GENERAL CHEMISTRY (RAYMOND CHANG)

Inventors/Scientist/Discoverer
George Gamow • Hypothesized that our universe burst billions of years
ago in a gigantic explosion or “Big Bang”
• Detection of cosmic background radiation
John Dalton Atomic Theory
• Elements consist of atoms, all identical to each other
• Compounds have more than 1 kind of atom
• Chemical reaction occurs through separation,
combination or rearrangement
Joseph John Thomson Discovered the electron -cathode ray experiment
Robert Andrews Millikan Determined the charge of the electron
Willheim Rontgen Discovered X-rays
Marie Curie Coined the term “radioactivity”
Antoine Henri Becquerel Discovery of radioactivity in Uranium
Johannes Has Willhelm Geiger Invented the Geiger Counter
Ernest Rutherford Structure of atomic nucleus – discovered proton
James Chadwick Discovered Neutrons
Francis William Aston Developed the mass spectrometer
Svante August Arrhenius Theory of “panspermia” speculation on how life had come to
Earth
Johannes Nicolaus Bronsted Worked on thermodynamics and the separation of mercury
isotopes.
Thomas Martin Lowry Bronsted and Lowry essentially developed the same acid-base
theory independently
James Marsh English Chemist devised a procedure for detecting arsenic by
the reaction between zinc and H2SO4
Isaac Newton One of the greatest physicist and astronomer
Blaise Pascal Invented calculating machine, his specialty was in the area of
hydrodynamics
Jacques Alexander Cesar Charles French physicist, first person to use hydrogen to inflate
balloons.
Joseph Louise Gay-Lussac French chemist and physicist, also and ballons enthusiast
Lord Kelvin He identified -273.15°C as absolute zero, kelvin temp scale
Ludwig Boltzmann and James Clerk They found out the molecular movement is a form of energy
Maxwell which has the capacity to do work.
James Prescott Joule Most famous for determining the mechanical equivalent of
heat, the conversion between mechanical energy and thermal
energy.
Thomas Graham Found that under the same conditions of temperature and
pressure, rates of diffusion for gases are inversely proportional
to the square roots of their molar masses.
Germain Henri Hess Swiss Chemist, father of thermochemistry for formulating
Hess Law.
Max Karl Ernst Ludwig Planck Receive the Nobel prize for his quantum theory.
Niels Henrik David Bohr He received the Nobel prize for his theory explaining the
spectrum of the hydrogen atom.
Louise Victor Broglie In his doctoral dissertation, he proposed that matter and
radiation have the properties of both wave and particle.
Clinton Joseph Davidson American Physicist, He and G.P. Thomsom shared the Nobel
Prize for demonstrating wave properties of electrons.
Lester Halbert Germer Discoverer (with Davidson) of the wave properties of
electrons.
George Paget Thomsom He received the Nobel Prize for demonstrating wave properties
of electrons.
Werner Karl Heisenberg One of the founders of modern quantum theory.
Erwin Schrodinger Formulated wave mechanics.
Otto Stern Contributions of magnetic properties of atoms and kinetic
theory of gases.
Walther Gerlach Main area of his research is quantum theory.
Wolfgang Pauli One of the founders of quantum mechanics.
Frederick Hund Main area of research is in quantum mechanics, also helped to
develop the molecular orbital theory of chemical bonding.
John Alexander Newlands Russian Chemist. Works on classification of elements.
Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev Russian Chemist. His works are mainly in the classification of
elements as the most significant achievement in chemistry.
Julius Lothar Meyer German Chemist. Discovered the chemical affinity of
hemoglobin for oxygen.
Henry Gwyn-Jeffreys Moseley Discovered the relationship between X-ray and atomic number.
Frederick Dorn Discovered radon.
William Ramsay Inventor of discharge tube, discovered 4 new elements and
showed group of elements: the noble gaes
-discovery of argon with John William Strutt
-isolated Xenon, Kryton and Neon with Morris Travers
- Radon – working with Frederick Soddy – Radium Emanation
Gilbert Newton Lewis Significant contributions in the field of chemical bonding. Etc.
Charles Agustin de Coulomb Invented a torsion balance. Coulomb’s law.
Linus Carl Pauling Most influential chemist of the 20th century.
Peter Joseph William Debye Significant contributions in the field of molecular structure,etc.
Fritz London Major work was on superconductivity in liquid helium.
Max Theodor Felix Von Laue Discoverer of X-ray diffraction.
William Henry Bragg and William Formulated the fundamental equation in x-ray diffraction.
Laurence Bragg
John Tyndall Irish physicist, important work in magnetism and glacier
motion.
Soren Peer Lauritz Sorensen Wrote the symbol pH and p is called “hydrogen ion exponent”
(wasserstoffionexponent) – Potenz puissance - (power)
Micheal Faraday Discovered benzene
August Kekule Discovered the structure of benzene ring
William F. Libby Suggested that 1st order kinetics can be applied for radiocarbon
dating
 GENERAL CHEMISTRY (RAYMOND CHANG)

