more at risk of a heart attack than females: it may be that males
tend to have less healthy lifestyles than females.
Lack of exercise
Heart muscle loses its tone and becomes less efficient at pumping blood
when exercise is not untaken. A sluggish blood flow, resulting from lack of
exercise, may allow atheroma to form in the arterial lining.
Genetic predisposition
Coronary heart disease appears to be passed from one generation to the
next in some families. This is not something we have any control over, but we
can be aware of this risk and reduce some of the other risk factors to
compensate.

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 PREVENTION OF HEART DISEASES AND OTHER
CIRCULATORY DISEASES
• Maintain a healthy diet. Include a variety of fruits, vegetables, whole
grains, lean proteins, and healthy fats in your diet. Limit your intake of
saturated and trans fats, cholesterol, sodium, and added sugars.
• Engage in regular physical activity. Aim for at least 150 minutes of
moderate-intensity aerobic exercise or 75 minutes of vigorous-intensity
aerobic exercise every week. Additionally, incorporate strength training
exercises at least twice a week.
• Maintain a healthy weight. Strive to achieve and maintain a healthy body
mass index (BMI), as excess weight can increase the risk of heart diseases.
Balance your caloric intake with physical activity.
• Avoid smoking and tobacco products. Smoking and exposure to
secondhand smoke can significantly increase the risk of heart diseases.
Quitting smoking and avoiding tobacco products altogether can greatly
reduce this risk.
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• Limit alcohol consumption. Excessive alcohol consumption can contribute
to high blood pressure, obesity, and increased cholesterol levels, which are
all risk factors for heart diseases. If you choose to drink alcohol, do so in
moderation.
• Manage stress. Chronic stress can contribute to the development of heart
diseases. Implement stress management techniques such as exercise,
relaxation techniques, and hobbies to help reduce stress levels.
• Control blood pressure and cholesterol levels. Regularly monitor your
blood pressure and cholesterol levels, and take necessary steps to keep
them within a healthy range. This may include lifestyle modifications or
medication, as advised by a healthcare professional.
• Get regular check-ups. Visit your healthcare provider regularly for routine
check-ups, screenings, and assessments of your overall health. This can
help identify any potential risk factors or early signs of heart diseases.

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CAPILLARY EXCHANGE, FORMATION OF TISSUE
FLUID AND LATER LYMPH.
❖ As blood flows from arterioles into blood capillaries.
❖ Pressure builds up in the capillaries forcing small molecules like food
materials and the fluid part of blood to leave the capillaries and enter
the intercellular spaces, leaving behind large molecules like proteins
in plasma and cells.
❖ Once the fluid is in the intercellular spaces of tissues, it is no longer
called blood but tissue fluid.
❖Once formed, the tissue fluid surrounds the cells. Body cells then get
their requirements e.g. glucose, oxygen, etc. from the tissue fluid and
they add excretory materials to the fluid
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❖ Some of the fluid
returns in to the
capillaries and the other
is drained in to a system
of narrow channels
called lymph vessels.
❖ The fluid in these
vessels is now called
lymph. Lymph is
therefore, tissue fluid in
the lymph vessels.

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THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
❖ This is part of the vascular system.
It forms the second type of
circulation.
❖Most of the tissue fluid as
explained above goes back into the
blood capillaries and the remainder
enters the lymphatic system and
becomes lymph fluid.
❖ The lymph fluid is transported
through lymph vessels.
❖The lymph vessels are similar to
veins but they have more valves
than the veins.
❖ The movement of the lymph fluid
through the lymph vessels is due to
the contractions of the surrounding
muscles.
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❖As they contract and relax, they squeeze the lymph vessels to gain
the force by which lymph moves. The walls of the lymphatic vessels
have pores, which allow the entry of cell, wastes and bacteria.
❖Before reaching the blood, lymph passes through the lymph nodes
where the wastes and bacteria are removed.
❖The lymph joins the blood circulation via the thoracic ducts, which
join the vein in the neck. The right thoracic duct drains its contents of
the right side and that of the left drains the left side. The lacteals of
the ileum are also connected to the left thoracic duct

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 Functions of the lymphatic system
1. It transports fatty acids and glycerol from the ileum to the heart
where they join the blood system.
2. It carries excretory substances from tissues to the blood stream.
3. It produces white blood cells, which assist in defense of the body.
4. It filters out bacteria before they reach the blood stream.
5. Transports hormones from glands to other body parts.

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 BLOOD GROUPS
❖ Blood groups are determined by the presence or absence of certain
molecules on the surface of red blood cells.
❖ The two most common blood group systems are the ABO system and the
Rh system.
❖There are 4 main blood groups i.e.
1) Blood group A
2) Blood group B
3) Blood group AB
4) Blood group O

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• When one has got less blood than necessary, blood transfusion is
carried out. The one who gives blood to a patient is called a donor
and the one receiving is known as a recipient.
• Doctors have to match the blood of the donor to that of the recipient
because when incompatible blood is mixed, the red blood cells stick
together (agglutinate) and blood clots. This is a fatal situation.
• Agglutination is caused by the presence of proteins called antigens
on the surface of cells being mixed with specific antibodies, which
work against them.
• Blood groups are determined by the type of antigens one has in
blood. This means that one having antigen A belongs to blood group
A.
• Those with antigen B belong to blood group B. Those with antigens A
and B belong to blood group AB while those without antigens belong
to blood group O.
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• Each blood produces particular antibodies, which work against
particular antigens when introduced into the body.
• For example, blood group A produces antibody b. This means that
blood group A is anti (against) blood containing antigen B (blood
group B).

