UNIT-II

COMMUNICATION
TECHNOLOGIESFO
R
POWER SYSTEM
Introduction
Data communication systems are essential in any modern power system and
theirimportance will only increase as the Smart Grid develops. As a simple example, a
datacommunicationsystem can be used to send status information from an
IntelligentElectronic Device (IED) to a workstation (human–machine interface) for
display. Anycoordinated control of the power system relies on effective
communications linking alargenumberofdevices.
The below Figure shows a model of a simple point-to-point data
communicationsystem in whichthe communication channel is the path along which
data travels as asignal. As can be seen from Figure, the communication channel could
be a dedicatedlinkbetweentheSourceandDestination orcouldbeasharedmedium.
Fig1.:Modelofsimplepoint-to-pointcommunicationsystem
Figure 2. & 3. shows a typical communication network used inside a
substation.Each bay hasa controller which takes the local measurements (e.g.,
from currentand voltage transformers) and containsthe software required
forprotection andcontrol of the bay primary equipment (e.g., transformers and
circuit
breakers).Thesebaycontrollersareconnectedtosubstationcontrolandmonitoringeq
uipment(stationcomputer,RTUs)throughastarorringconnection
Fig:2. Fig:3.
In the star connection (Figure 2), each bay controller has a dedicated link to
thestation computer. In the ring connection (Figure 3.), the bay controllers and
thestationcomputerareconnectedthroughasharedmediumtoformaLocal
AreaNetwork(LAN).
In the differential protection scheme of Figure 4., a pilot wire communication
orpower line carrier may be used. A bit stream from the differential IED is
firstmodulatedwithacarrier.
Figure:4:Differentialrelay
Examplesofthephysicaldevicesinapowersystemcommunicationsystem.
Component Physicaldevice
Source Voltagetra
nsformerC
urrenttransf
ormer
Transmitter Remoteterminalunit(RTU)
Communicationchannel LAN(Ethernet)
Receiver Networkinterfacecard
Destination WorkstationwithgraphicdisplayIEDforprote
ctionandcontrol
 OpticalFiberNetwork
Opticalfibertransmissionisusedbothinsidesubstationsandforlong-distancetransmission
of data. Optical fibers are often embedded in the stranded conductors ofthe shield
(ground) wires of overhead lines. These cables are known as
OpticalGroundWires(OPGW).
AsshowninFigurebelow,anOPGWcablecontainsatubularstructurewithoneormore
optical fibers in it, surrounded by layers of steel and aluminum wire. Opticalfibers
may be wrapped around the phase conductors or sometimes a standalonecable,an
all-dielectricself-supporting(ADSS)cable,isused.
AsshowninFigure.3,anopticalfiberconsistsofthreecomponents:core,claddingand
buffer. The thin glass center of the fiber where the light travels is called thecore.
The outer optical material surrounding the core that reflects the light backinto the
core is called the cladding. In order to protect the optical surface
frommoistureanddamage,itiscoatedwithalayerof buffercoating.
Compared to other communication media, fiber optic cables have a much
greaterbandwidth. They are less susceptible to signal degradation than copper
wire andtheirweightislessthanacoppercable.Unlikeelectricalsignalsincopperwires,
light signals from one fiber do not interfere with those of other fibers in the
samecable. Further, optical fiber transmission is immune to external
electromagneticinterference (EMI). This is important in power system
applications since datatransmissionthroughtheelectrically
hostileareaofasubstationis required.
The main disadvantages of optical fiber transmission include the cost, the
specialterminationrequirementsanditsvulnerability(itismorefragilethancoaxialcable).
Principleoffiberoptics
Figure4.showsthepathofalightsignaltravellinginsideanopticalfiber.Alightsignalfr
omtheopticalsourceisfirstincidentonsurfaceAandthenrefractedinsidethe core. The
signal is then incident on the surface between the core and
cladding.Thesubsequentpath depends ontheincidentangle, θ1.
Dependingonthecorediameter,theremaybemultipletransmissionpathsora single
transmission path within the core of a fiber. Optical fiber cables havingcore
diameters of 50–400 μm reflect light entering the core from different
angles,establish multiple paths and are called multimode fibers. On the other
hand, fiberwitha much smaller core diameter, 5–10 μm, supports a single
transmission path.This is called single mode fiber. Single mode fibers have
advantages such as
lowdispersion,lownoise,andcancarrysignalsatmuchhigherspeedsthanmultimodefib
ers.Therefore,theyarepreferred forlong-distance applications.
Commonlyusedmultimodefibersare:
a. Stepindexfiber:Thiscablehasaspecificindexofrefractionforthecoreandthecladding
.It is the cheapest type of cable. Its large core diameter allowsefficient
coupling to incoherent light sources such as Light Emitting
Diodes(LED).Differentraysemittedbythelightsource travel along paths
ofdifferent lengths as shown in Figure below. As the light travels in
differentpaths,itappears attheoutputendatdifferent times.
b. Graded index fiber: In graded index fiber, rays of light follow sinusoidal
pathsas shown in Figure below. Although the paths are different lengths, all
thelightreachestheendofthefiberatthesametime.
OpticalFiber BasedWideAreaNetwork(WAN)
A wide area network or WAN, spans a large geographical area, often a
countryorcontinent.WAN(WideAreaNetwork)connectstwoormoreLANsandothe
rnetworkssothatcomputersatonelocationcancommunicatetothecomputersatfar
away some other location. It contains a collection of machines intended
forrunninguser(i.e.,application programs)Wecall thesemachines ashosts.
The hosts are connected by communication subnet or just subnet for short.
Thehost are owned by costumers (e.g., people’s personal computers), whereas
thecommunication subnet is typically owned and operated by a telephone
companyor Internet service provider. The job of subnet is to carry message from
host
tohost,justastelephonesystemcarrieswordsfromspeakertolistener.Inmostwidearea
networks,thesubnetconsistsoftwodistinctcomponents:transmissionlinesand
switching elements. Transmission lines move bits between machines.
Theycanbemadeofcopperwire,opticalfiber,orevenradiolinks.Switchingelementsa
re specialized computers that connect three or more transmission lines.
Whendata arrive on an incoming line, the switching element must choose an
outgoingline on which to forward them. Nowadays router is most commonly
used asswitching element.
(Subnet means the collection of routers and communication lines that
movedpacketsfromthesourcehosttothedestinationhost.)Inthismodel,showninfig,e
achhostisfrequentlyconnectedtoaLANonwhicharouterispresent,althoughin some
cases a host can be connected directly to a router. The collections
ofcommunicationlines and routers (butnotfromthehosts)formthesubnet.
The communication infrastructure of a power system typically consists
ofSCADA systems with dedicated communication channels to and from
theSystemControlCentreand a Wide Area Network (WAN). Some long-
established power utilities may have private tele- phone networks and
otherlegacy communication systems. The SCADA systems connect all the
majorpower system operational facilities, that is, the central generating
stations,thetransmissiongridsubstationsandtheprimarydistributionsubstations
to the System Control Centre. The WAN is used for corporate business
andmarket operations. These form the core communication networks of
thetraditional power system. However, in the Smart Grid, it is expected
thatthesetwoelementsofcommunicationinfrastructurewillmergeintoaUtility
WAN.
Limitations
WAN is difficult for businesses as cloud computing and other
emergingtechnologiesconverge upon the network.Costeffectivenessis
amajorproblemwhenitcomestoWANupgrades,inlargepart,becausethenetwor
kformat is not built for such large amounts of traffic. Harder to manage
sincethesolutiontypicallyinvolvesmultiplevendors&reliabilityofsolutiongoes
down
 UNIT-II
COMMUNICATION
TECHNOLOGIESFO
R
POWER SYSTEM
Notes from
26-05-2021To 29/05/2021
IPBasedRealTimeDataTransmission
TheTransmissionControlProtocol(TCP)/InternetProtocol(IP)orTCP/IPisthe
most widely used protocol architecture today. It is a result of a
projectcalledAdvancedResearchProjectsAgencyNetwork(ARPANET)funded
bytheDefenseAdvancedResearchProjectAgency(DARPA)intheearly1970s.Th
eTCP/IPprotocolarchitectureusedintheInternetevolvedoutofARPANET.
Fivelayers,asshowninFigure,aredefinedintheTCP/IParchitecture.Theyare:Ph
ysicallayer,Networkaccesslayer,Internetlayer,TransportlayerandApplicationl
ayer.TheroleofthePhysicallayeroftheTCP/IPisidenticaltothatofthePhysicallay
erinthe
ISO/OSIreferencemodel.Itdealswiththespecificationsofelectricalandmechani
calaspectsofinterfacesandtransmissionmedia.
It is also responsible for encoding data into signals, defining data rate
andthesynchronizationofbits.
The Network layer is responsible for providing an error-free channel for
theInternetlayer.Itsfunctionsinclude:encapsulationofIPpacketscomingfromth
e Internet layer into frames, frame synchronization, error detection
andcorrection, logicallinkcontrol, providing
flowanderrorcontrol,mediaaccesscontrol,physicaladdressing(MACaddressin
g),LAN switching,datapacket queuing or scheduling algorithms, and IP
address to/from physicaladdress resolution.
The main responsibility of the Internet layer is routing packets from Source
toDestination. Identifying Hosts uniquely and universally is essential for
routingpacketsasdatagramsacrossnetworks.TheInternetlayerusesanidentifiercall
edtheIPaddresstoidentifydevicesconnectedtoanetwork.Therearetwoversions,IPv
4 and IPv6, of IP addressing currently inuse. IP version 4 (IPv4) is still
themostcommonlyused.Sinceitsintroductionin1998withthepublicationofIETFR
FC2373 [12] and RFC2460 [13], IP version 6 is becoming more widely
usedintheinternet.
The Transport layer is represented by the Transmission Control Protocol
(TCP).TCPcreatesavirtualcircuitbetweentheSourcetoDestinationandisresponsible
forsendingalldatagramsgeneratedbytheSource.TCPestablishesatransmissionbyi
nformingtheDestinationthattherearemoredatatobetransmitted and terminates the
connection only when all the datagrams have beentransmitted.
The Application layer in TCP/IP is a combination of session, presentation
andApplication layers of the OSI model. Some of the protocols associated with
theApplication layer of TCP/IP are: Domain Name Server (DNS), File
TransferProtocol (FTP), electronic mail protocols such as Simple Mail Transfer
Protocol(SMTP), Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) and Uniform Resource
Locator(URL).
IPVersion 4
IPv4 addresses are 32 bits long. Usually these are displayed as a sequence of
4octets6withspacebetweenoctetstomaketheaddressesmorereadable.Inorderto
make the address compact, a notationcalled dotted decimal notation
iscommonly used to represent an IPv4addressasshowninFigure,
IPv4 addressing has two architectures called classful and classless
addressing.Classful addressing is the concept used initially and is still in use
widely.Classlessaddressingwasintroducedinthemid-
1990sandisexpectedtosupersedeclassfuladdressing:
IPVersion6
IP version 6 also known as IP Next Generation (IPng) is a 128-bit
addressingscheme. There- fore, it provides a much bigger address space
compared to thatofIPv4.ThemainadvantagesprovidedbyIPv6include:
1. InternetProtocolSecurity(IPsec)ismandatoryforIPv6.Itisaprotocol
 suiteforsecuringInternetProtocol(IP)communicationsbyauthenticatinganden
cryptingeachIPpacketofacommunicationsession.
2. Supportforjumbogramswhichcanbeaslargea−s4,294,967,295(2 321)
octets.Incontrast,IPv4supportsdatagramsupto65,535(216–1)octets.