DEFINITION OF TERMS
Extensive Property Depends on how much matter is being considered.
- Mass, Volume, Length
Intensive Property Does not depend on how much matter is being used.
- Color, Boiling Point, Melting Point, Density
Prout’s Law Different samples of the same compound always contain its
constituent elements in the same proportion
Law of Multiple Proportions If two elements can combine to form more than 1 compound, the
masses of one element that combine with a fixed mass of the other
element that combine with another element in ratios of small
whole numbers
Law of Conservation of Mass Matter can neither be created nor destroyed
Radiation Emission and transmission of energy through space in the form of
waves
Atomic Number (Z) Number of protons in the nucleus of each atom
Mass Number (A) Total number of protons and neutrons present in the nucleus of an
atom.
Isotopes Same atomic number but different mass numbers.
Metal Good conductor of heat and electricity
Non-metal A poor conductor
Metalloid Have the same properties of metal and non-metal
Group 1A Are called “alkali metals” (Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, and Fr) alkali
metals. Very reactive, low ionization energies
Group 2A Alkaline earth metals
Group 7A halogens
Group 8A Noble gases
Empirical Formula Simples whole number ratio of their atoms.
Electrolyte Is a substance that, when dissolved in water, results in a solution
that can conduct electricity.
Non-electrolyte Does not conduct electricity.
Acids • Have a sour taste
• Causes color changes in plant dyes (litmus – blue to red)
• React with certain metals to produce hydrogen gas
• React with carbonates and bicarbonates to form carbon
dioxide.
• Aqueous acid solutions conduct electricity
Bases • Have a bitter taste
• Feel slippery
• Cause color changes in plant dyes (litmus – red to blue)
• Aqueous base solutions conduct electricity
Bronsted Acid Proton donor
Bronsted Base Proton acceptor
Monoprotic acids Each unit of acid yields one hydrogen ion upon ionization
Diprotic acids Each unit of acid yields two hydrogen ion upon ionization
Triprotic acids Each unit of acid yields three hydrogen ion upon ionization
Oxidation – Reduction (Redox) Considered as electron – transfer reactions
Reactions
Half Reactions Explicitly shows the reaction involve the redox reaction.
Displacement Reactions An ion (or atom) in a compound is replaced by an ion (or atom) of
another element.
Gravimetric Analysis Analytical technique based on the measurement of mass
(quantitative analysis).
Equivalence Point The point at which the acid has completely reacted with or been
neutralized by the base.
Neutralization Reaction of acid and base
Oxidation Increase in oxidation number
Reduction Decrease in oxidation number
Intermolecular forces Attractive forces among molecules
Atmospheric pressure Pressure exerted by Earth’s atmosphere
Barometer Instrument for measuring atmospheric pressure
Manometer Is a device used to measure the pressure of gases other than the
atmosphere.
Open-tube manometer Better suited for measuring pressures equal to or greater than
atmospheric pressure
Boyle’s Law Pressure of a fixed amount of gas at a constant temperature is
inversely proportional to the volume of gas.
Charles’s Law The volume of a fixed amount of gas maintained at constant
pressure is directly proportional to the absolute temperature of the
gas.
Avogadro’s Law At constant pressure and temperature, the volume of a gas is
directly proportional to the number of moles gas present.
Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressure States that the total pressure of a mixture of gases is just the sum
of the pressures that each gas would exert if it were present alone.
Air embolism As air expands in the lungs, it is forced into tiny blood vessels
called capillaries and air bubbles can black normal blood flow and
as a result, the diver might lose consciousness before reaching the
surface.
Root-mean-square speed Average molecular speed
Gas diffusion The gradual mixing of molecules of one gas with molecules of
another by virtue of their kinetic properties.
Gas Effusion Is the process by which a gas under pressure escapes from one
compartment of a container to another by passing through a small
opening.
Energy The capacity to do work
Radiant/Solar Energy Energy comes from the sun
Thermal Energy Is the energy associated with the random motion of atoms and
molecules.
Chemical Energy Stored within units of chemical substances.
Potential Energy Energy available by virtue of an object’s position.
Law of conservation of energy The total quantity of energy in the universe is assumed constant.
Heat (q) Transfer of thermal energy between two bodies that are at
different temperatures.
Thermochemistry Study of heat change in chemical reactions.
System Specific part of the universe that is of interest of us.
Surroundings The rest of the universe outside the system.
Open System Can exchange mass and energy.
Closed System Allows the transfer of energy but not mass.
Isolated system Does not allow the transfer of either mass or energy.
Exothermic Process Any process that gives off heat, transfers thermal energy to the
surroundings.
Endothermic Process Heat must be supplied to the system.
Thermodynamics The scientific study of the interconversion of heat and other kinds
of energy.
State of system Defined as the values of all relevant macroscopic properties for
example, composition, temperature, pressure, energy, and volume.
State Functions Properties that are determined by the state of the system regardless
of how the condition was achieved.
First Law of Thermodynamics Energy can be converted from one form to another but cannot be
created nor destroyed.
Standard Enthalpy of reaction The difference between the enthalpies of the products and the
(𝐻𝑟𝑥𝑛 ) enthalpies of the reactants carried out at 1 atm.
Thermochemical Equations Shows the enthalpy changes as well as mass relationships.
Specific heat (s) The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one gram
of the substance by one degree Celsius.
Heat Capacity (C) Amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a given
quantity of the substance by one degree Celsius.
Hess Law When reactants are converted to products, the change in enthalpy
is the same whether the reaction takes place in one step or in
series of steps.
Heat of Solution (𝐻𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑛 ) Heat generated or absorbed when a certain amount of solute
dissolves in a certain amount of solvent.
Lattice Energy Energy required to separate one mole of a solid ionic compound
into gaseous ions.
Heat of Hydration (𝐻ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟 ) Enthalpy associated with the hydration process.
Heat of Dilution Is the heat change associated with the dilution process.
Quanta Planck discovered that atoms and molecules emit energy only in
certain discrete quantities or “quanta”
Wave Can be thought of as vibrating disturbance by which energy is
transmitted.
Wavelength (lambda) Is the distance between the identical points on successive waves.
Frequency (nu) Is the number of waves that pass through a particular point in 1
second.
Amplitude Is the vertical distance from the midline of a wave to the peak or
trough.
Maxwell’s Theory An electromagnetic wave has an electric field component and a
magnetic field.
Electromagnetic Radiation Is the emission and transmission of energy in the form of
electromagnetic waves. Wavelength of EM waves is usually given
in manometer (nm).
Planck’s Quantum Theory The name “quantum” refers to the smallest quantity of energy that
can be emitted (or absorbed) in the form of EM radiation.
Photoelectric effect A phenomenon in which electrons are ejected from the surface of
certain metals exposed to light of at least a certain minimum
frequency called “threshold frequency”.
Photons Particles of light.
Emission spectra Either continuous or line spectra of radiation emitted by
substances.
Line Spectra The light emissions only at specific wavelengths.
Ground State Refers to the lowest energy state of a system.
Excited State Higher in energy than the ground state.
Laser Acronym for light amplification by simulated emission or
radiation.
Scanning Tunneling Microscope Makes use of another quantum mechanical property of electron to
produce an image of the atoms on the surface of a sample.
Heinsberg Uncertainty Principle It is impossible to know simultaneously both the momentum (p =
mv) and the position of a particle with certainty.
Electron density Gives the probability that an electron will be found in a particular
region of an atom.
Atomic Orbital Can be thought of as the wave function of an electron in an atom.
Many-electron atoms Atoms containing two or more electrons.
Quantum numbers Are required to describe the distribution of electrons in hydrogen
and other atoms.
Principal Quantum Number (n) Can have integral values 1,2,3, and so forth;
Angular momentum (l) Tells us the shape of orbitals, has possible integral from 0 to (n-1)
Magnetic Quantum Number (ml) Describes the orientation of the orbital in space, there are 3 values
of ml, given by -1, 0, and 1.
Electron Spin Quantum Number Has an value of +1/2 and -1/2
(ms)
s p d f Orbitals
Electron configuration How the electrons are distributed among the various atomic
orbitals.
Pauli Exclusion Principle No two electrons in an atom can have the same set of four
quantum numbers
Paramagnetic Substances Are those that contain net unpaired spins and are attracted by a
magnet.
Diamagnetic Substances Do not contain net unpaired spins and are slightly repelled by a
magnet.
Hund’s Rule States that the most stable arrangement of electrons in subshells is
the one with the greatest number of parallel spins.
Aufbau Principle As the protons are added one by one to the nucleus to build up the
elements, electrons are similarly added to the atomic orbitals
Noble gases core Shows in brackets the noble gas element that most nearly precedes
the element being considered.
Transition metals Either have incompletely filled d subshells or readily give rise to
cations that have incompletely filled subshells. Elements from
scandium to copper.
Lanthanides or rate earth series Elements from cerium to lutetium have incompletely filled 4f
subshells or readily give rise to cations that have incompletely
filled 4f subshells.
Actinide Starts at thorium, most of these elements are not found but have
been synthesized
Representative elements Elements from 1A to 7A – all subshells filled.
Noble gases (8A) Except helium, all of them have completely filled p subshell.
Valence Electrons Outermost electrons.
Core Electrons All nonvalence electrons in an atom.
Isoelectric They have the same number of electrons.
Effective Nuclear Charge (Zeff) Is the nuclear charge felt by an electron when both the actual
nuclear charge (Z) and repulsive effects (shielding) of the other
electrons are taken into account.
Atomic radius One-half the distance between two nuclei in two adjacent metal
atoms or in a diatomic molecule.
Ionic Radius Radius of a cation or an anion. Can be measured by x-ray
diffraction.
Tripositive ions Ions that have 3 positive charges.
Dipositive ions Ions that have 2 positive charges.
Unipositive ions Ions that have 1 positive charges.
Half-life Is the time is takes for one-half of the nuclei in any given amount
of a radioactive substance to disintegrate.
Ionization energy Is the minimum energy (in KJ/mol) required to remove an electron
from a gaseous atom in its ground state.
First ionization energy The amount of energy required to remove the first atom in its
ground state.
Electron affinity The negative of the energy change that occurs when an electron is
accepted by an atom in the gaseous state to form an anion.
Periodic Trends metallic character of the elements decreases from left to right
across a period and increases from top to bottom within a group.