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8/18/2024 72
The table below shows the blood groups, the antigens they carry and
the antibodies they produce.

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 Table of compatibility of blood groups

RECIPIENT

A B AB O
DONOR A √ X √ X
B X √ √ X
AB X X √ X
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O √ √ √ √ 74
 RHESUS FACTOR SYSTEM

❖ Rhesus factor is a protein (antigen) also found on the cell

membranes of the red blood cells.
❖ Many individuals have the Rhesus factor and are said to be rhesus
positive (Rh+) while a few do not have the Rhesus factor and are said
to be Rhesus negative (Rh-).
❖ The Rhesus factor was first discovered in a Rhesus Monkey hence its
name.
❖ A person who is Rhesus factor positive can receive a successful
blood donation without agglutination from a person of Rhesus
positive and a person of Rhesus negative.

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❖However, a person who is Rhesus negative can only receive a
successful blood donation without agglutination from his fellow
Rhesus negative person though he can be transfused with blood
which is Rhesus positive quite successfully only once and after this
transfusion, his body produces antibodies against the Rhesus factor.
❖Such antibodies attack the Rhesus factor with subsequent
transfusion of Rhesus positive blood leading to agglutination.
❖The same concept can be applied to pregnancy in that a Rhesus
positive woman can successfully carry on a pregnancy where the
fetus is Rhesus positive or Rhesus negative.

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❖A Rhesus negative woman can successfully carry a pregnancy where
the fetus is only Rhesus negative; with such a woman, the first
pregnancy with Rhesus positive fetus can be successful but during the
pregnancy the woman’s blood produces antibodies against the
Rhesus factor. Such antibodies attack the Rhesus factor if the woman
gets subsequent pregnancies where the Fetus is Rhesus positive.
❖NB: During blood transfusion both the ABO system and the Rhesus
factor system of blood groups are used together. So a person of blood
group
❖ ARh+ can receive blood from a donor of (i) A Rh+ (ii) A Rh- (iii) ORh+
(iv) ORh-

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IMPORTANCE OF KNOWING BLOOD GROUPS

• Knowing groups plays important role in determining compatibility for

blood transfusions. If someone needs a blood transfusion, it is crucial
to match their blood group with the donor's blood group to avoid
potentially life-threatening reactions. For example, individuals with
blood group A can receive blood from individuals with blood groups A
or O, but not from individuals with blood group B or AB.
• Blood group compatibility is also important for organ transplants. The
recipient's blood group must be compatible with the donor's blood
group to minimize the risk of rejection. For example, a person with
blood group O can donate organs to individuals with any blood group,
making them a universal donor.

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• During pregnancy, knowing the Rh factor of a woman's blood is
impotant. If a Rh-negative woman is carrying a Rh-positive baby,
there can be complications if the fetal blood mixes with the mother's
blood. This can lead to the development of antibodies in the mother's
blood that can harm future pregnancies. However, with proper
medical intervention, these complications can be managed.
• Blood grouping can be useful in forensic investigations to determine
the presence or absence of a particular blood group at a crime scene.
This information can help in identifying potential suspects or ruling
out individuals

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The role of blood in the defence of the human body

Blood contains several components that actively participate in the

body's immune response.
• White Blood Cells (Leukocytes). White blood cells are a key
component of the immune system and are responsible for defending
the body against infections.
• There are different types of white blood cells, including neutrophils,
lymphocytes, monocytes, eosinophils, and basophils. Each type has
its specific functions in combating pathogens. For example,
neutrophils are involved in phagocytosis, lymphocytes are responsible
for specific immune responses, and monocytes differentiate into
macrophages, which engulf and destroy foreign substances.

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• Antibodies. Antibodies, also known as immunoglobulins, are proteins
produced by specialized white blood cells called B lymphocytes. These
antibodies recognize and bind to specific foreign substances called
antigens, such as bacteria, viruses, or toxins. By binding to antigens,
antibodies mark them for destruction or neutralize their harmful
effects, facilitating their elimination from the body.
• Complement System. The complement system is a series of proteins
present in the blood that work together to enhance the immune
response. It can directly destroy pathogens, attract immune cells to
the site of infection, and assist in the process of phagocytosis.
• Platelets promote blood clotting

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 IMMUNITY AND THE IMMUNE SYSTEM
• If an animal contracts a bacterial or viral illness, however, it may
eventually recover, even without medical intervention.
• Frequently, after recovering from an infection, the animal will be
immune to (literally, "exempt” from) the disease-that is, it will not
become ill when infected by the same pathogen in the future.
• Immunity is a resistance to or protection from the symptoms caused
by a disease-causing pathogen that invades the body.
• The immune system is responsible for defending animals against
pathogens.