ISO/OSIMODEL
There are N numbers of users who use computer network and are located
overthe world. So, to ensure, national and worldwide data communication,
systemsmust be developed which are compatible to communicate with each
other ISOhasdevelopedastandard.ISOstandsfor
InternationalorganizationofStandardization. This is called a model for Open
System Interconnection (OSI)and is commonly known as OSI model. The ISO-
OSI model is a seven-layerarchitecture. It defines seven layers or levelsin a
complete communicationsystem.Theyare:
1. ApplicationLayer
2. PresentationLayer
3. SessionLayer
4. TransportLayer
5. NetworkLayer
6. DatalinkLayer
7. PhysicalLayer
FeaturesofOSIModel
1. Big picture of communication over network is understandable
throughthisOSI model.
2. Weseehowhardwareandsoftwareworktogether.
3. Wecanunderstandnewtechnologiesastheyaredeveloped.
4. Troubleshootingiseasierbyseparatenetworks.
5. Can be used to compare basic functional relationships on
differentnetworks.
PrinciplesofOSIReferenceModel
The OSI reference modelhas 7 layers. The principles that were applied to
arriveatthesevenlayerscan bebrieflysummarizedasfollows:
1. Alayershouldbecreatedwhereadifferentabstractionisneeded.
2. Eachlayershouldperformawell-definedfunction.
3. Thefunctionofeachlayershouldbechosenwithaneyetowarddefini
nginternationallystandardizedprotocols.
4. Thelayerboundariesshouldbechosentominimizetheinformationflow
acrossthe interfaces.
5. The number of layers should be large enough that distinct
functionsneednotbethrowntogetherinthesamelayeroutofnecessity
andsmallenough thatarchitecturedoesnot becomeunwieldly.
 Substation Communication
TechnologiesIntroduction
Thecommunicationlayerinsmartgridsservesasthecoreoftheentireremote
monitoring system. It not only collects operational data fromthe field
devices and sends the data to the SCADA servers, but
alsotransmitscommands from the control center to the control units in
orderto actuate the equipment. The emphasis of the communication
layer
istodescribeappropriateprotocolsandmechanismsfortheinteroperableex
changeofdatabetweenthecomponentsofthesmartgrid.
Key requirements of a fast, robust and reliable communication
systeminclude.
(i) Identification of communication traffic
flows:source/destination/quantity.
(ii) Systemtopology(e.g.,star,mesh,ring,bus).
(iii) Deviceaddressingschemes.
(iv) Communication network traffic characteristics
(bandwidth,delay,latency,jitter,reliability,and errorhandling).
(v) Performancerequirements.
(vi) Timingissues.
(vii) Reliability/backup/failover.
(viii) Operationalrequirements(e.g.,security,andmanagementoft
henetwork).
(ix) Quantification of electromagnetic interference
withstandrequirements.
Another critical requirement and recent trend in substation
integrationand automation architecture is the use of standard
communicationinterfacestoensureinteroperabilitybetweendifferentven
dors’components as well as with legacy equipment. The lack of
standardprotocolsmayleadtocommunicationerrorsortoincompatibilityb
etween different devices. Industries that have invested in
proprietaryand vendor-oriented SCADA communication systems
address seriousscalability issues, as they are restricted to limited
choice of
equipmentwhenrequirementschange.Tomitigatesuchproblems,openco
mmunication protocols (e.g., IEC 60870-5-101/104 and DNP 3.0)and
control-center-to-control-center
communication(e.g.,ICCPIEC608706/TASE.2) became
increasingly popular amongSCADA equipmentmanufacturers
andsolutionprovidersalike.
SubstationCommunicationTechnologies:Inconventionalsubstations,
serial communication buses or proprietary protocols areused for local
HMI, as well as for remote SCADA communication.Modern
communication in substation is data transmission inside andbetween
station, bay and process level. Communication between these3 levels
is called vertical communication and is conducted by high-speed
Ethernet station bus and process bus. Station bus
facilitatescommunication between station level and bay level.
Communicationwithin one level is considered horizontal.
Communication networkswithin the substations often have lower-
level data link, physical layerprotocols and multiple application layer
protocols running on top
ofTCP/IP.TraditionalSCADAsystemshadamaster-
slavecommunicationmodel.Nowadays,withtheavailabilityofnetworkab
lecommunicationprotocols,suchasIEC61850,itispossibletosimultaneou
sly support multiple clients located at different
remotelocations,althoughitcomplicateswhohasthecontroloftheequipme
nt.TheFigureshowsanexampleofsuchanetwork.
Figure:Networked SCADACommunications.
Thesenetworksallowtheintegrationofbothcontrolcenterandenterpriseinf
ormationsystems.Basedonthetopologyofthedistributionnetwork,theapp
ropriatetechnologyhastobechosenamong different solutions. Utility
communication networks compriseboth wireless and wired
technologies. Copper wires (e.g., low rate
orbroadbandDSLsignals),fiberoptics(e.g.,Ethernetsignalsforbroadband
MANs),leasedphonelinesorcellularandsatellite
communicationsmaybeemployedfortheinterconnectionofthesubstation
with the control center or between the components of
thesubstation.Newdevelopmenttrendisthespreadspectrumradiotechnol
ogieswhichcanoperateinunlicensedISMbandsinthe900MHz, 2.4GHz,
and5.6GHz bandsor licensedinother
nearbybands.Criteriafortheselectionofthemostappropriatetechnologyar
ebandwidth and delay requirements for the communication link,
andwhetheraglobaloraregionalsolutionistargetedornot.Additionally,wi
reless and satellite systems are subject to eavesdropping, so the
useofappropriatesecuritymeasuresisindicatedtoavoidlossofconfidential
information. SCADA communication networks tend
tocomeinlinewithstandardnetworkingtechnologiesinfuture.Ethernetan
dTCP/IPbasedprotocolsarereplacingtheolderproprietarystandards.
Migration strategies that are available today have to beidentified, in
order to move from legacy technology to the standardprotocols. It is
unlikely that one technology alone will ever provide acomplete
solution for all communications, thus interoperability
andcompatibility of different technologies will be the key requirement
forallfuturegenerationsofsystems.
 UNIT-II
COMMUNICATION
TECHNOLOGIESFO
R
POWER SYSTEM
Notes from
31-05-2021To 05-06-2021
 ZIGBEECOMMUNICATIONTECHNOLOGY
ZigBee is the communication technology which, built on IEEE 802.15.4.
Thisis a low data rate wireless networking standard. Currently this standard is
themostpopularprotocolforaWirelessPublicAreaNetworks(WPAN)duetoitslow
power consumption, high flexibility in networking and low cost. It
createsanad-hocself-
organisingnetworkbyinterconnectingfixed,portableandmovingdevices.
The protocol architecture of a ZigBee device is shown in Figure below.
Asshown in Figure, the lower two layers are defined by IEEE 802.15.4
standards.Application support and Network layer protocols for a ZigBee
network aredefinedbytheZigBeeAlliance.
Application
LayerZigbeeDeviceObject
s
ApplicationSupportSublayer
Network Layer
MAC
PhysicalLayer
Figure:ProtocolArchitectureofZigbee.
A ZigBee device can be a Full Function Device (FFD) or a Reduced
FunctionDevice (RFD). A network will have at least one FFD, operating as
the WPANcoordinator. The FFD can operate in three modes: a coordinator, a
router or
anenddevice.AnRFDcanoperateonlyasanenddevice.AnFFDcantalktootherFFDs
andRFDs,whereasanRFDcanonlytalktoan FFD. An RFD could
bealightswitchorasensorwhichcommunicateswithacontroller.ZigBeenetworksc
anhavestar,meshorclustertreearchitecture,asshowninFigurebelow.
Communicationmodels
 Zigbeehigh-levelcommunicationmodel
An application may consist of communicating objects which cooperate to
carryout the desired tasks. The focus of Zigbee is to distribute work among
manydifferentdeviceswhichresidewithinindividualZigbeenodeswhichinturnform
a network (said work will typically be largely local to each device, for
instance,thecontrolof each householdappliance).
Thecollectionofobjectsthatformthenetworkcommunicatesusingthefacilitiesprovi
ded by APS, supervised by ZDO interfaces. The application layer dataservice
follows a typical request-confirm/indication-response structure. Within
asingledevice,upto240applicationobjectscanexist,numberedintherange1-
240. 0 is reserved for the ZDO (Zigbee device object) data interface and 255
forbroadcast; the241-254 rangeisnot currentlyinusebut maybeinthefutur e.
Twoservicesareavailableforapplicationobjectstouse(inZigbee1.0):
 The key-value pair service (KVP) is meant for configuration
purposes.It enables description, request and modification of object
attributethrough a simple interface based on getting/set and event
primitives,someallowingarequestforaresponse.Configurationusescomp
ressed XML (full XML can be used) to provide an adaptable
andelegantsolution.
  The messageservice
isdesignedtoofferageneralapproachtoinformationtreatment,avoidingthe
necessitytoadaptapplicationprotocolsandpotentialoverheadincurredonb
yKVP.Itallowsarbitrarypayloadsto be transmitted overAPSframes.
Addressing is also part of the application layer. A network node consists of
an802.15.4-conformantradio transceiver
andoneormoredevicedescriptions(basically collections of attributes which can
be polled or set, or which can
bemonitoredthroughevents).Thetransceiveristhebaseforaddressing,anddeviceswit
hinanodearespecifiedby anendpointidentifierintherange1-240.
CommunicationUsingZigbee
For applications to communicate, their comprising devices must use a
commonapplicationprotocol(typesofmessages,formatsandsoon);thesesetsofconv
entions are grouped in profiles. Furthermore, binding is decided upon
bymatchinginputandoutputclusteridentifiers,uniquewithinthecontextofagivenpro
file and associated to an incoming or outgoing data flow in a device.
Bindingtables containsource and destinationpairs.
Depending on the available information, device discovery may follow
differentmethods.Whenthenetworkaddressisknown,theIEEEaddresscanberequest
edusing unicastcommunication. When it is not, petitions are broadcast(the
IEEEaddressbeingpartoftheresponsepayload).Enddeviceswillsimplyrespondwitht
he requested address while a network coordinator or a router will also send
theaddresses of all thedevicesassociatedwith it.
This extended discovery protocol permits external devices to find out
aboutdevices in a network and the services that they offer, which endpoints can
reportwhen queried by the discovering device (which has previously obtained
theiraddresses).Matchingservicescan alsobe used.
The use of cluster identifiers enforces the binding of complementary
entitiesusing the binding tables, which are maintained by Zigbee coordinators,
as
thetablemustalwaysbeavailablewithinanetworkandcoordinatorsaremostlikelyto
have a permanent power supply. Backups, managed by higher-level
layers,maybeneededbysomeapplications.Bindingrequiresanestablishedcommuni
cation link; after it exists, whether to add a new node to the network
isdecided,according totheapplication andsecuritypolicies.
Communication can happen right after the association. Direct
addressingusesbothradioaddressandendpointidentifier,whereasindirectaddressing
useseveryrelevant field (address, endpoint, cluster, and attribute) and requires
that they aresent to the network coordinator, which maintains associations and
translatesrequests for communication. Indirect addressing is particularly useful
to
keepsomedevicesverysimpleandminimizetheirneedforstorage.Besidesthesetwom
ethods,broadcast toallendpointsinadeviceisavailable,andgroup
addressingisusedtocommunicatewithgroupsofendpointsbelongingtoasetofdevices.