Diagonal relationships Are similarities between pairs of elements in different groups and
periods of the periodic table.
Charge density Charge of an ion divided by its volume.
Lewis dot symbol Consists of the symbol of an element and one dot for each valence
electron in an atom of the element.
Ionic bond Is the electrostatic force that holds ions together in an ionic
compound.
Lattice energy A quantitative measure of the stability of any ionic solid.
Coulomb’s law States that the potential energy between two ions is directly
proportional to the product of their charges and inversely
proportional to the distance of separation between them.
Born-Haber Cycle Relates lattice energies of ionic compounds to ionization energies,
electron affinities, and other atomic and molecular properties.
Covalent bond A bond which two electrons are shared by atoms.
Covalent Compounds Are compounds that contain only covalent bonds.
Lone pairs Pairs of valence electrons that are not involved in covalent bond
formation.
Lewis Structure Is a representation of covalent bonding in which shared electron
pairs are shown either as lines or as pairs of dots between two
atoms, and lone pairs are shown as pairs of dots on individual
atoms.
Octet Rule An atom other than hydrogen tends to form bonds until it is
surrounded by eight valence electrons.
Single Bond Two atoms are held together by one electron pair.
Multiple bonds Two atoms share two or more pairs of electrons.
Double bonds Two atoms share two pairs of electrons.
Triple bonds Two atoms share three pairs of electrons.
Bond length Is defined as the distance between the nuclei of two covalently
bonded atoms in a molecule.
Intermolecular forces Weaker than covalent bond. Are attractive forces between
molecules.
Polar covalent bond Electrons spend more time in the vicinity of one atom than the
other.
Electronegativity The ability of an atom to attract toward itself the electrons in a
chemical bond.
Percent ionic character Used to describe the nature of a bond.
Formal charge Is the electrical charge difference between the valence electrons in
an isolated atom and the number of electrons assigned to that atom
in a Lewis structure.
The C atom Has 4 valence electrons.
The O atom Has 6 valence electrons.
The O atom in C-O Has six nonbonding electrons.
Resonance The use of two or more Lewis structures to represent a particular
molecule.
Coordinate covalent bond Also known as dative bond, defined as a covalent bond in which
one of the atoms donates both electrons.
Radicals Odd-electron molecules are sometimes called radicals.
Expanded Octet
Bond Enthalpy The enthalpy change required to break a particular bond in 1 mole
of gaseous molecules.
Valence Shell The outermost electron-occupied shell of an atom; it holds the
electrons that are usually involved in bonding.
Valence-Shell Electron-pair Are accounts for the geometric arrangements of electron pairs
repulsion (VSEPR) model around a central atom in terms of the electrostatic repulsion
between electron pairs.
Dipole moment Product of the charge and the distance r between the charges.
Polar molecules Diatomic molecules having dipole moments.
Non-polar molecules Do not have dipole moments.
Valence Bond Theory Assumes that the electrons in a molecule occupy atomic orbitals
of the individual atoms.
Molecular Orbital Theory Assumes the formation of molecular orbitals from the atomic
orbitals.
Hybrid orbitals Are atomic orbitals obtained when two or more nonequivalent
orbitals of the same atom combine in preparation for covalent
bond formation.
Hybridization Is the term applied to the mixing of atomic orbitals in an atom to
generate a set of hybrid orbitals.
Sigma bonds Covalent bonds formed by orbitals overlapping end-to-end, with
the electron density concentrated between the nuclei of the
bonding atoms.
Pi bond Defined as a covalent bond formed by sideways overlapping
orbitals with electron density concentrated above and below the
plane of the nuclei of the bonding atoms.
Molecular orbitals Results from the interaction of the atomic orbitals of the bonding
atoms and are associated with the entire molecule.
Bonding molecular orbital Lower energy and greater stability than the atomic orbitals from
which it was formed.
Antibonding molecular orbital Has higher energy and lower stability than the atomic orbitals
from which it was formed.
Constructive interference A property unique to waves of the same type to interact in such a
way that the resultant wave has either an enhanced amplitude or
diminished amplitude.
Sigma molecular orbital The electron density is concentrated symmetrically around a line
between the two nuclei of the bonding atoms.
Pi molecular orbital The electron density is concentration above and below a line
joining the two nuclei of the bonding atoms.
Bond order Indicates the approximate strength of a bond.
Delocalized molecular orbitals Are not confined between two adjacent bonding atoms but extend
over three or more atoms.
Phase Is a homogenous part of the system in contact with other parts of
the system but separated from them by a well-defined boundary.
Intramolecular forces Hold atoms together in a molecule.
Van der Waals forces Dipole-dipole, dipole-induced dipole and dispersion forces.
Hydrogen bonding Is a particular strong type of dipole-dipole interaction. Special
type of dipole-dipole interaction between hydrogen atom in a
polar bond such as N-H, O-H, or F-H
Ion-dipole forces Ions and dipoles are attracted to one another by electrostatic
forces.
Dipole-dipole forces Are attractive forces between polar molecules.
Induced dipole The separation of positive and negative charges in the atom (or
nonpolar molecule) is due to the proximity of an ion or polar
molecule.
Instantaneous dipole Dipole moment created by specific positions of the electrons.
Dispersion forces Attractive forces that arise because of temporary dipoles induced
in atoms or molecules.
Surface tension Amount of energy required to stretch or increase the surface of a
liquid by a unit area.
Cohesion The intermolecular attraction between like molecules.
Adhesion The intermolecular attraction between unlike molecules.
Viscosity Is a measure of a fluid’s resistance to flow.
Unit cell The basic repeating structural unit of a crystalline solid.
Lattice point Each sphere represents an atom, ion, or molecule.
Coordination number The number of atoms (or ions) surrounding an atom (or ion) in a
lattice crystal.
BCC, FCC Body-centered Cubic Cell, Face-centered Cubic Cell.
Closest Packing The most efficient arrangement of spheres.
X-ray diffraction Refers to the scattering of X-rays by the units of a crystalline
solid.
Phase Changes Transformations from one phase to another.
Dynamic equilibrium The rate of a forward process is exactly balanced by the rate of the
reverse process.
Equilibrium vapor pressure Is the vapor pressure measured when a dynamic equilibrium exists
between condensation and evaporation.
Hydrostatic pressure Pressure due to the presence of liquid.
Critical Temperature Above which its gas phase cannot be made to liquify no matter
how great the applied pressure.
Critical Pressure Minimum pressure that must be applied to bring about
liquefaction at the critical temperature.
Phase Diagram Summarizes the conditions at which a substance exists as a solid,
liquid or gas.
Triple Point Is the only condition under which all three phase can be in
equilibrium with one another.
Saturated solution Contains the maximum amount of a solute that will dissolve in a
given solvent at a specific temperature.
Unsaturated solution Contains less solute than it has the capacity to dissolve.
Supersaturated solution Contains more solute than is present in a saturated solution.
Crystallization Is the process in which dissolved solute comes out of solution and
forms crystals.
Solvation Is the process in which an ion or molecule is surrounded by
solvent molecules arranged in a specific manner.
Fractional crystallization Is the separation of a mixture of substances into pure components
on the basis of their differing solubitilies.
Thermal pollution The heating of the environment (usually waterways) to
temperatures that are harmful to its living inhabitants.
Henry’s Law Which states that the solubility of a gas in a liquid is proportional
to the pressure of the gas over the solution.
Nonvolatile Does not have a measurable vapor pressure.
Raoult’s Law States that the vapor pressure of a solvent over a solution is given
by the vapor pressure of the pure solvent time the mole fraction of
the solvent in the solution.
Volatile Have measurable vapor pressure.
Ideal solution Any solution that obeys Raoult’s law.
Fractional Distillation A procedure for separating liquid components of a solution based
on their different boiling points.
Binary system Two-component system.
Boiling point elevation The boiling point of the solution minus the boiling point of the
pure solvent.
Freezing point depression Freezing point of pure solvent minus the freezing point of the
solution.
Osmotic Pressure The selective passage of solvent molecules through a porous
membrane from a dilute solution to a more concentrated one. The
pressure required to stop osmosis.
Semipermeable membrane Allows the passage of solvent molecules but blocks the passage of
solute molecules.
Isotonic Two solutions having the same concentration and osmotic
pressure.
Hypertonic and hypotonic If two solution having unequal concentrations, the more
concentrated is hypertonic and the more dilute is hypotonic.
Crenation When a bacteria cell is in a hypertonic sugar solution, the
intracellular water tends to move out of the bacteria cell to the
more concentrated solution by osmosis this process causes the cell
to shrink and eventually cease to function.
Transpiration The solute concentrations in leaf fluids increase.
Van’t Hoff factor
Ion pair Is made up of one or more cations and one or more anions held
together by electrostatic forces.
colloids A dispersion of particles of one substance (the dispersed phase)
throughout a dispersing medium made of another substance.
Hydrophilic Water-loving
Hydrophobic Water-fearing
Tyndall effect When a beam of light passes through a colloid, it is scattered by
the dispersed phase.
Amorphous Solids Lack a regular three-dimensional arrangement of atoms.
Conjugate acid-base pair An acid and its conjugate base or a base and its conjugate acid.
Autoionization Reversible reaction of water into OH and H
Ion-product (kw) Is the product of the molar concentrations of H and OH ions at a
particular temperature.
pH Negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration.