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• The immune response is based upon recognition of a foreign particle
and the release of chemicals that destroy it. The foreign particle may
be an antigen, bacteria, virus or any other pathogen.
• The substance that destroys these particles can be a white blood cell
or antibodies produced by white blood cells.
• The body has three main lines of defence against disease. These
involve mechanical barriers, chemical barriers and cells.

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Mechanical barriers
• The surface of the skin as a barrier that stops them getting into the body.
But if the skin is cut or damaged, the bacteria may get into the deeper
tissues and cause infection.
• Hairs in the nose help to filter out bacteria that are breathed in. However, if
air is breathed in through the mouth, this defence is by-passed.

Chemical barriers
• The acid conditions in the stomach destroy most of the bacteria that may
be taken in with food.
• The moist lining of the nasal passages traps many bacteria, as does the
mucus produced by the lining of the trachea and bronchi.
• The ciliated cells of these organs carry the trapped bacteria away from the
lungs.
• Tears contain an enzyme called lysozyme. This dissolves the cell walls of
some bacteria and so protects the eyes from infection.
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Cells
• When bacteria get through the mechanical and chemical barriers, the
body has two more lines of
• defence – white blood cells and antibodies, produced by white blood
cells.
• One type of white blood cells fights infection by engulfing bacteria (a
process called phagocytosis) and digesting them.
• Another type produce antibodies that attach themselves to bacteria,
making it easier for other white blood cells to engulf them.

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 Types of immunity
There are 2 main types of immunity
1. Inborn or innate immunity
• This is the type of resistance to diseases that an individual is born with. It
involves first and second lines of defense such as;
➢mucus and moist lining of the nasal passages trap many bacteria.
➢ Hairs in the nose help to filter out bacteria that are breathed in.
➢The surface of the skin as a barrier that stops them getting into the body.
➢ The acid conditions in the stomach destroy most of the bacteria that may
be taken in with food.
➢The ciliated cells of these organs carry the trapped bacteria away from the
lungs.
➢Tears contain an enzyme called lysozyme. This dissolves the cell walls of
some bacteria and so protects the eyes from infection
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2. Acquired (adaptive) immunity
• This is the type of immunity developed by the body during its life
towards various diseases. It is divided into:
• Natural acquired immunity
• Artificial acquired immunity

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a. Natural acquired immunity
• This is the immunity provided by antibodies which are naturally acquired. It
is further divided into 2 types:
• Natural active immunity
• Natural passive immunity
I. Natural active immunity
• This is the type of immunity provided by antibodies produced by the body
after being exposed to a particular disease. After production of the
antibodies, the body becomes resistant to the subsequent similar
infections e.g. contracting flu and recovering from it without using any
drugs.
II. Natural passive immunity
• This is the immunity provided by antibodies acquired from another
individual of the same species. It is a temporary type of immunity e.g. the
body obtains anti bodies from the mother through breast feeding
colostrum

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Artificial acquired immunity
• This is the type of immunity provided by antibodies injected artificially from
either the organisms of the same species or artificially made. It is divided into
2 types:
➢Artificial active immunity
➢Artificial passive immunity
I. Artificial active immunity
It is a product of inducing the body to produce antibodies by artificially injecting
one with a vaccine (weakened/attenuated pathogenic organism). This process is
called vaccination or immunization.

II. Artificial passive immunity

This is the immunity provided by antibodies artificially injected into an
individual. It is temporary and the body is not induced to produce its own
antibodies.
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 HOW DISEASES WEAKEN THE IMMUNE
SYSTEM
HOW HIV VIRUS WEAKENS THE IMMUNE SYSTEM
• HIV attacks certain kinds of lymphocyte (called CD4+ T cells ) so the
number of these cells in the body decreases as the virus multiplies.
• Since the lymphocytes produce antibodies against infections and HIV
reduces their number, the body cannot respond to infections through the
immune system, it becomes vulnerable to pathogens that might not
otherwise be life-threatening.
• As a result, the patient has little or no resistance to a wide range of
diseases such as influenza, pneumonia, blood disorders, skin cancer or
damage to the nervous system, which the body cannot resistand increases
the risk of developing AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome), which
is the advanced stage of HIV infection.
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The process of blood clotting
• When tissues are damaged and blood
vessels cut, platelets clump together and
block the smaller capillaries.
• The platelets and damaged cells at the
wound also produce a substance that
acts, through a series of enzymes, on the
soluble plasma protein called fibrinogen.
• As a result of this action, the fibrinogen is
changed into insoluble fibrin, which
forms a network of fibres across the
wound.
• Red cells become trapped in this network
and so form a blood clot. The clot not
only stops further loss of blood, but also
prevents the entry of harmful bacteria
into the wound.

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 THE END
SLIDES PREPARED BY TR. EGABILE ALFRED
CONTACTS: 0786612648

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