 UNIT-
IICOMMUNICATION
TECHNOLOGIES
FORPOWERSYSTEM
Notes
from07-06-
2021To
UNIT-IICOMPLETE
 GEOGRAPHICINFORMATIONSYSTEM(GIS)
 Introduction
AGISisaparticularformofInformationSystemappliedtogeographicaldata.AnInfor
mationSystemisasetofprocesses,executedonrawdata(Longitude,Latitude) to
produce information which will be useful when making
decisions.Asystemisagroupofconnectedentitiesandactivitieswhichinteractforaco
mmonpurpose.AGISisanorganizedcollectionofcomputershardware,software,geog
raphicdata,andpersonneltoefficientlycapture,store,update,manipulate,analyze,and
displayallformsofgeographicallyreferencedinformation.AGISintegratesspatialan
dotherkindsofinformationwithinasinglesystemtoprovideaconsistentframeworkfor
analyzinggeographic(spatial) data. A GIS makes connections between activities
based on geographicproximity.
 DefinitionofGIS
TherearedifferentdefinitionsforGeographicInformationSystem,eachdeveloped
from a different perspective or disciplinary origin. Some focus on themap
connection, some stress the database or the software tool kit and othersemphasis
applications such as decision support. Defining a GIS can be done
byeitherexplainingwhatitcando(Functions)orbylookingatthecomponents.
“A geographic information system (GIS) is a computer-based tool for
mappingand analyzing things that exist and events that happen on earth. GIS
technologyintegratescommondatabaseoperationssuchasqueryandstatisticalanalys
iswiththe unique visualization and geographic analysis benefits offered by
maps” —Environmental Systems Research Institute (Environmental Systems
ResearchInstitute-ESRI).
 ComponentsofGIS
GIShavemainly5components:Hardware,Software,Data,People,andMethods.
 Hardware: Hardware is the computer on which a GIS operates;
GISsoftware runs on a wide
rangeofhardwaretypes,fromcentralizedcomputer server to desktop
computers and in stand-alone or networkedconfigurations. Hardware
relates to device used by end userssuch asgraphic devices or
plottersandscanners. Datastorage and manipulationis done using a range
of processor. With the development of the
InternetandWebbasedapplication,Webservershavebecomepartofmuchsyst
em’s architecture, hence most GIS’s follows 3-Tier architecture.
Itconsists of the computer system on which the GIS software will run.
Thechoice of hardware system ranges from 300MHz Personal Computers
toSuper Computers having capability in Tera FLOPS. The computer
formsthebackboneoftheGIShardware,whichgetsitsinputthroughtheScanner
oradigitizer board
 Software:GIS software provides the functions and tools needed to
store,analyseanddisplaygeographicinformation.Keysoftwarecomponentsar
eToolsfortheinput and manipulationofgeographicinformation.
A database management system (DBMS) Tools that support
geographicquery, analysis and visualization. A geographical user
interface (GUI) foreasy access to tools. Software is also a highly dynamic
part of the system.Dozens of GIS software packages now exist. These
systems are availableon many different types of hardware platforms and
come with a widevariety of functional capabilities. GIS software provides
the functions andtools needed to store, analyse, and display geographic
information. GISsoftware’s in use are ArcGIS, MapInfo, Global mapper,
AutoCAD
Map,etc.Thesoftwareavailablecanbesaidtobeapplicationspecific.Whenthel
ow-cost GIS work is to be carried out desktop Global mapper, Map infois
the suitable option. It is easy to use and supports many GIS feature.
IftheuserintendstocarryoutextensiveanalysisonGISincludingmodellingand
reportgeneration,ArcGISisthepreferredoption.ForthepeopleusingAutoCA
DandwillingtostepintoGIS,AutoCADMapisagoodoption.
 Data:Possiblythemostimportantcomponentof a GISisthedata.Geographic
data and related tabular data can be collected in-house orpurchased from a
commercial data provider. A GIS will integrate spatialdata with other data
resources and can even use a DBMS, used by mostorganizations to
organize and maintain their data, to manage spatial data.Geographic data
are basically divided into two main groups are vectorandraster.
 User/People: GIS technology is of limited value without the people
whomanagethesystemanddevelopplansforapplyingittoreal-
worldproblems.The GIS users range from technical specialists who
design and maintainthe system to those who use it to help them perform
their everyday
work.ThefinalcomponentrequiredforatrueGISisusers.Theterm"user"mayre
fer to any individual who will use GIS to support project or
programgoals, or to an entire organization that will employ GIS in
support of itsoverall mission.
 Methods: A successful GIS operates according to a well-
designedplanandbusinessrules,whicharethemodelsandoperatingpr
actices unique to each organization. Geographic
InformationSystem-Theorganizedactivity bywhichpeople,
o Measureaspectsofgeographicphenomenaandprocesses.
o Representthesemeasurements,usuallyintheformofacomputer
database, to emphasize spatial themes, entities
andrelationships.
o Operateupontheserepresentationstoproducemoremeasurements
andtodiscovernewrelationshipsbyintegrating
 disparatesources.
o Transformtheserepresentationstoconformtootherframeworksofe
ntitiesandrelationships.
Theseactivitiesreflectthelargecontext(InstitutionandCultures)inwhichthesepeopl
e carry out their work. GIS is primarily a computer software package
fororganizingdata withlocation dimension.
 ApplicationsofGeographicInformationSystem(GIS)InSmartGrid
1. SiteSelectionandEvaluation
Generation site placement studies are supported using GIS. For
example,building a hydropower station requires thorough studies of
geologicallithologies,waterdrainagepatterns,surface,andsubsurfacestructur
es.Thegeological, structural configuration is essential to understand the
strengthsand weaknesses of the area so the project can be implemented in
suitableterrain.GISisusedtoprocessthisdatatoshow,forexample,thehydropo
wer potential of an area. Using information, such as spot
heighttopographicmapsanddigitizeddataaboutelevationcontours,ArcGISca
ngenerate digital elevation models (DEMs). GIS is used to layer
additionaldata on the DEM such as catchment boundaries, drainage
networks, andlocationofmajorhabitation and environmentalfactors.
2. PlantLicensing
Utilities generating power are required by federal regulation to license
orrelicense their facilities. A large number of environmental studies
areconductedduringthisprocess,andGIStoolsaidinefficientandcomprehensi
ve results. The studies require a wide variety of data
fromgovernmentalandothersourcesincludingecological,engineering,recrea
tional,cultural,andsocioeconomiccontent.ExamplesofGIS-relatedtasks
used for relicensing are analysis of data, capture and display
ofchangesovertime,two-andthree-
dimensionalsurface/bathymetrymodels,elevationmodels,andthepresentatio
nandreportingofthestudiesformeetings aswellasongoing monitoring
afteralicenseis granted.
3. NetworkViewingSolutions
Intelligentlybuildingatransmissionlinenetworkrequirespreciseplanning,
costing, scheduling, and so forth. Use GIS for selecting suitableareas,
finding the optimum path, creating the profile analysis,
engineeringdesignoftowers andwires,surveying support,and
estimatingcosts.
4. WholesalePowerMarkets
Planning engineers are also working toward a GIS interface with a
loadflow program, the Power System State Estimation, which creates
bettervisualizations of resultant contingencies on the system caused by
newgeneration, new transmission, generation retirements, and other
changes.GISisused forvarious reportstostakeholders
suchastheFederalEnergy
 RegulatoryCommission,stateagencies,andstateregulatorycommissions.GI
S-generated reports show the status of the transmission grid and
thestatusofconstructiononthesysteminthenext fiveandtenyears’
5. Right-of-WaySolutions
GIS is used to manage right-of-way activities including planning
andmanagement,propertyappraisal,propertyacquisition,property/assetman
agement,assetrelocation,vegetationmanagement,andcorridorpreservation.
UseGIStobufferandoverlayright-of-
wayrequirementsfortowerplacement,queryfeaturestoidentifypropertyowne
rsandotherlandinformation,andperformgeospatialanalysistodirecttree-
trimmingefforts. GIS provides a myriad of opportunities to streamline
right-of-wayprocesses fromfacility managementtomarketassessment.
6. AssetManagementSolutions
Byprovidingageographicallyorientedviewoftheelectricgenerationandtrans
missionstructures,devices,andnetwork,ESRI’sArcGIShelpselectricitygene
rationandtransmissionutilitymanagersvisualize,analyze,and understand
their facilities.
7. LandManagementSolutions
Utilityorganizationsthataccumulatelandmustperformtheaccompanyingrec
ords and land management duties. GIS supports land data storage
andorganization, surveying, mapping, and more. The result is fast access
tomaps,comprehensivedata,and reducedcosts.
8. BusinessPartners
ESRI’s business partners for the electric and gas industry bring
ESRIsoftwareusersthebestapplicationsavailable.Consultationsupport,exte
nsions,and customization help yougetthemostout of GIS.
 GlobalPositioningSystem(GPS)
 DefinitionofGPS:
The GPS is a satellite-based navigation system made up of a network of
24satellitesplacedintoorbitbytheU.S.DepartmentofDefence.GPSwasoriginallyint
ended for military applications, but in the 1980s, the government made
thesystemavailableforcivilianuse.GPSworksinanyweatherconditions,anywherein
the world, 24 hours a day. There are no subscription fees or setup charges
touseGPS.
 GPSSegments/ComponentsofGPS/PrinciplesofGPS:
The Global Positioning System consists of three major segments: the
SpaceSegment, the Control Segment, and the User Segment. The space and
controlsegmentsareoperatedbytheUnitedStatesMilitaryandadministeredbytheU.S
.SpaceCommandof the U.S.Air Force.
Figure:ComponentsofGPS.
1. TheControlSegment
➢ The control segment of the Global Positioning System consists of one
MasterControl Station (MCS) located at Falcon Air Force Base in Colorado
Springs,Colorado, and four unmanned monitor stations located strategically
around theworld e.g., Hawaii Monitor Station, Ascension Monitor Station,
Diego GarciaMonitorStation,Kwajalein Monitor Station.
➢ In addition, the Air Force maintains three primary ground antennas,
locatedmoreor less equidistantaroundtheequator.
➢ Observationandcontrollingthesatellitesystemregularly.
➢ Tocheckthesatellitefunctionsanditsaccuratepositioninthespace.
➢ Todeterminethe timeof GPS.
➢ Updateperiodicallynavigationmessagesforeachsatellite.
➢ Intheeventofsomecatastrophicfailure,therearealsotwobackupMaster
ControlStations,onelocatedinSunnyvale,California,andtheotherinRockville,Mary
land.
➢ TheCSisresponsibleformaintainingthesatellitesandtheirproperfunctioning.Th
isincludesmaintainingthesatellitesintheirproperorbitalpositions (called station
keeping) and monitoring satellite subsystem health andstatus.
➢ The CS also monitors the satellite solar arrays, battery power levels,
andpropellant levels used for manoeuvrers. Furthermore, the CS activates
sparesatellites (ifavailable) to maintain system availability.
➢ Newlyaddedcontrolstationsafter2005areWashingtonDCEngland,Ecuador,Ar
gentina,BahrainandAustralia.
➢ Masterstationscollectthedataaboutthesatellitesofthissystemcontinuouslyfrom
the other tracking stations. MCS process the tracking data for
computationofsatelliteephemerides (orco-ordinate)&satelliteclockparameters.
➢ This sequence of events occurs every few hours for each of the satellites
tohelp ensure that any possibility of error creeping into the satellite positions
ortheirclocksisminimized.
2. TheSpace Segment
➢ ThespacesegmentconsistsofthecompleteconstellationoforbitingNAVSTAR
GPS satellites. The current satellites are manufactured by RockwellInternational
andcostapproximately$40millioneach.
➢ The Space Segment of the system consists of the GPS satellites. These
SpaceVehicles (SVs) send radio signals from space. The Space Segments -
consists ofthe group of minimum 24 Satellites & the signals -that are broadcast
by them,whichallowusertodeterminepositionvelocity&time.Thebasicfunctionsof
satellitesare-Toreceive&storedatauploadedbyControlSegment.
➢ Currently12ofthesesatellitesarere-designedasthepartofGPSModernization
Programme.