Strong acids Are strong electrolytes that are assumed to ionize in water.
Weak acids Ionize only to a limited extent in water.
Strong bases Strong electrolytes that ionize completely in water.
Weak bases Weak electrolytes.
Base ionization constant The equilibrium constant for the ionization reaction.
Salt hydrolysis The reaction of an anion or a cation of a salt, or both, with water.
Lewis base A substance that can donate a pair of electrons.
Lewis acid Can accept a pair of electrons.
Nuclear transmutation Results from the bombardment of nuclei by neutrons, protons, or
other nuclei
Radioactivity Protons and neutrons emit particles and/or electromagnetic
radiation spontaneously
Nuclear reactions Radioactive decay and nuclear transmutation
Nuclear binding energy The energy required to break up a nucleus into its component
protons and neutrons.
Nucleons General term for the protons and neutrons in a nucleus
Mass defect Difference between the mass of an atom and the sum of the
masses of its protons, neutrons and electrons
Particle accelerator Uses electric and magnetic fields to increase the kinetic energy of
charged species so that a reaction will occur
Nuclear fission Is a process in which a heavy nucleus (mass number > 200)
divides to form smaller nuclei of intermediate mass and one or
more neutrons
Nuclear chain reaction Self-sustaining sequence of nuclear fission reactions
Critical mass The minimum mass of fissionable material required to generate a
self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction
Moderators Substances that can reduce the kinetic energy of neutrons
Breeder reactor Produces more fissionable materials than it uses
Nuclear fusion The combining of small nuclei into larger ones
Plasma State of matter, a gaseous mixture of positive ions and electrons
Radicals Also known as “free radicals” are molecular fragments having one
or more unpaired electrons; they are usually short lived and highly
reactive
Aromatic hydrocarbons Contain one or more benzene rings
Aliphatic hydrocarbons Do not contain a benzene group
Functional group Group of atoms that is largely responsible for the chemical
behavior of the parent molecule
Alkanes Saturated hydrocarbons CnH(2n+2) – they contain the maximum
number of hydrogen atoms that can bond with the number of
carbons present
Structural isomers Molecules that have the same molecular formula, but different
structures
Halogenation Replacement of one or more hydrogen atoms by halogen atoms –

they are called alkyl halide reactions:

Cycloalkanes Alkanes whose carbon atoms are joined in rings
Alkenes Also called as olefins and unsaturated hydrocarbons, contain at
least one carbon-carbon double bond – usually undergo addition

reactions. CnH2n reactions: addition reactions

with halogen, hydrogen halides, and water; hydrogenation to yield
alkanes
Markovnikov’s Rule States that in the addition of unsymmetrical (polar) reagents to
alkenes, the positive portion of the reagent (usually hydrogen)
adds to the carbon atom that already has the most hydrogen
Cis and trans Cis-two particular atoms are adjacent, trans-two atoms are across
from each other
Alkynes Contain at least one carbon-carbon triple bond CnH(2n-2)

reactions: addition reaction with halogens,

hydrogen halides; hydrogenation to yield alkenes and alkanes
Substitution reaction An atom or groups of atoms replaces an atom or groups of atoms
in another molecule
Alcohols Contain the hydroxyl functional group – OH – methanol (wood
alcohol) – ethanol containing methanol or other toxic substances
(denatured alcohol)
Ethers Contain the R-O-R’ linkage where R and R’ are hydrocarbons
(aliphatic or aromatic)
Condensation reaction The joining of two molecules and the elimination of a small
molecule, usually water
Aldehyde At least one hydrogen atom is bonded to the carbon in the
carbonyl group
Ketone The carbon atom in the carbonyl group is bonded to two
hydrocarbon groups
Carboxylic Acids Acids that contain the carboxyl group – COOH

reactions: esterification with alcohols;

reaction with phosphorus pentachloride to yield acid chlorides
Esters Have the general formula R’COOR where R’ can be H or a
hydrocarbon group and R is a hydrocarbon group – used in

manufacture of perfumed reactions:

hydrolysis yields to acids and alcohols
Saponification Meaning soapmaking alkaline hydrolysis of any type of ester
Amines Are organic bases having the general formula R3N, where R may

be H or a hydrocarbon group
reactions: formation of ammonium salts with acids
Carbonyl

reactions: reactions yield to alcohols.