GPSSatelliteDetails
• Name:NAVSTAR(TheNavigationSatelliteTimingandRanging-USA)
• Galaxy:consistof24satellites.
• Manufacture:RockwellInternational
• Altitude:20200km
• Weight:845kg
• Numberofpathor orbit: 6
• Numberofsatellitesperpath:4
• Orbitalinclination:55degreestoequatorialplane
• Orbitalspacing:60degree(360/6)
• Orbitalperiod:12hours
• Plannedlifespan:7.5 years
3. UserSegment
➢ Informationthatcomesfromspaceandsendstosatellitesisthemostimportantpartof
GPS.
➢ Thepartthatdoesthiswork isUserSegment.Ithas theGPSreceiversection.
➢ GPScollectandstoredtheallinformationthathascomefromspace.Forthis,4satellit
esarerequired.TheGPSusersegmentconsistsoftheGPSreceiversandtheusercommu
nity.GPSreceiversconvertSVsignalsintoposition,velocityandtime estimates. Four
satellites are required to compute the four dimensions of X(latitude), Y
(longitude), Z (altitude) and T (time). GPS receivers are used
fornavigation,positioning,timedisseminationandotherresearch.
➢ Theuserreceivingequipmentcomprisestheusersegment.Eachsetofequipmentis
typicallyreferredtoasaGPSreceiver,whichprocessestheL-bandsignals transmitted
from the satellites to determine user PVT (Position, VelocityandTime).
➢ WhilePVTdeterminationisthemostcommonuse,receiversaredesignedforother
applications, such as computing user platform attitude (i.e., heading, pitch,and
roll)or asatimingsource.
➢ Navigation in three dimensions is the primary function of GPS.
Navigationreceivers are made for aircraft, ships, and ground vehicles and for
hand carryingby individuals. Precise positioning is possible using GPS receivers
at referencelocations providing corrections and relative positioning, geodetic
control andplatetectonic studiesareexample.
➢ Time and frequency dissemination, based on the precise clocks on board
theSVsandcontrolledbythemonitorstations,isanotheruseforGPS,Astronomicalobs
ervatories,telecommunicationsfacilities,and laboratorystandardscanbe set
to precise time signals or controlled to accurate frequencies by special
purposeGPSreceivers.ResearchprojectshaveusedGPSsignalstomeasureatmosphe
ricparameters.
 ApplicationsofGPSinSmartGrid:
TheUnitedStatesgovernmentcreatedthesystem,maintainsitandmakesitfreelyacces
sibletoanyonewithaGPSreceiver.Theglobalpositioningsystemprovidescriticalcap
abilitiestomilitary,civilandcommercialusersaroundtheworld.Butin terms of
Electrical Smart Grid System, it is very useful. The benefits of GPSin Power
system arelistedbelow.
1. ImprovementinEfficiencyofDailyOperationandMaintenance:
Thenumberofelectricalpowerequipment’sisbig,andthey’rewidelydistributed.
Lots of devices are deployed in remote areas, which brings muchinconvenience
for inspection and checking. It’s difficult to find the
equipment.Thetraditionalmethodistotrainthenewgenerationofstaffbyseniorones.
Thisapproach is neither scientific nor efficient, especially for large-scale
activities(suchastheOlympicGames),whichneedregionalcooperation.TheGPSpos
itions of all equipments are entered into the map data, so everyone can
easilyfindthedestinationwithaGPSdevice.Labourcostissavedandtheefficiencyissi
gnificantly improved.
2. ImprovementintheAbilityofHandlingAccidents:
Accidents cannot be completely avoided today. In addition to active
prevention,a quick solution is particularly important after it happens. Quick and
accuratearrival at the scene with a precise navigation device could avoid great
loss of thecountry. Meanwhile, with advanced wireless communication systems,
real-timevideos of the accident are transmitted to the experts all-round the
country
forremotediagnosis,whichcangreatlyenhancetheabilitytohandleaccidents.
3. ConsiderableEconomicBenefit:
Power failure could cause national economic disaster. A malfunction may
causeeconomiclossesfromafewhundredmilliontomorethanabilliondollars.(Twose
verepowerblackoutsaffectedmostofnorthernandeasternIndiaon30and31July
2012. The 30 July 2012 blackout affected over 400 million people and
wasbriefly the largest power outage in history by number of people affected,
beatingthe January 2001 blackout in Northern India(230 million affected) The
blackouton 31 July is the largest power outage in history. The outage affected
more than620millionpeople,about9%ofthe worldpopulationorhalfof
India'spopulation,spreadacross22states
inNorthern,Eastern,andNortheastIndia.Anestimated32
gigawattsofgeneratingcapacitywastakenoffline).Whenanemergencyoccurs,every
secondcanbeextremelyvaluable.GPSpositioningandnavigation system can
realize fast positioning, rapid troubleshooting, and
henceavoidingeconomiclossesasmuchaspossible.Meanwhile,thereservationofthe
guides can be avoided in daily operation and maintenance, even in large cross-
regional operations.Thelabour costisgreatlysaved.
4. LargeSocialBenefits:
Electrical power is closely related to everyone’ life in civil society. In any
city,power failure is an inconceivable disaster. Several large-scale power
outagescausedbytheaccidentinhistorygavelocalpeoplepainfulmemories.Thus,wit
hGPSpositioningandnavigationsystem,theabilityoftroubleshootingisenhancedfor
PowerEnterprises,whichhasaverysignificantimpactonpeople’slivelihoodand
socialstability.
5. PositioningofTransmissionTowers,SubstationsandOffices:
The locations of transmission towers, substations, offices and so on, are pre-
setinGPSdevices.WithanelectronicmapinGPSdevices,afterpositioningbyGPSsate
llites, the route can be automatically calculated by directly clicking on
thedestination. The route from the start point to the destination can be
reasonablyplanned andtracked.
6. DynamicallyAdditionorSubtractionofLocationInformationAccording
toRequirement:
The system employs open data structure, which makes it convenient to add
orremovelocationinformation.Whennewequipmentsareadded,orsomeequipmenti
soutofdate,theusercaneasilymakethechangebyhim/herself.Thesystem also
realizes data sharing of address book and navigation path
withdifferentdevices.Crossregionalcooperationcanbeachievedbysimplyintegratin
g location information of different areas. New devices are no longerrequired.
7. Real-TimeMonitoring,ImprovingManagementEfficiency
TheGPSnavigationdevicereceivesGPSsatellitesignals,automaticallypositions,and
sendsthelocationinformationintheformsofSMSordata(GPRS
/3G,etc.),tothemastercontrolcenter,viabuilt-inwirelessmodules.Themastercontrol
center receives the information, extracts the location information,
anddynamicallydisplaysthelongitude,latitude,speed,status,etc.,ofthevehiclesonth
eelectronicmap.Byintegratingthedatacollected,thecorporationcanfindthemost
appropriate operating fashion, avoid waste, and save cost. By diggingdeeper
into the data, the analyzer can provide the most authentic and
reliablereferencetothemanagementteam,tomakemoreopportunities.
8. CombinedwithAdvancedNetwork,toEnhanceEmergencyResponseCa
pabilities
When dealing with urgent accidents, the monitoring platform can
accuratelyobtainthedistributionofvehiclesandpersonnel,andcarryoutoverallarrang
ements.Atthesametime,GPSpositioningandnavigationsystemnotonlycan guide
staff to the scene quickly, but can communicate with supervisors viawireless
communication capabilities in time, to obtain the correct commands.When
facing with complex problems, live scene video can be sent to the master-
monitoring center via advanced wireless network (GPRS/3G, etc.). Experts
fromdifferent regions can participate in the multi-party consultation to diagnose
andresolvetheproblemintime,savingtheloss.
 INTREGRATEDCOMMUNICATIONCONTROLSYSTEM(ICCS)
EID’sintegratedcommunicationscontrolsystemfeaturesafullintegrationofallintern
al and external communications resources, including remote functions.
It’spowerful, comprehensive control and supervision tool gives the system
highsurvivability and reliability. The embedded training facilities allow the set-
up ofa communications training environment; coexisting with normal operation,
itenableson-
boarduserstodeveloptheiroperationalprociency.Thecommunicationsystemcontai
nsuniqueoperationalcharacteristics,namelythroughtheconceptofcommunicationp
lans(Complains);anextremelyefficientmanagementofresourcesisachieved,aswell
asthecapabilitytoreactquicklytochangesonthe operationalscenario.
 MaincharacteristicsoftheICCSinclude:
 Cost-effective,modularsystemdesign 
 Open system, based on widely accepted standards and technology,
thusguaranteeing easy, fast and cost-effective integration of
communicationequipmentandsubsystemsof any manufacturer
 Interfaces with the combat system enabling the transfer of
informationbetweenbothsystems 
 Inherent upgrade and growth capabilities, both in terms of
configurationand technologicalevolution
 Flexiblearchitecture,suitableforanytypeofwarship 
 State-of-the-arttechnology
ICCSisindeedastepaheadintermsofshipboardcommunicationsmanagement,suppo
rtinghigh-levelconceptssuchasCOMPLANSandon-boardtrainingfacilities.
Thesystemfeaturesacentralizedcontrol,withanappealing,intuitiveandpowerful
human interface, that turns the control
andmanagementoftheship’scommunicationsintoasimpleandtrivialtask,requiring
aminimumofskilledpersonnel.
 ArchitectureofICCS
The Integrated Communications Control System (ICCS) is a hardware device
ora set of hardware that allows communications protocols/interfaces as diverse
asconventionalPMR(UHF,VHF,HF),TETRA,digitaltelephony,analoguetelephon
y, GSM, CDMA, and VoIP to interact seamlessly. The ICCS
functionsasanEPABX,exceptthatitswitchescommunicationlinksofdifferentprotoc
ols/interfaces instead of switching links of just one
protocol/interface.Dependingonthesolution,thefollowing arethecomponents ofan
ICS
  Switch Server: This is typically a computing unit with the ability to
beconfiguredwithcommunicationslinecards,andrunningtheuser-
interface(UI).Dependingonthehardwareplatform,thelinecardswillsitonaCN
Rslot or on a PCM MVIP bus. The chassis will be industrial-design and
cantake up to 20-line cards. Some solutions allow this component to
beconfiguredinaredundantmode,givenitscriticalitytotheoperationoftheICS.
In case there is a redundant server, the ICS will provide for
anInterconnectionUnitto makesignalsavailableto bothservers.
 ConnectionPanel:Thiscomponentcaneitherbeanintegratedsub-systemof
the Matrix/Switch server or an add-on module. The Connection
Panelreceives all the external signals to the system and routes them to
theMatrix/Switch server. It is the termination box for all physical lines
andradiolinks.
 Application/UI:
The application runs on the server and allows a user to patch calls, set
upconference calls, and carry out configuration tasks. The user-interface
canbe graphical or character. In addition, some solutions provide a touch-
screen interfacefor easierpatchingand conferencing.
 External Conversation Recorder: This is an optional component
andallows all voice communications passing through the ICS to be
recordedforarchivingpurpose.
 DesiredFeaturesofanICCS
TherearevariousICCSsolutionsinthemarket,offeringdifferinglevelsof
sophisticationintheimplementationoftheswitchingfunctionality,inthenumberof
protocols/interfaces supported, and in the call functions supported. A
fewfeatures users need to look for in an ICCS, over and above standard call
featuressuch as group call handling, conferencing, call multiplexing. An
IntegratedCommunicationsSystem,ICCScanbethedifferencebetweenacoordinate
dandeffective response to a crisis, and a confused and delayed to a crisis.
HomelandSecurity response teams the world over is investing in such systems
to improvetheir performance. Mistral offers the Integrated Communications
System forusersinterestedin afully-featured,robust,anduser-friendly solution.
TimeSynchronizationInICCS
Substation automation demands precise time synchronization for a variety
ofIntelligent Electronic Devices (IEDs). There are different possible approaches
toachievetherequiredaccuracy.Timesynchronizationforsubstationswithintegrated
protection- and system control functions, as well as data
collectionrequireatargetarchitecturethatdistributessynchronizedtimeinseveralwa
ys.
Electricalcompaniesareturningintothebiggestusersandgeneratorsof
 OperationalData
 Administrative
DataTheyarethebiggestusers
 ofreal timedata
 Operationaldata
ApplicationoftimesynchronizationinelectricalsystemsTimeSynchronizationin:
 SCADAs->Protocolizationandregistration
 Communicationequipment-
>Communicationprocessors,protocoltranslators
 Protectionrelays->Faultandperformanceanalysis
 Faultrecorders->Postmortemanalysis,responsibility,liability
 BillingmetersAMR->Tarifswitching,loadanalysis
 IEDs,RTUs,SOE,Sensors->Protocolization+registration
 Servers,Routers,Switches->ITsecurity!
 Frequencydeviation->Systemstability
 Securitymonitoring->Physicalsecurity
 Digitalvoiceandvideorecording-
>Civilresponsibility,Law,Insurancecompanies.
 E-CommerceofElectricity
Deregulationbroughtthesegmentationoftheelectricityindustry.Fromgeneration,pa
ssingthroughtransmissionandendingatthedistributionsector,allareseparatedfrome
achother.Duringtheninetiesseveralcountrieshaveadoptedthis structure.
Nevertheless, the traditional utility model still exists.
Generation,transmissionanddistributionallbelongstothesameentitywhichhaveam
onopolyoranoligopolyeconomicstructure.Nowadaysinthedevelopedcountries
customers become the focus of energy and energy service providers.This means
that generation sells its commodity in the wholesale market toretailers that
distribute to the consumers. Transmission of electricity is usuallydone by state
regulated entity to clarify and avoid market influence. The aim ofthis work
focusses on the development of an electricity retail model that enablesmarket
efficiency growth with the existence of the retailer entities, and theimportance
of a Business-to-Client communication infrastructure to improvebetterqualityof
service to the finalclient.
Therearethreedifferenttypesofclients,industrial,commercialanddomestic,asa
consequence different types of needs and different types of load
profiles.Without the impact of price oscillation at the final client, it is
impossible toprovideprofittotheentitiesofthederegulatedmarketfor
newgenerationsystems,maintenanceandtoprovideanewsetofproductsbesideselect
ricity.
 Electricityretailmodel
Ane-
Businessmodelfortheelectricityretailerandtheconnectionswiththeotherentities.
Besides the wholesalers and the final clients, as could be seen there isalso an
Independent System Operator – ISO which coordinates the electricityphysical
structure. From country to country, this entity can have different levelsof
intervention in the market. He (the ISO) could operate only the
physicalstructureoralsothefinancialmarket,regulatingthetransactionsscheduleinti
me.Electricity can be traded in different periods of time ranged from fifteen
minutestoseveralmonthslater,beforeempoweringthelines.TheISOactslikearegulat
orofthe commodityand alsoofthefinancialsystems
 E-Businesstransactions
In the traditional electricity industry, the company has to support
generation,transmission and distribution costs besides maintenance. The
company profit isgranted by contracts that are made by the distribution sector
with their clients.Deregulation brought the segmentation of the electricity
industry, all parts
fromgenerationtodistributionwhereseparatedandnewmarketswherecreated.Retail
ers buy electricity from the wholesalers which is then sold to the
finalclients.Retailerbusinessiswellsuitedtobesupportedbyane-
Businessstructure,where a B2B relation is established between the wholesalers
and the retailer,
ontheothersideaB2Cplatformistheretailersolutiontoimprovetheircompetenceands
ervicestothefinalcostumers.Informationandcommunicationtechnologiesareessent
ialforoptimalperformanceofaretailer.
  Securityrequirements
Anykindofwebtransactiontobesuccessfulmustbesecure,surveysindicatethemost
important factor that influences an online purchase is the security of
thattransaction.
An issue of great importance is the security of the B2C market, from both
sides,the access to the market and the information exchanged are significant
values topreserve. On the contrary to other electronic markets the break of the
securitymarket not only affects the information but also a huge number of
resources in adirectly orindirectlyway.
The above, retailers are necessary in any type of electricity market structure
andin the near future their presence will be more essential. The natural evolution
ofthe electricity industry and Internet technologies will bring a electricity
webretailer market for costumers with dynamic tariffs. It makes sense they will
havesuchamarket,wheretheclientcouldchoosebetweendifferenttypeofelectricitypr
ices,bundle ofproductsandservices.
 DistributedGenerationUtilizationBarriers
Many of the technical barriers to distributed power relate to the utility’s responsibility to maintain
thereliability,safety,andpowerqualityoftheelectricpowersystem.Typicaltechnicalbarriersencountered in
the case studies are interconnection requirements that the utility may
unnecessarilyrequiretoensurereliability, safety, andpowerquality.
• Thesemayinclude:
• Requirementsforprotectiverelaysandtransferswitches
• Powerqualityrequirements.
• Powerflowstudiesandother engineeringanalyses.
1. Safety Standards
The principal safety concern among utilities with respect to connecting generation equipment to
thegrid is protection against “islanding” the condition where a generating facility continues to
supplypower to a portion of the grid when the balance of grid has been de-energized (during a power
outage,for example)This condition is of concern in two scenarios: where the distributed generator is
eitherfeeding a short circuit thus potentially causing a fire, and where a lineman might mistakenly
come
incontactwithwhatisotherwisethoughttobeadeenergizedline.Traditionally,utilitiesprotectedagainstislan
ding by using mechanical relays and transfer switches that automatically isolated
generatingfacilitiesfromthegrid,whetherthesefacilitieswereutility-ownedornon-
utilityowned.Thisequipmentiseffectiveandreasonablyefficient,butisprohibitivelyexpensiveforsmall-
scaledistributedgenerators.
2. PowerQualityStandards
Power quality concerns include voltage and frequency disturbances, voltage flicker, and
waveformdistortion. Distributed power facilities, like central-station facilities, can have either a
detrimental or
abeneficialeffectonpowerquality.Aswiththemodernelectronicapproachesthatcanprovideislandingprotec
tion, innovation in power electronics is revolutionizing the way that power quality concerns
areaddressed.Traditionally,utilitiesrequiredtheinstallationofover/undervoltageandover/underfrequency
relaysandother,separate,protectivedevicestoensurethatpowerqualityrequirementswerebeing met. The
principal problem facing distributed generators with respect to power quality issues
isthesameaswithanti-
islandingprotection.Lackingexperiencewiththenewertechnologiesorstandardizedtesting
procedures,utilitiessofarhavebeenreluctanttoacceptthepowerqualityprotectionbuiltinto distributed
generatingfacilities.
3. LocalDistributionSystemCapacityConstraints
Thegeneralapproachamongutilitiesindealingwithlocaldistributionsystemcapacityconstraintsistoconduct
pre-interconnectionstudiesbeforeinterconnectingdistributedgenerators.Thesestudiesevaluate the
potential effects of the distributed generating facility on the specific portion of
utilitysystemtobeaffected,anddeterminewhetheranyupgradesorotherchangesareneededtoaccommodatet
hegeneratingfacility.
4. Initial ContactandRequests
Reachingtheappropriateutilityrepresentativeandgettingaconsistentresponsewasfrequentlycitedasa
significant problem for both small- and mid-sized projects. With large projects, developers
usuallyincluded these costs as a ‘part of doing business with utilities’ and could more easily bear the
cost oflengthycontestedlegalnegotiations.Manydistributedpower facilitiescould not.
 Applicationprocessdelays
 Unproductivetimespent byindividualsanddevelopers
 Excessiveproceduralrequirements.
5. ApplicationandInterconnectionFees
Applicationandinterconnectionfeesaregenerallyrequiredfortheapprovalorpermittingofdistributedpower
facilities.Thesefeesaretypicallyassessedregardlessofsizeoftheproposedproject.Therefore,theypresentasi
gnificantmarketbarrierforsmallerscalefacilities.Someofthesmallestdistributed
generators are asked to pay fees or charges equivalent to many months or even years’ worth
ofanticipatedenergysavings.
6. Final InterconnectionDelay
Proponents of several projects reported delays continuing from the application process through
finalapproval. In some cases, these delays were procedural; in other cases, delays were equipment
relatedon the utility side. One utility postponed transmission connection on questions of system
reliability
forseveralmonthsduringtheearlyhighdemandsummermonths,thenreverseditspositionasthesummerpeaka
pproached andtheprobabilityarose ofcapacityshortages.
7. DirectUtilityProhibition
Theutilitysimplyprohibiteddistributedpowersystemsfromoperatinginparallelwiththegrid;thatis,theutilit
ysimplyrefusedtointerconnectwiththesesystems.Thewholesalegenerationandtransmissionutility
supplying the distribution utility with power invoked ‘all requirements contracts’ to prevent
thememberdistributionutilityfromallowinginterconnection.Evenprojectsinstalledonthecustomersideoft
hemeterfaceprohibitions,somedirectlyandothersintheformofrequirementstodisconnectbeforeoperationo
r otherutilitylimitations ofon-sitegeneration.
8. TariffBarriers
Tariffsweremostoftenseenasdiscouragingdistributedpower,ratherthanencouragingit.Thesetariffsinclude
dthefollowing:
• Demandchargesandbackuptariffs
• Buy-backrates
• Exitfees
• Uplifttariffs(chargesfordistribution,ancillaryservices,capacityandlosses)
• Regionaltransmissionproceduresandcosts.
9. RegionalTransmissionProceduresandCosts
In today’s competitive wholesale electricity markets, delivery of power into the regional
transmissionmarket, is governed by rules that have been designed by and for large-scale generation.
Like the ratesand rules developed for the central station model at the distribution level, these rules are
ofteninappropriate or prohibitively expensive for smaller-scale distributed power.With the creation
ofindependent system operators (ISOs) to manage regional transmission markets, the access issues
havebecomeeven more complicatedfor smaller distributedgeneration projects.
10. EnvironmentalPermittingRequirementsasMarketBarriers
Environmental permitting requirements can be a significant barrier in many regions of the
country,especiallyforsmallerprojects.Environmentaltestingandemissionsrequirementswereasstringentf
orsmall projects as for larger projects. As with custom engineering requirements and other similar
costs,smallerprojectscannotbearthesamecostofemissionstestingaslargerprojectsandremainfeasible
OperationandProtectionofDistributedgeneration
ModeofOperation ofDistributedGeneration
Theintegrationofdistributedgenerationwouldresultinachangeinthedirectionofthepowerflow in
distribution systems from the previously radial distribution systems to
bidirectionalmeshed/looped distribution systems. DG units can be operated in three different
modes: thegrid-connected mode, the islanded mode, and the standby mode. The grid-
connected mode ofoperation involves the parallel operation of the DG units alongside the
utility supply. This isthe most commonly implemented mode of operation.In this mode, the
DG units must becapable of automatically shutting down during faults. In the islanded mode
of operation,
theDGunitsoperateinisolationfromtheutilitygridandmaycontinuetofullyorpartiallysupplylocall
oads at theDGsideof thesystem.