Oxidation yields to aldehydes to yield carboxylic acids
Hydroxyl
reactions: esterification (formation of an ester) with
carboxylic acids; oxidation to form aldehydes, ketones, and
carboxylic acids
Femtochemistry Area of physical chemistry that studies chemical reactions on
extremely short timescales in order to study the very act of atoms

Formulas
Mass Number (A) = # 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠 + # 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠
= 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 + # 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠
% composition of an element 𝑛 × 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
= × 100
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑
% yield 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑
= × 100
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑
Molarity 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
=
𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Velocity 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑
=
𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑝𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
Acceleration 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
=
𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑝𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
Boyle’s Law 𝑃1 𝑉1 = 𝑃2 𝑉2
Charles’ Law 𝑉1 𝑉2
=
𝑇1 𝑇2
Gay Lus sac’s Law 𝑃1 𝑃2
=
𝑇1 𝑇2
Avogadro’s Law 𝑉1 𝑉2
=
𝑛1 𝑛2
Ideal Gas Law 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇
Combined Gas Law 𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑃2 𝑉2
=
𝑇1 𝑇2
Density of a Gas 𝑚 𝑀𝑅𝑇
𝜌= =
𝑉 𝑃
Dalton’s Law 𝑃𝑇 = 𝑃𝐴 + 𝑃𝐵 … + 𝑃𝑁
Mole fraction 𝑛𝑖
𝑋𝑖 =
𝑛𝑇
Partial Pressure 𝑃𝑖 = 𝑋𝑖 𝑃𝑇
Work 𝑊 = 𝐹𝑑
Root-mean-square speed
3𝑅𝑇
𝑈𝑟𝑚𝑠 = √
𝑀
Graham’s Law of Diffusion
𝑟1 𝑀2
=√
𝑟2 𝑀1
Van der Waals 𝑎𝑛2
(𝑃 + ) (𝑉 − 𝑛𝑏) = 𝑛𝑅𝑇
𝑉2
Van der Waals constants (a and b) 27𝑅2 𝑇𝑐2 𝑅𝑇𝐶
𝑎= ,𝑏 =
64𝑃𝐶 8𝑃𝐶
Internal Energy (U) 𝛥𝑈 = 𝑈2 − 𝑈1 = 𝑞 + 𝑊
Work (P=k) 𝑊 = −𝑃𝛥𝑉; 𝛥𝑉 = 𝑉2 − 𝑉1
Enthalpy 𝐻 = 𝑈 + 𝑃𝑉
Enthalpy (P=k) 𝐻 = 𝑈 + 𝑃𝛥𝑉
Internal Energy (T=k, ideal gas) 𝛥𝑈 = 𝐻 − 𝑅𝑇𝛥𝑛
Heat Capacity © 𝐶 = 𝑚𝑠
Heat 𝑞 = 𝑚𝑠𝛥𝑇 = 𝐶𝛥𝑇; 𝛥𝑇 = 𝑇2 − 𝑇1
Standard heat of reaction ° (𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠)
𝐻𝑟𝑥𝑛 = 𝛴𝑛𝐻𝑟𝑥𝑛
° (𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠)
− 𝛴𝑛𝐻𝑟𝑥𝑛
Heat of solution 𝛥𝐻𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑛 = 𝐻𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑛 − 𝐻𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠
Heat of hydration 𝛥𝐻𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑛 = 𝑈 + 𝛥𝐻ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟
Speed 𝜐 = 𝜆𝑣
Wavelength 𝑐
𝑣 = ; 𝑐 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝜆
Planck’s Quantum Theory, Energy (E) 𝑐 𝑐
𝐸 = ℎ𝑣; 𝑣 = ; 𝐸 = ℎ , ℎ = 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑘 ′ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝜆 𝜆
ℎ𝑣 = 𝐾𝐸 + 𝑊

Energies that an electron in hydrogen atom can 1

𝐸𝑛 = −𝑅𝐻 ( ) ; 𝑅𝐻 = 𝑅𝑦𝑑𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
occupy (En/ 𝛥𝐸) 𝑛2
𝑛 = 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑙 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟
1 1
𝛥𝐸 = ℎ𝑣 = 𝑅𝐻 ( 2 − 2 )
𝑛𝑖 𝑛𝑓

Wavelength (De Broglie) ℎ

𝜆=
𝑚𝑢
Effective Nuclear Charge (Zeff) 𝑍𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝑍 − 𝜎;
𝜎 = 𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔/𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
Coulomb’s Law 𝑄𝐿𝑖 × 𝑄𝐹
𝐹 = 𝐾( )
𝑟
Dipole moment (µ) µ=𝑄×𝑟
𝑄 = 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒; 𝑟 = 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
Clausius-Clapeyron Equation 𝑃2 𝐻𝑣𝑎𝑝 1 1
𝑙𝑛 ( ) = ( − )
𝑃1 𝑅 𝑇1 𝑇2
Heat of sublimation 𝐻𝑠𝑢𝑏 = 𝐻𝑣𝑎𝑝 + 𝐻𝑓𝑢𝑠
Heat of solution 𝛥𝐻𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑛 = 𝛥𝐻1 + 𝛥𝐻2 … + 𝛥𝐻𝑛
Percent by mass 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
%𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 = × 100
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Henry’s Law 𝑐 = 𝑘𝑃
Raoult’s Law 𝑃1 = 𝑃1° 𝑋1
Dalton’s Law 𝑃𝑇 = 𝑃𝐴° 𝑋𝐴 + 𝑃𝐵° 𝑋𝐵
Boiling point elevation 𝛥𝑇𝑏 = 𝑇𝑏 − 𝑇𝑏°
𝐾
𝛥𝑇𝑏 = 𝑖𝑚𝐾𝑚 ; 𝑘𝑚 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 0.52
𝑚
Freezing point elevation 𝛥𝑇𝑓 = 𝑖𝑚𝐾𝑓
𝐾
𝑘𝑓 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 1.86
𝑚
Osmotic pressure 𝜋 = 𝑖𝑀𝑅𝑇
pH 𝑝𝐻 = −𝑙𝑜𝑔[𝐻3 𝑂+ ] = −𝑙𝑜𝑔[𝐻 + ]
[𝐻3 𝑂+ ] = 10−𝑝𝐻
Percent ionization 𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑧𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 @ 𝑒𝑞
= × 100
𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐. 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑
[𝐻 + ]
= × 100
[𝐻𝐴]𝑜
%hydrolysis [𝐻 + ]ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑧𝑒𝑑
= × 100
[𝐻𝐴]𝑜 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙
Kb >Ka = solution must be basic
Kb <Ka = solution must be acidic
Kb =Ka = neutral

Constants
Avogadro’s number 6.022 × 1023
Standard Temperature and Pressure (STP) 0°C and 1atm, 1 mole = 22.4L