Thus,thereisnopowerflowtoandfromthegrid.Thestand-bymodeisdesignedtosupplytheessential
loads during a major supply disruption. In most cases, the DG units are emergency(backup)
systems powered by diesel or gas engines that are started when there is an outage ofthe utility
supply. They are usually operated after the loads are disconnected from the
utilitynetworkwithachange-
overswitch.TheDGpenetrationlevelforadistributionsystemmaybedefinedas:
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑𝐷𝐺𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
Penetrationlevel=
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
ProtectionofDistributedGeneration
Distributed generation is integrated to the distribution system using synchronous
generator,induction generator, or power electronics-based technology. Synchronous
generators
producefaultcurrentsthataresixtimesthegeneratedfullloadcurrent.Thefaultcurrentsproducedwill
decay within seconds as the generator field collapses. Unlike the synchronous generators,
thefault currents produced by induction generators are less. Power electronics-based
technologydoes not produce significant fault currents. Typically, the fault current
contribution is about1.2–
1.5timestheinverter’sratedloadcurrent.Thecommonlyappliedfaultdetectionalgorithms in
protective relaying based on fault current magnitude might fail for a
distributionsystemintegratedwithpowerelectronics-
baseddistributedgeneration.Othertypesofdetectionalgorithm based on voltage supervision or
frequency sensing can be used to supplement thetraditionalovercurrent protectiverelaying.
a. Short Circuit Current Level: Fault currents are induced in power systems as a
resultof abnormal conditions (disturbances). The presence of distributed generation
wouldaffect the short circuit contribution from all the sources in the distribution
system. Theadditional short circuit current contribution from the DG units will depend
on the typeoftechnologyused,thepenetrationlevel,andthelocationoftheDGunits
withrespectto the fault location. A fault current source (FCS) device was proposed in
to increasethe fault current contribution of power electronics-based DG units during
faults. TheFCS will be activated by the voltage sag that ensues during a fault
condition. Uponactivation,theFCSwillattempttorestorethevoltagetothepre-
faultconditiontherebyinjectingsomefault current into thenetwork
FCSwouldtypicallyconsistof thefollowing:
i. Anenergystoragedevicethatcansupplyforaspecificdurationtheactivepowerrequir
edfor thefault current;
 ii. ApowerelectroniccircuitorswitchforreleasingtheactivepowerfromtheFCSinto
the low voltagenetwork;
iii. Acircuitformonitoringthesystem,detectionoffaultconditions,andtriggeringofthe
FCS; and
iv. Arechargingsystemforrestoringthechargeoftheenergystoragedeviceafterthedeli
veryof the fault current.
b. Protective Relaying: The integration of distributed generation in the
distributionsystemwillaffectthenexistingprotectionschemes.Thisisbecausethenormallyr
adialdistribution system is transformed into a bidirectional loop system with current
flowfrom the grid to the distribution system and from the DG units to the
distributionsystem. Hence, the review of the existing protection settings/schemes is
necessary.Generally,thetypeofprotectiontouseinaninterconnectedsystemwilldependont
hesize of the DG, the DG technology, and the point of connection in the grid. Also,
thetype of interconnection (interface) transformer used in connecting the DG unit to
theutilitywill determinewhether groundfaults aredetectablein thesystem.
Some common protection issues that occur as a result of the integration of
distributedgenerationincludethefollowing:
• Failureof theutilityprotection schemes;
• Sympathetic tripping whereby the protective device on an unfaulted feeder trips
forfaultson adjacent feeders;
• Protection blinding due to the increase or reduction in the fault current seen by
theprotective device thereby causing the protective device to overreach or underreach
itszoneof protection;
• Unintendedislandingoftheinterconnectedsystem;
• Unsynchronisedreclosing;and
• Lossofprotectioncoordination.
TheDGmodeofoperationmayalsoimpacttheprotectionsettingsandcoordinationoftheimplem
entedprotectionscheme.Forexample,iftheDGunitisinaparallelgrid-connectedmode, a
different configuration setting may be required compared to that needed forislanded or
standbymodes ofoperation.
RD
ENDOF3 UNIT
PhasorMeasurementUnits(PMU)
Phasor Measurement Units or Synchrophasors give operators a time-
stampedsnapshot of the power system. The PMUs consist of bus voltage
phasors andbranch current phasors, in addition to information such as locations
and othernetwork parameters. Phasor measurements are taken with high
precision fromdifferent points of the power system at the same instant, allowing
an operator tovisualize the exact angular difference between different locations.
PMUs areequipped with GPS receivers which allow synchronization of readings
taken atdistant points.Microprocessor-based instrumentation such as protection
relaysandDisturbanceFaultRecorders(DFRs)incorporatethePMUmodulewithothe
rexistingfunctionalitiesasanextendedfeature.TheIEEEstandardonSynchrophasors
specifies the protocol for communicating the PMU data to thePhasorData
Concentrator.
Fig:Conceptualdiagramofasynchronizedphasormeasuringsystem
PMUs ensure voltage and current with high accuracy at a rate of 2.88 kHz.
Theycancalculaterealpower,reactivepower,frequency,andphaseangle12timesper6
0 hertz cycle. The actual sampling rate used to achieve this output is 1.4
MHz.Recenttrendsnowrequirefastcontrolsandonlineimplementationsformitigatin
gvoltage collapse in the shortest, least-cost time. Over the years, researchers
andengineers have found PMUs are suitable for monitoring and control of
voltagestability PMUs. Offering wide-area situational awareness, phasor
measurementworktoeasecon-gestion,bottlenecksandmitigate—orevenprevent—
blackouts.WhenintegratedwithSmartGridcommunicationstechnologies,themeasu
rementstakenwillprovidedynamicvisibilityintothepowersystem.
VoltageSynchrophasors
Belowfigureshowsvoltagesynchrophasorsatthetwoendsofaninductivetransmissionl
ine.Thesinusoidal waveformofthevoltageisexpressed as:
𝑣𝑖(𝑡)=𝑣𝑚_𝑖sin(𝑤𝑡+∅)
 WIDEAREAMEASUREMENTSYSTEM(WAMS)
Power industries have been deregulated, restructured and decentralized in
orderto increase their efficiency, to reduce their operational cost and to
freetheconsumers from their choices of electricity providers (Eshraghnia et al.,
2006).As a result of these changes, in comparison with the traditional power
systems,newcompetitivepowerindustriesfacespecificchallengesthatarerelatedtoth
eirgeneration, operation and planning. As a consequence of these challenges,
newintelligent systems should be introduced and established in the power
systems inorder to tackle such challenges. Wide Area Measurement Systems
(WAMS) is
anewterm,whichhasbeenintroducedtopowersystemliteraturesinlate1980s.
Recently, they are commercially available in power
systemsforpurposes ofmonitoring,operation andcontrol.
WAMSdefinition
In recent years, PMU measurements are commercially available and are
widelyusedinpowersystems.Ontheotherhand,highspeedandlow-
costcommunicationsystems;whichareworkedbasedonalayermodel,arealsowell-
established in power systems. As a result, the definition of WAMS is
slightlydifferent from past. Nowadays, a general definition of WAMS may be
presentedas follows:
” The WAMS combines the data provided by synchrophasor and
conventionalmeasurementswithcapabilityofnewcommunicationsystemsinorder
tomonitor, operate, control and protect power systems in wide
geographicalarea.”
WAMSprocess
A WAMS process includes three different interconnected sub-processes:
dataacquisition, data transmitting and data processing. Measurement systems
andcommunicationsystemstogetherwithenergymanagementsystemsperformthese
sub-processes,respectively.
In general, a WAMS acquires system data from conventional and new
dataresources,transmitsitthroughcommunicationsystemtothecontrolcenter(s)andp
rocessesit.Afterextractingappropriateinformationfromsystemdata,decisionson
operation of power system is made. Occasionally, WAMS may commandsome
actions that are performed by system actuators in remote sites. All of
thesefactsindicatethatWAMSdenotesefficientusageofdataanddataflowtoachievea
moresecureandabetterstrategyfortheflowofelectricalenergy.Aninspectionof the
above-mentioned facts together with below Fig.indicates that data itselfis the
fundamental requirement to perform WAMS functions. It can also beconcluded
that each sub-process has different responsibilities and different tasksthat
shouldbeperformedonsystemdata.
 Fig.WAMSProcessinPowerSystems
DataresourcesofWAMS
Theoperationaldataincludestheinstantaneousmeasurementsofvoltages,currents,
phasors and breaker statuses that are measured by intelligent
devices.Suchdataistransmittedcontinuouslytothecontrolcenter(s)throughcommun
ication systems. Occasionally, they may be used locally for the localdecision
making.
1. SupervisoryControlandDataAcquisition(SCADA)
SCADA is a generic name for a computerized system, which is capable
ofgatheringandprocessingdataandapplyingoperationalcontrolsoverlongdistances.
Typical uses of SCADA include power transmission and distributionand
pipeline systems. In an electrical power system, a SCADA system
providesthreecritical functions intheoperationof such asystem:
Data
acquisitionSupervisoryco
ntrolAlarmdisplayandcon
trol
In general, a SCADA system consists of both hardware and software.
Typically,SCADAhardwaremayincludethreeparts:MasterTerminalUnit(MTU),R
emote Terminal Unit (RTU), and Communication System. It should be
notedthatsometimesProgrammableLogicControllers(PLCs)orIntelligentElectroni
cDevices (IDEs) maybe used as RTUinSCADAsystems.
Fig.SCADAsub-systems
2. SynchronizedPhasorMeasurementSystem(SPMS):TheSynchronizedPh
asorMeasurementSystem(SPMS)wasfirstlydevelopedandintroducedinto
the power system in mid-1980s. These systems have the ability
ofmeasuring currents and voltages, and calculating the angle between
them.ThisabilityhasbeenmadepossiblebytheavailabilityofGlobalPositionin
gSystem(GPS);ontheonehand,andthesampleddataprocessingtechniques;on
theotherhand.Inordertosynchronizemeasuredangles, SPMS uses time
received from GPS as its sampling clock. Inaddition to measuring angles
of voltages and currents, these systems canalso measurelocal
frequencyand ratesoffrequencychanges.
A SPMS consists of three main parts: Phasor Measurement Unit
(PMU),Phasor Data Concentrator (PDC), and communication system.
PMUs arenormally installed at remote sites. They calculate phasors of
voltages andcurrentsandstamp
measuredphasorswiththetimereceivedfromGPS.
a. PhasorMeasurementUnit(PMU)
PhasorMeasurementUnitsorSynchrophasorsgiveoperatorsatime-stamped
snapshot of the power system. The PMUs consist of bus voltagephasors
and branch current phasors, in addition to information such aslocations
and other network parameters. Phasor measurements are takenwith high
precision from different points of the power system at the sameinstant,
allowing an operator to visualize the exact angular
differencebetweendifferentlocations.PMUsareequippedwithGPSreceivers
whichallow synchronization of readings taken at distant points.
Microprocessor-based instrumentation such as protection relays and
Disturbance
FaultRecorders(DFRs)incorporatethePMUmodulewithotherexistingfuncti
onalitiesasanextendedfeature.TheIEEEstandardonSynchrophasorsspecifie
stheprotocolforcommunicatingthePMUdatatothePhasor Data
Concentrator.
b. PhasorDataConcentrator(PDC)
The main functions of a PDC are: to gather data from several PMUs,
torejectbaddata,toalignthetimestamps,andtocreateacoherentrecordofsimult
aneouslyrecordeddata.Asaconsequence,asnap-
shotofphasorsofthemeasuredarea canbeobtained.
In some cases, a central PDC may concentrate the area data received
fromotherPDCsandmayprovidephasorsoftheentiresystem.AstudyofMTUta
sks in a SCADA system indicates that the tasks and functions of PDC
inSPMSsystems arealmostthesameas thosein SCADAsystems.
c. CommunicationsystemofSPMS
The communication systems of SPMS may be similar to the
SCADAcommunications in terms of technology, architecture and utilized
media.Although these communication systems may be the same, their
streameddata are different. The phasor data, which is provided by PMUs,
havedifferentnatureincomparisonwiththedataofRTUs.Phasordatais
 continuous and streaming in nature while RTU data is transmitted to
themaster station either in a specified time interval or when master
stationrequestsit.AnotherdifferencebetweenPMUandRTUdataistheirvolu
me. In general, data of a PMU has more value than data provided byan
RTU.
3. DigitalFaultRecorder(DFR)
The Digital Fault Recorder (DFR) acts as the black box of a substation.
Itrecords highly accurate waveforms related to faults. The recorded data
arehuge amount of analog and status data for pre-fault, fault and post-
faultconditions.Thesedatamayincludemaximumcurrent,sequenceofevents,t
ypeof fault andthesequence ofoperationofcircuitbreakers.
4. DigitalProtectiveRelay(DPR)
Digital protective relays, in addition to performing the traditional
relayingtasks, are capable of measuring and recording analog and status
data, aswell as communicating with a centralized location. They collect
currentand voltage signals from instrument transformers and digitize
them.
Duetothefactthatrelaysshouldactveryfast,theaccuracyofmeasureddataisnot
of major concern. Consequently, to speed up A/D conversion,
lowersampling rates are normally applied. This implies that data obtained
fromDPRsaregenerallylessaccuratethanfromtheotherdata resources.
5. CircuitBreakerMonitor(CBM)
The Circuit Breaker Monitor (CBM) is an electronic device that
monitorscircuit breakers. The CBM captures detailed information about
each CBoperation in real time; either the operation is initiated manually
by theoperator orit isinitiatedautomatically by
theprotectionandcontrolequipments.TheCBMdatais alsoformedin
COMTRADEformat.
CommunicationinfrastructureofWAMS
The communication system of WAMS is responsible for data delivery from
dataresourcestothecontrolcenter(s)andfromcontrolcenter(s)tothesystemactuators.
1. Guidedmedia
a. PowerLineCarrier(PLC):Powerlinecarrier(PLC)hasusedtransmissionlin
esasamediumforcommunication.Thistypeoftransmission media has been
one of the first reliable media utilized inpower systems for critical
communications This media is also the firstguided media commonly
utilized in power systems and is a part of powersystem infrastructure. As
a result, failure in power system
infrastructuresuchaslineoutagecausescommunicationdifficulty.PLCsystem
smaybeclassifiedastwogroupsincommon,narrowbandandbroadbandPLCs.
b. Optical fibre: Optical fiber can be used as a medium for
communication.Becauseofitsflexibility,fiberopticcanbebundledasacable.A
smentionedatthebeginningofthissection,signalsaretransmittedthrough
 themediabyatypeofwaveform.Infibercables,thesignalisalightwave;either
visible or infrared light. Essentially, two types of fiber optic
cablesincludingopticalpowergroundwire(OPGW)andall-dielectricself-
supporting (ADSS) areusedinpowerindustries.
c. Leasedline:Historically,leasedtelephonecircuitshavebeenwidelyusedinele
ctricutilitiestocreateapoint-to-pointorpoint-to-
multipointcommunications.Theleasedlinesonlyprovideasharemediumforc
ommunication and some technologiesshouldbe
implementedinordertotransmitsignalsthroughthismedia.DigitalSubs
criber Line (DSL) is a group of technologies, which
providesdigitaldatatransmission overleased telephonecircuits.
2. Unguidedmedia
Wireless transmission is used when we have several challenges such
asenvironmental or financial limitations for utilization of guided
media.However, as transmitted signals using wireless communication can
beaccessed by anyone, the security of wireless communication is
naturallylow.
a. Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN): Personal networks make
asmallarea networkingfora variety
ofdevices.ThemostpopularWPANhasbeenBluetooth.InadditiontotheBl
uetooth,twoindustrialtechnologies, namely UWB (Ultra-Wide Band)
and Zigbee, make highdatarate andlowcostWPAN,respectively.
b. WirelessLocal
AreaNetwork(WLAN):TheWLANtechnologiesconnectdevicesviaawireles
sdistributionmethod(typicallyspread-spectrum or OFDM). Wi-Fi is a
popular WLAN technology that
provideshighspeedconnectiononshortranges.Inrecentyears,becauseofthela
ckofmoresuitablemetropolitanwirelessnetworks,Wi-Fihasalsobeenusedat
the metropolitanlevel.
c. WirelessMetropolitanAreaNetwork(WMAN):WiMAX,GPRS,GSM,C
DMAand3GmobileCarrierservicesarefourWMANtechnologies,which are
usedfor WMANcommunication.
d. Wireless Wide Area Network (WWAN): Satellite communications
maybe used either when a guided media cannot be established between
aremotesiteandthecontrolcenterorwhenthereisnoline-of-
sightbetweensucharemotesiteand pre-installed communication network.
WAMSapplications
1. Generation applications (GEN): These applications are run in
generationlevel in the way that they acquire and process data of
generators in
thecontrolcenter(s).Asitsconsequence,generatorinformationcanbeobtained
in the control center(s) all at once. Generator operation
statusmonitoringandtransientanglestabilityaresomeexamplesofsuchapplica
tions.
2. Transmissionandsub-
transmissionapplications(TRAN):Inderegulatedpower industries, some
applications are performed at transmission (orsometimes sub-
transmission) level by independent system operator (ISO).Historically,
these functions are performed by group of computer aidedtools called
energy management systems (EMS). State estimation
(SE),loadflow(LF),optimalpowerflow(OPF),loadforecast(LF)andeconomi
caldispatch(ED)aresomeexamplesofconventionalEMSapplications.
3. Distributionapplications (DIS): In distribution systems, WAMS
applications are known as automation applications.
DistributionAutomation (DA) systems have been defined as systems that
enable adistribution company to monitor, coordinate, and operate
distributioncomponents and equipments from remote locations in real
time. The DAsaim to reduce costs, to improve service availability, and to
provide betterconsumerservices.
LOADDISPATCHCENTER
At state level minute to minute operation of a power system is Coordinated from
anLDC which at the receiving end or load side. In one-way LDC is a Wonderland as it
ishandling no. of changes, demand supply irregularities daily. It gives safe and
securegrid operation. It is located in state capital. It is further connected to 3/4 sub
LDC’swhich in turn are connected to major substations and generating stations, hence
LDCwill get information about major changes in generating station plus whether
conditioninformation from different locations in the state. In earlier days it was only
with fewtelephones and few engineers to keep the record. State LDC is connected to
regionalLDC(RLDC),whereRLDCmonitorsawholeregione.g.SouthernRLDCinBangal
oremonitorsA.P.Tamilnadu,Karnataka,KeralaandPondicherry.RLDCalsogetsinformati
on from generating station & substations of central utilities (NTPC,
NPC,POWERGRIDetc).LDCatstateplusregionallevelisconnectedto
alltheselocationsusingreliablecommunicationmediathatcancarryinformationandvoice.
RoleofSLDC
1) AspertheElectricityAct,2003,theStateLoadDispatchCentre(SLDC)shallbetheapexbod
yto ensureintegrated operationofthe power systeminaState.
2) SLDCshallexercisesupervisionandcontrolovertheintra-
Statetransmissionsystem.3)SLDC will be responsible for carrying out real time
operations for grid control anddispatch of electricity within the State through secure
and economic operation of
theStategridinaccordancewiththeGridStandardsandtheStateGridCode.
4)The SLDC shall comply with the directions of the RLDC.SLDC shall keep
accountsofthequantityofelectricitytransmittedthroughtheStategrid.
CharacteristicsOf LDC
*Reliableandfarreachingcommunication network
*AccurateSCADA system
*Fastdataprocessoranddataformattingsystem
*ReliablepowersupplyforLDCequipmentforallthetime
*Visualdisplayofimportantsystemdata
*Integrityofoperating engineers
*Basicamenities,utilitiesandlogistics
Typically,LDCprepares
*Anhourlygenerationscheduleforeachgeneratingstationinadvance.
*Also,themaintenance schedule(preparedfor theyearin
*Advanceforanyequipmentfailure.)whichneededrelativepowergen.cost.
*Contractualagreements.
*Water/fuelavailability
*Irrigationrequirement andloadrequirement forecast.Etc.
Mainandimportantfunctions ofload dispatchcanter
* Loadgenerationbalanceandqualityofsupply
* Maintenanceschedulingof generatingunits andtransmissionlines
* Economicloaddispatch
* Griddiscipline
* Loadforecastingordemandestimation
* Systemsecurityandislanding facility
* Blackstartpreparedness
* Energydistribution and load pattern study
* CommunicationandSCADAmanagement
* Eventanalysisandpreventive measures
* Coordinationwithneighbour grids
* Publicrelationsandconsumerinteraction
Dispatchersstudyforloadpatterns
*Industrial categoryofconsumers(industries workingin all3shifts)
*Industries workingindaytimewithhigh powerdemand.
*Commercialcategoryconsumerslike shops,offices,show roomsoperatesduring
daytime(9to20.00hrs.)
*Railwaytractionloadhavegenerallysteadynaturewholeday.
*Waterworksrequirepowerforpumpingdrinkingwaterforurbanandruralareasduringearly
morninghours.
*Farmersalsorequirespowerforirrigationduringdaytime
*Seasonalnatureindustrieslikesugarfactory,cottonginningindustries,vegetableoilindustr
ies,ricemillsetc.
USEOF SCADAINLOADDESPATCH CENTER
There are multiple agencies within a state engaged in generation, transmission,
anddistribution of electricity. State Load Dispatch Centre monitors these operations
andkeeps the account of quantity of electricity transmitted through the state grid.
SCADAis a part of it. Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition System (SCADA) is
a high-
techcomputersystemwithassociatedcommunicationnetworkthatenablessupervisionand
control of power system network. SCADA is the technology that enables a user
tocollect data from one or more distant operator to stay or visit frequently to the
worklocations.Itincludesthemanmachineinterface.Itallowsanoperatortomakesetpointch
anges on distant process controllers, to open or close valve or switches, to
monitoralarmstocollect
measurementinformationSCADAisbestapplicabletoprocessesthatarespread over large
areas and it issuitable for
1. groups ofsmall hydroelectricgeneratingstationsthatareturnedon andoff.
2. oilandproductionfacilities,pipelinesforgas,oil,chemicals,waterwhicharelocatedatfar
distances
3. electrictransmissionsystemsirrigationsystemetc.
 MICROGRID
DefinitionofMicrogrid
A microgridisadecentralizedgroupof electricity sourcesandloadsthatnormally
operates connected to and synchronous with the traditional wide
areasynchronous grid (macro grid), but is able to disconnect from the
interconnectedgrid and to function autonomously in "island mode" as technical
or economicconditions dictate. In this way, microgrids improve the security of
supply withinthe microgrid cell, and can supply emergency power, changing
between islandand connectedmodes.
ComponentsofMicrogrid
1. Localgeneration
Amicrogridpresentsvarioustypesofgenerationsourcesthatfeedelectricity,he
ating,andcoolingtotheuser.Thesesourcesaredividedintotwomajorgroups –
thermal energy sources (e.g,. natural gasor biogas generators or micro
combined heat and power) and renewablegeneration
sources(e.g.windturbines andsolar)
2. Consumption
Inamicrogrid,consumptionsimplyreferstoelementsthatconsumeelectricity,
heat, and cooling, which range from single devices to thelighting and
heating systems of buildings, commercial centers, etc. In
thecaseofcontrollableloads,electricityconsumptioncanbemodifiedaccordin
g tothedemandsof thenetwork.