Random Facts
Arsenic oxide is a commonly used poison
Electric lightbulbs are usually filled with argon
Calcium Carbide reacts with water to form acetylene
Helium is added to oxygen tanks of divers to they can avoid having nitrogen narcosis
Bose-Einstein condensate - A new phase of matter, contains no individual atoms because the original
atoms would overlap one another, leaving no space in between at very low temperatures.
Snowmaking machine contains a mixture of compressed air and water vapor at about 20 atm.
Warming effect on the valve stream when pumping air into the tire is under 1st law of thermodynamics.
German physicist Josef Fraunhofer and Frend physicist Pierre Janssen studied sun spectroscopy which
leads to the discovery of helium. Helium was discovered by British Chemist William Ramsay.
There is no such element as coronium after all. Swedish physicist Bengt Edlen debunked the mystery.
Francium is the third liquid elements, having a boiling point of 23°C.
Lord Rayleigh and William Ramsay won the Nobel prize for the discovery of radon.
Sodium Chloride also occurs in nature as the mineral halite.
Our bodies produce nitric oxide for use as a neurotransmitter.
C60 has the same shape as a football.
Para crystalline state – melting a crystal first forms a milky liquid. Liquid – milky fluid changes at high
temperature creating a clear liquid.
Deep waters in lake nyos are pumped to the surface to remove dissolved CO2 gas.
Gastric juice contains HCl and this fluid is around a pH level of 1.5 and around 0.03M
Alka-Seltzer tablet dissolves in water, the bicarbonate ions in it react with the acid component to
produce CO2 gas.
Aluminum sulfate is used to seal the holes of porous papers to prevent the ink from spreading across,
this process is called “sizing. “
Food irradiation can prolong shelf life
Boron-Neutron Capture Therapy – used for treatment of brain tumor
Methane hydrate – ice that burns
Shroud of Turin – radiocarbon dating technique is used to determine its age
Haber process is for synthesizing ammonia from molecular hydrogen and nitrogen and uses a
heterogeneous catalyst to speed up the reaction
Most of calcium in an eggshell is laid down in a 16-h period, this comes from the bones of the hen
calcium phosphate
Geobacter – a bacteria fuel cell grow at the bottom of rivers and lakes, gets their energy by oxidizing
decaying organic matter to produce carbon dioxide – can be used a electron captor
Dental amalgam – filler for decaying teeth composed of mercury and another metal – can cause
discomfort (sharp pain) when in contact with other metals
Coal gasification – converting coal into synthetic gas (syngas)
Ammonium nitrate – labeled as fertilized and explosive
Cisplatin (diamminedichloroplatinum) – anticancer drug – chelation of DNA
Sickle cell anemia – hereditary disease in which abnormally shaped red blood cells restrict blood flow
of blood to vital organs in the body
Styrene butadiene rubber SBR is a random copolymer
 BIOCHEMISTRY

DEFINITION OF TERMS
Carbohydrates • Function – body’s primary source of energy, can be
stored in liver and muscles. Sugars, starches, and
cellulose
• Examples – starches, cellulose
• Elements – CHO
• Monomer: monosaccharides
• (CH2O)n molecular formula for carbohydrates
TYPES OF SUGAR
Monosaccharides • Simple sugars – colorless, soluble in water
• Examples – glucose, fructose, galactose, Mannose
• Sources – fruit, milk, plant
Disaccharides • Simple sugars
• Examples – saccharose, lactose, maltose
• Sources – fruit, milk, plant
• Sucrose – glucose + fructose, Lactose – galactose +
glucose, maltose – glucose + glucose

Assimilable polysaccharides • Complex sugars

• Examples – starch (corn and potatoes), amylose,
amylopectin
• Source – Potatoes, rice, pasta, cereals, pulses
Non-assimilable polysaccharides • Complex sugars
• Examples – cellulose, hemicellulose, pectin, mucilage,
gums
• Seeds, pulses, green vegetables, fruit

Protein • Function – growth and repair

• Examples – muscle, hair, nails, enzyme
• Elements – CHONPS
• Monomer: amino acids (building blocks of protein)
• Are polymers made of amino acid monomers

ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS

Non-polar side chains • Glycine(G-gly) – Alanine(A-ala) – Valine(V-val) –
Leucine –(L-leu) Isoleucine(I-Ile) – Methionine(M-
met) – Phenylalanine(F-phe) – Tryptophan(W-trp) -
Proline(P-pro)
• “Grandma Always Visits London In May For
Winston’s Party”
• Valine(V-val) – Leucine –(L-leu) Isoleucine(I-Ile) –
Methionine(M-met) – Phenylalanine(F-phe) – can be
found in a proteins interior away from aqueous solvent
molecules
• Proline – structure breaker/alpha helix terminator
Polar side chains • Serine(S-ser) – Threonine(T-Thr) – Cysteine(C-cys) –
Asparagine(N-Asn) – Glutamine(Q-Gln) - Tyrosine(Y-
tyr)
• “Santa’s Team Crafts New Quilts Yearly”
Electrically charged side chains • Acidic – aspartate (D-asp) – Glutamate (E-Glu)
• Basic – lysine(K-lys) – Arginine(R-Arg) – Histidine
(H-his)
• “Dragons Eat Knights Riding Horses”
• Arginine – found in protein structure
Nine essential amino acids that the • Histidine (His), Isoleucine (Ile), Leucine (Leu), Lysine
body cannot synthesize (Lys), Methionine (Met), Phenylalanine (Phe),
Threonine (The), Tryptophan (Try), Valine (Val)

Lipid • Function – energy storage (long term), insulation, cell

membrane, hormones, does not dissolve in water
• Examples – oil, wax, fat
• Elements – CHO
• Monomer: glycerol and fatty acids
TYPES OF FAT
Saturated fats • Have fatty acids with only single covalent bonds in
their carbon skeletons
• Contain no carbon-carbon double bonds, increase
levels of LDL in bloodstream, associated with heart
disease
• C12 – lauric, C14 – myristic, C16 – palmitic, C18 –
stearic
• Melting point - directly proportional to length of C and
surface area
Monounsaturated fats • Contain one carbon-carbon double bond, they reduce
levels of LDL in the bloodstream, decreasing total
cholesterol to HDL ratio
Polyunsaturated fats • Contain two or more carbon-carbon double bonds.
They are split into omega 3 and omega 6 fatty acids,
they reduce levels of LDL in the bloodstream,
decreasing total cholesterol to HDL ratio
Trans fats • Contain carbon-carbon double bonds in a trans rather
than cis, formed artificially (hydrogenation), found
naturally in meat and dairy products

Nucleic Acid •
Function – genetic information storage and protein
synthesis
• Examples – DNA, RNA
• Elements – CHONP
• Monomer: nucleotides (polymers)
• Nucleoside – pyrimidine or purine connected
covalently to a sugar
• Nucleotide bases and aromatic amino acids absorb
light respectively at 260 and 280nm
COMPONENTS OF NUCLEIC ACIDS
DNA • Deoxyribonucleic acid
• Components – thymine, adenine, guanine, cytosine
• Sugars: 2 – deoxyribose & phosphate
• Hydrogen bonds – to connect base pairs – pyrimidine
and purines bind to each other by H-bonds
• nucleoside
RNA • Ribonucleic acid
• Components – uracil, adenine, guanine, cytosine
• Sugars: ribose & phosphate
ENZYMES
Enzymes • Function as catalysts in living systems
• Can end with either in – in or in -ase
• Lowering activation energy, stabilizing transition state,
positioning reactants in the correct orientation and
bringing reactants together
• Do not alter the overall change in free energy for a
reaction
• Are proteins whose 3D form is key to their function
• Optimal temperature 35-40°C
• Reactants – substrates
• Enzyme is detached from the product after the reaction
Apoenzyme • Protein portion of a conjugated enzyme
• Portion of the enzyme without the cofactors

Conjugated enzyme • Components: coenzyme, cofactor, apoenzyme

Enzyme active site • Where protein groups are brought together by bending
and folding to form a site for interactions with
substrates
• Location in an enzyme where substrate molecules
undergo change (binding occurs)
• “Lock and key” - E and S are fit
• Induced fit – confirmational changes to accommodate
S. effect = enzyme can accept any S
Prosthetic Group • Enzyme cofactors that bind covalently at the active site
of an enzyme
Allosteric activator • Increases the binding affinity
• Stabilizes the R state of the protein
• The binding of substrate to any active site affects the
other active sites
• Modulators likely bind at a site other than the active
site
• Enzyme with more than one subunit
Oxidoreductases • Redox reactions, loss or gain of O and H
Transferases • Transfer of substituent groups
Hydrolases • Hydrolysis – addition of water
Ligases • Lyase – removal of subs/groups
• Isomerases – rearrangement of atoms
• Ligase – combining/joining of molecules
Catalytic efficiency (Kcat/Km) • Describes how well suited a specific compound
function as a substrate for a particular enzyme
Turnover Number (Kcat) • Max conversion of substrate per second per catalytic
site