3. Energy storage
In microgrid, energy storage is able to perform multiple functions, such
asensuringpowerquality,includingfrequencyandvoltageregulation,smoothi
ng theoutputof renewableenergy sources, providingbackuppower for the
system and playing a crucial role in cost optimization. Itincludes all of
chemical, electrical, pressure, gravitational, flywheel, andheat storage
technologies. When multiple energy storages with variouscapacities are
available in a microgrid, it is preferred to coordinate theircharging and
discharging such that a smaller energy storage does notdischarge faster
than those with larger capacities. Likewise, it is
preferredasmalleronedoesnotgetfullychargedbeforethosewithlargercapaciti
es.Thiscanbeachievedunderacoordinatedcontrolofenergystoragesbasedont
heirstateofcharge. Ifmultipleenergystoragesystems(possiblyworking on
different technologies) are used and they are controlled by
auniquesupervisingunit(anenergymanagementsystem-EMS),a
 hierarchical control based on a master/slaves architecture can ensure
bestoperations,particularlyintheislandedmode.
4. Pointofcommoncoupling (PCC)
This is the point in the electric circuit where a microgrid is connected to
amaingrid.
MicrogridsthatdonothaveaPCCarecalledisolatedmicrogridswhichareusuall
ypresentinremotesites(e.g.,remotecommunities or remote industrial sites)
where an interconnection with themaingridisnot
feasibleduetoeithertechnicaloreconomicconstraints.
Fig.Typicalstructureofaflexiblemicrogridbasedonrenewableenergyresources
OperationofMicrogrid
Theoperatingmodesofmicrogridsareknownanddefinedasfollows:
grid-connected, transited, or island, and reconnection modes, which allow
amicrogridtoincreasethereliabilityofenergysuppliesbydisconnectingfromthegrid
in the case of network failure or reduced power quality. In the
islanded(standalone) operating state, the microgrid must maintain the reactive
powerbalance independently due to the nonexistence of an infinite bus. There
are twomain challengesinislandedmode:
(a) maintenanceofappropriatemagnitudeandfrequencyofvoltageand
(b) maintenanceofpowerbalanceinthemicrogrid.
A genetic algorithm (GA) is proposed for optimum shunt capacitor placement
inmicrogrids in distribution networks, where, the islanded mode operation is
ofconcern,andthecostfunctionincludesthree items:
(a) powercost andenergyloss,
(b) investmentcostofinstalledshuntcapacitorsand
(c) consumercostofinterruptionconditions.
In islanded mode, there is no support from grid and the control of the
microgridbecomes much more complex in grid-connected mode of operation,
microgrid iscoupled to the utility grid through a static transfer switch. The
microgrid voltageis imposed by the host utility grid. In grid-connected mode,
the microgrid canexchange power with the external grid as to maintain the
supply in the
localmicrogrid,thoughthepowerflowofmicrogridisbidirectional.Whileinislanded
mode, the power supply of microgrid must meet the load demand. In
islandedmode,aninterconnectedmodecanbeconsideredasastrongerand
biggermicrogrid.
MicrogridControl
In regards to the architecture of microgrid control, or any control problem,
therearetwodifferentapproachesthatcanbeidentified:centralized
anddecentralized.Afullycentralizedcontrolreliesonalargeamountofinformationtra
nsmittancebetweeninvolvingunitsbeforeadecisionismadeatasinglepoint.Impleme
ntation is difficult since interconnected power systems usually
coverextendedgeographiclocationsandinvolveanenormousnumberofunits.Ontheo
ther hand, in a fully decentralized control, each unit is controlled by its
localcontroller without knowing the situation of others. A compromise between
thosetwo extreme control schemes can be achieved by means of a hierarchical
controlschemeconsisting ofthreecontrollevels:primary,secondary,and tertiary
1. PrimaryControl
Theprimarycontrolisdesignedtosatisfythefollowingrequirements:
 Tostabilizethevoltageandfrequency
 To offer plug and play capability for DERs and properly share the active
andreactivepoweramongthem,preferably,withoutanycommunicationlinks
 To mitigate circulating currents that can cause over-current phenomenon
inthepower electronic devices
The primary control provides the setpoints for a lower controller which are
thevoltageandcurrentcontrolloopsofDERs.Theseinnercontrolloopsarecommonlyr
eferredtoas zero-levelcontrol.
2. Secondarycontrol
Secondary control has typically seconds to minutes sampling time (i.e.
slowerthanthepreviousone)whichjustifiesthedecoupleddynamicsoftheprimaryand
the secondary control loops and facilitates their individual designs. The
setpointof primary control is given by secondary control in which, as a
centralizedcontroller, it restores the microgrid voltage and frequency and
compensates
forthedeviationscausedbyvariationsofloadsorrenewablesources.Thesecondaryco
ntrol can also be designed to satisfy the power quality requirements,
e.g.,voltagebalancingatcriticalbuses.
 3. Tertiarycontrol
Tertiary control is the last (and the slowest) control level, which
considerseconomical concerns in the optimal operation of the microgrid
(sampling time
isfromminutestohours),andmanagesthepowerflowbetweenmicrogridandmaingrid
. This level often involves the prediction of weather, grid tariff, and loads inthe
next hours or day to design a generator dispatch plan that achieves
economicsavings. More advanced techniques can also provide end to end
control of amicrogridusing machinelearning techniquessuchas
deepreinforcementlearning.
In case of emergencies such as blackouts, tertiary control can manage a group
ofinterconnected microgrids to form what is called "microgrid clustering",
actingasavirtualpowerplanttocontinuesupplyingcriticalloads.Duringthesesituatio
nsthecentralcontrollershouldselectoneofthemicrogridstobetheslack(i.e.master)an
dtherestasPVandloadbusesaccordingtoapredefinedalgorithmand the existing
conditions of the system (i.e. demand and generation). In
thiscase,thecontrolshouldbe real timeor at least at ahighsampling rate.
TheProtectionSchemes forMicrogrid
Therearethreemaincategoriesinprotectionschemeswhichareasfollows:
i. Theschemes foronlygridconnectedmode,
ii. Theschemesforislandedmodeand
iii. Theschemesforbothgridsconnectedandislandedmode.
i. The Protection SchemesforOnlyGridConnected
Mode:Protectionschemebasedonovercurrentprincipleandtimedependen
tcharacteristicsofcurrenttopreventhighfaultclearingtimeandmaximizing
theDGconnectiontothedistributionnetworkstrategyprovidesextrabenifit
ofrunningextensiveradialnetworkswithdirectlycoupledDGs(D-
DGs)orclosedloopnetworkswithconverterbasedDGs(C-
DGs).However,thisschemeismoreeffectivewhennumberofrelaysareincr
eased.OvercurrentpickupstrategyforMVfeederwithCDGsupdatestheOC
relayminimumpickupcurrentonthebasisofthefaultanalysisofthesystem.
However,whensomeofDGsaredisconnected, then this scheme is more
effective. A protection
strategyusingconventionalOCrelayswithdefinitetimegradingforLVmicr
ogridwithbothC-DGsandD-
DGsschemeiseconomicalbecause,thisschemedoesnotuseanycommunic
ationlinkandcanbeappliedwithoutanymodificationofexistingprotections
cheme.BasedonintelligentprotectionschemeforradialOHLdistributionsy
stemwithout DGandforclosedloopsystemwithDGscheme,
ascomparedtoconventionalprotectionprovideshigherspeedofbackupprot
ection,autonomoussystemmonitoringandadjustmentofparameters,but
 needs a high-speed communication. It has been used to fault
currentlimier(FCL)inserieswithDGunittolimitthefaultcurrentduringfaul
tand thus return the system to it ‟so state as if no DG was connected.
Inthisway,withoutdisconnectionofDG,theoriginaldirectionalOCrelayset
tings can be used. The use of TCSC (thyristor-controlled
seriescapacitor)asanFCLoffersmanyadvantageslikenoDGdisconnection
,useoforiginalrelaysettings,forhandlinglargecurrentsavoidsupgrading
of equipment. But, its cost increases due to impedance
ofFCLincreaseswith increaseinindividualDGcapacity
ii. TheProtectionSchemesforOnlyIslandedMode:
A protection scheme based on monitoring harmonic content of C-
DGsin an islanded mode, whichincludes the totalharmonic
distortion(THD) of the voltage at the converter terminal. The
protection relaymonitors DG continuously and when THD exceeds a
threshold valueduring a fault, the converter gets shut down by relay.
For detecting thefault type, the variation of the amplitude of
fundamental frequency
offaultedthephaseisused,itmeansthatthefrequencyoffaultedphaseisdrop
ped as compared to sound phase and also comparison of THD
ofvoltage between sound and faulted phase is used for fault location
i.e.,faulted phase has greater THD than sound phase. The relay with
moreTHD is considered to be in fault zone and it has to be trip for
clear
thefault.However,forcorrectrelaytotrip,communicationlinksareprovide
d for synchronisation of relays. A protection scheme based
ontheprincipleofsymmetricalcomponentsandresidualcurrentmeasureme
nt also used. The differential current measurement is
alsoapplied.Theschemeusesresidualcurrentdevicesasprimaryprotection
of LG faults for the zones of upstream faults and the zero
sequencecurrentsforprimaryprotectionofLGfaultsforthezonesofdownstr
eamthefaults.Thenegativesequencecurrentisusedforprimaryprotectiono
fLLfaults.I²tprotectionisusedforprimarybackupprotection for both LG
and LL events. Protection scheme based
ontelecommunicationandmodernprotectionrelaysorIEDsformicrogridw
ithC-DGshasbeenappliedtoMVfeederdividedintofourprotectionzones
and between each zone a circuit breaker is installed which iscontrolled
by IED. The IEDs are provided with voltage and currentmeasurement,
directional OC protection and these are connected witheach other
through high speed communication links. This method usesthe voltage
measurement for fault detection and current direction forfault location.
The complete system selectivity and speed is
obtainedthroughtransferoffaultdirectionandinterlockinginformationbet
weenIEDs.
 iii. The Protection Schemes for Both Grid Connected and
IslandedMode:
a.) Differential Protection Scheme: Differential protection scheme using
digitalrelays working on the principle of synchronized phasor measurement for
MVmicrogridincludingC-DGsandD-
DGs.Instantonsdifferentialprotectionisusedfor primary protection and for
backup protection adjacent relays are used in caseof breaker failure. In case of
relay failure, voltage protection is used as a tertiaryprotection. However, the
proposed scheme is un economical to implement
andassumesadvancedtechnicalfeaturessuchashigh-
performancerelaysandbreakers, highly sensitive current transformers, which are
still not present. Aprotection scheme based on the principle of differential
current and utilizing
thetraditionalOCrelayandcommunicationlinkformicrogridincludingC-DGsandD-
DGs. This protection offers economical implementation, but not
effectiveduringunbalancedload.Adifferentialprotectionschemeusedforprimarypr
otection for MV microgrid with C-DGs for grid connected and islanded modeof
operation uses OC and under voltage-based protection for backup protectionin
case of breaker failure. Current differential relays used for feeder and
busprotection, while DGs are protected using under voltage, reverse power
flow,overvoltage.Thisschememaysufferduetoswitchingtransientsandunbalancedl
oads.
b.) Adaptive Protection Schemes: Adaptive protection scheme is based on
theprinciple of network zoning which includes zoning of the feeders in such a
waythateachzonehasappropriatebalanceofDGandloadwithDGcapacityslightlylar
ger than load. Each zone, at least largest DG is equipped with load
frequencycontrolcapability.Afterzoning,fastoperatingswitchesareequippedwiths
ynchronisationcheckrelaysandhavingcapabilitytoreceiveremotesignalsfromsubst
ation breaker which are placed between each of two zones. A computer-
basedrelaysareused,whichhavinghighprocessingpower,largestoragecapacity,capa
bilitytocommunicatewithzonebreakersandDGrelayswhichareinstalled at sub
transmission substation. A computer-based relays performs theonline fault
detection and isolate the faulty zone by tripping of appropriate
zonebreakerandDGconnectedtothatzone.