MICHELIS MENTEN KINETICS

Michelis Menten kinetics • Complex dissociation step to produce product – rate
determining step
METABOLIC PATHWAYS
ATP Yields • Eucaryotes – 36-38 ATP
• Procaryotes – 24 ATP
Glycolysis • Glucose molecules are broken down to create ATP in a
cell’s cytoplasm
• Produces 4 ATPs, pyruvate and NADH
• Pyruvate is used to produced acetyl coenzyme A
• Regulates glycolysis steps: phosphofructokinase
(inhibited and activated by ATP and ADP), hexose
kinase, pyruvate kinase
• From glucose to pyruvate
• Electrons removed from glucose are passed to NAD+
• Glycolysis > pyruvate oxidation > the citric acid cycle
> oxidative phosphorylation
• Ethanol – aerobic product of pyruvate catabolic
metabolism
Krebs cycle (citric acid cycle, TCA • Acetyl coenzyme A is used to create more NADH,
cycle) FADH2, carbon dioxide (CO2) and ATP
• Electrons removed from glucose are passed to FAD
• Is controlled by ADP/ATP ratio and NADH
concentration
• Begins when pyruvic acid produced by glycolysis
enter the mitochondrion
Electron transfer • NADH, FADH2 and oxygen are used to create ATP
through electron transfer, also creates water
Glycolytic pathway • Regulation involves feedback, product, inhibition of
ATP
• There are essentially 3 irreversible reactions that act as
the driving force for the pathway
ATP (adenosine triphosphate) • The released energy obtained by oxidation of glucose
is stored as
• 1 Glucose (C6) = 2 pyruvates (C3)
• nucleotides
Block active site • Not a mechanism for altering flux of metabolites
through the rate-determining step of a pathway
Lactate • To determine at what point their muscles were
functioning anaerobically (lactate buildup)
Gluconeogenesis • 4 enzymes: pyruvate carboxylase,
phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase, fructose-1,6-
bisphosphatase and glucose-6-phosphatase
 • From pyruvate to glucose
• fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase and glucose-6-
phosphatase – remove phosphate groups during the
process of gluconeogenesis and circumvent two of the
3 irreversible reactions of glycolysis
• major parts of the process are in cytosol, but the 1st
step is in the mitochondria
• fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase – converts fructose-2,6-
bisphosphate to fructose-6-phosphate
Glucagon • in the liver, glucagon will activate gluconeogenesis
and glycogenolysis
• after running for long periods, epinephrine, glucagon
are high and insulin is low
Glycogenolysis • glycogen breakdown
•
Glycogenesis • glycogen synthesis
• activation of glycogen phosphorylase – increase in
cytosolic [Ca++], increase in epinephrine and cAMP,
increase activity of glycogen phosphorylase kinase
Oxidative Phosphorylation • biological redox reaction always involves an oxidizing
agent, a gain of electrons, a reducing agent.
• Coenzyme Q (Ubiquinone) is involved in electron
transport as a lipid-soluble electron carrier
• FAD is reduced to FADH during electron transport
phosphorylation
• Almost all of oxygen (final electrons acceptor) one
consumes in breathing is converted to water
• Cellular respiration (mitochondria)
• NADH form glycolysis donates high-energy electrons
to the electrons transport chains in mitochondria –
converts high energy electrons from ADP to ATP in
other cycles
• Requires electron transport system
• Proteins of the ETC are located at the inner membrane
of mitochondria – ATP synthase
• Metabolic acidosis – decrease in removal of CO2
resulting of decreasing pH in the body
• 1 mol glucose = 38 ATP, (NADHx3, FADH2x2)
Amino acid catabolism • Site of amino acid catabolism - Liver
• Removal of amino group >
• Urea – primary nitrogenous waste of humans
• Glucogenic amino acid is degraded to pyruvate or
citric acid cycle intermediates
• Transamination – α amino group is removed from the
amino acid – transfer of an amino group from an
amino acid to a keto acid
Breaking of Primary structure • Trypsin – cutting basic amino acid (lysine, arginine,
(pancreas) histidine)
 • Chymotrypsin – cutting aromatic amino acid (Phe,
Trp, Tyr)
Nucleic Acid Metabolism • Purine Biosynthesis – ribose-5-phosphate > 5-
Phosphoribosyl-1-Pyrophsophate > 5-
Phosphoribosylamine (5-PRA) > IMP > adenosine
monophosphate (AMP) or guanosine monophosphate
(GMP) – PRPP (required substrate for purine
biosynthesis)
• Inherited deficiency of hypoxanthine guanine
phosphoribosyl transferase – salvage of purines is
increased
Hydrolysis • Triglycerides – fatty acids and glycerol
TYPES OF STRUCTURES
Primary Structure • Sequence of a chain of amino acids
• Stabilizing force: Hydrogen bonds
• Peptide bonds – the bonds in protein structure that are
not broken on denaturation
Secondary Structure • Hydrogen bonding of the peptide backbone causes the
amino acids to fold into a repeating pattern
• Helix, pleated sheets, beta sheets (parallel or
antiparallel)
• Local spatial arrangement of a polypeptide’s backbone
atoms without regard to the conformation of its side
chains
• Stabilizing force: Hydrogen bonds
Tertiary Structure • 3D folding pattern of a protein due to side chain
interactions
Quaternary structure • The intertwining of two or more polypeptides
• Stabilizing force: disulfide bonds, salt bonds,
hydrophobic interactions.
CENTRAL DOGMA
DNA replication • Helicases unwind the parental double helix > single-
strand bonding proteins stabilize the unwound parental
DNA > the leading strand is synthesized continuously
in the 5’-3’ direction by DNA polymerase > the
lagging strand (3’-5’ direction) is synthesized
discontinuously, primase synthesized a short RNA
primer, which is extended by DNA polymerase to form
Okazaki fragments > after the RNA primer is
replaced by DNA (by another DNA polymerase) DNA
ligase joins the Okazaki fragments to the growing
strand.
• both strands of DNA serve as templates
• DNA polymerase 3’-5’ exonuclease activity function
– proof reading – adds complementary bases during
replication
• DNA ligase – repairs nicked DNA by forming a
phosphodiester bond between adjacent nucleotides
 • Helicases – unwind short stretches of DNA helix
immediately ahead of a replication fork
• Replication of chromosomes by eukaryotes occurs in
short time because each chromosome contains multiple
replicons
• Polymerase 1 – removal of RNA primers, DNA repair
• 5’-3’ – carbon number in sugar
• UV radiation – formation of thymine dimers
(damaging effect)
• Only one strand carries the genetic code for a
particular gene
Transcription • DNA to RNA
• Initiation > elongation > termination
• RNA polymerase – used for synthesis of RNA under
the direction of DNA
• Products of transcription: mRNA, tRNA, rRNA
• rRNA – ribosomal RNA (ribosomes – RNA proteins)
• promoter – recognition/binding site of RNA
polymerase
• mRNA transcript of a gene contains a start codon,
stop codon, a terminator
• Nucleus – site of DNA transcribed into mRNA
Translation • RNA to proteins
• Ribosome – site of protein synthesis, composed of
proteins and RNA – select the corrects tRNAs solely
based on their anticodons
• Polysome – structure in a bacterium that indicates an
active site for protein synthesis
• Necessary for protein synthesis once transcription is
completed: tRNA, ribosomes, mRNA, rRNA
• During translation, the peptide bond is passed from the
tRNA in the P-site to the tRNA in the A-site
• Nucleolus – site in the nucleus where rRNA is
transcribed and ribosomal subunits are assembled
(ribosome assembly)
• Genetic Code: composed of more codons than amino
acids
• Stop codon – no amino acid
• Anticodon of tRNA – binds to mRNA codon
• Eukaryotic translation – begins when ribosomal
small subunit holding an initiator tRNA binds to the 5’
end of mRNA
• mRNA – binds to the small subunit
• start codon: AUG - Met

Alpha – helix • Most carbonyl groups of peptide forms hydrogen bond

with the amide nitrogen of another peptide bond four
amino acids further down the polypeptide chain
Isoelectric point of an amino acid • Where the molecule carries no electric charge
Salting in • Refers to the increasing solubility of a protein in
solution by adding ions
Salting out • Most proteins are less soluble at high salt
concentration
• can be used to fractionate proteins – dialysis
Beta-turns • it is a 180 degree turn of four amino acids
• glycine and proline are frequently found there
• are used as connecting turns of an alpha-helix
Globular protein • polypeptide chains are folded in a spherical shape
• contains several types of secondary structure
• typical for regulatory proteins
Domains • parts of a protein that have specific chemical structure
and function
Denaturation • modification in secondary structures up that makes the
protein deficient of biologically inactive
• after denaturation, primary structure is not affected
• can be caused by temperature variation, pH changes,
changes in the concentration of surrounding solutes
• disrupting the 3D shape of a protein
R-epinephrine • product of oxidation of dopamine
Purines • heterocyclic aromatic organic compound, pyrimidine
ring fused to an imidazole ring
• always pair with pyrimidines
Pyrimidines • heterocyclic aromatic organic compound like benzene
and pyridine, containing 2 nitrogen atoms at position 1
and 3 (meta) of the 6-member ring.
• Guanine – not pyrimidine
Gel electrophoresis • “small fragments” will move most quickly through a
gel
FORMULAS
Maximum number of amino acids • (Total nucleotides – termination codons)/3
 BIOCHEMICAL ENGINEERING AND BIOPROCESSING

DEFINITION OF TERMS
Complete Inhibition • Also known as linear inhibition.
Competitive Inhibition • Competitive inhibitor of an enzyme is structurally like
the substrate.
• Inhibition factor is obtained from Km measurement.
• It changes x-intercept in a Lineweaver plot.

•
• Works by fitting into the enzyme’s active site
• Increase in Km but not change in the Vmax
• Structurally similar to the substrate
• Changes the x-intercept of the Lineweaver-Burk plot
Non-competitive • Lineweaver plot effect is “it can change y-intercept”.
• Non-competitive inhibitor decreases Vmax and binds
to Michelis Menten complex (ES).
• Increases Km and reduces Vmax.
• Obtained only under rapid equilibrium conditions.
• No effect on substrate binding and vice versa.
• Decrease in Vmax, Km is unaffected
• Can bind to either E alone or the ES complex
Dixon plot • Reciprocal equation for non-competitive inhibition can
be arranged to the equation for Dixon plot.
Uncompetitive Inhibition • Uncompetitive inhibitor is a compound that binds with
reversibly to the enzyme yielding an inactive ESI
complex.
• Predominantly Uncompetitive inhibition may be called
when competitive inhibition is greater than
uncompetitive inhibition.
• Binds to [ES]
Michelis Menten • Rate-determining step in the kinetics is the complex
dissociation step.
Cathepsin D • Not a cysteine active site protease.
Induced Fit • Conformational change in an enzyme after the
substrate is bound that allows the chemical reaction to
proceed.
Transferases • Class 2 in the international classifications – category
of enzymes.
Isomerases • Class 5 in the international classifications – category
of enzymes.
• Also known as “B-galactosidase”.
Haldane equation • Relationship between Keq, Kem, and Vmax.
Quasi steady state • Also known as “pseudo steady state”

•
Allosteric Inhibitor • Participates in feedback regulation
Hill plot • Graphical method used for determination of enzyme’s
degree of cooperativity.
Specific activity • Ratio of amount of protein present in a sample used for
the measurement of purification.
Degree of inhibition
•

Stationary Phase • No further increase in population.

• Growth rate = death rate
Accelerated Phase • Cells starts to increase and division rate increases to
reach a maximum
Exponential Phase • Concentration of growth limiting substrates > the
Monod constant.
• Cell numbers increase exponentially because cells are
autocatalyst.
Lag Phase • Optical denisty drops because cells tends to grow
without dividing leading to decrease in SA to volume
ratio.
• Occurs due to susbtrate disliking
• Cells synthesize new proteins and membrane
components
• Division increases gradually and reaches a maximum
in the exponential growth period.
• Does not consider factor that causes cells to stop or
slow
Death Phase • Nutrients available cells are depleted and begin to die

Diauxie • Stagewise uptake of nutrients

• Substrates are used in a sequentual manner
Mixed fermentation • Produces acid and alcohol

Chemostat • An open system in which growth rate is maintained by

adding a nutrient at the same rate as that medium
containing microorganism is removed.
• Mainting uniform nutrients concentration.
Turbidostat • Growth rate is maintained by the removal and addition
of media at such a rate to maintain a constant cell
density.
• Recommended during continuous fermentation for
high dilution rates near the washout point.
Bacterial Growth curve • Log of number of cells versus time

Batch Culture • No additional medium is added and no waste products

are remove
Dilatant • Viscosity increases with increasing stirring speed
Rheopectic • Viscosity increases with increasing mixing time

Pseudoplastic • Viscosity decreases with increasing stirring speed

Thixotropic • Viscosity decreases with increasing mixing time

Viscoelastic fluid • Viscosity chages during mixing but returns to its

orginal state after mixing
• Viscosity of gases increase with temperature but
decreases in liquids
Brookfield viscometer • Measures viscosity by determining torque required to
move an impeller at a set speed
• Cannot determine shear stress because it is not defined
Kolmogorov eddy size • Factors: stirrer speed, physical properties, size and
type of impeller
• Decreases with stirrer speed
Newtonian Fluid • Viscosity is constant regardless of stirrer speed,
mixing time and power input.
Concentration polarization • Can be reduced further by pre filtering the solution,
reducing flow rate/unit membrane, backwashing
periodically
Damkohler Number • Ratio of maximum reaction rate to the maximum mass
transfer rate
Crabtree effect • Micoorganism most likely to ferment in the presence
of high concentrations of sugar and dissolved oxygen
CHEMICALS AND ENZYMES
Β-amylase • Exoenzyme and saccharifying enzyme

A-amylase • Endoenzyme which requires Calcium.

• Liquefaction of starch to dextrin is carried out by A-
amylase.
lysozyme • Is naturally present in tears, egg white, milk and
bacteria.
• Catalyses hydrolysis of B 1-4 linkages between N-
acetyl and N-acetyl glucosamine in peptideoglycan.
Protease • Debittering of high protein foods.

Sulfhydryl • UHT milk flavor removal.

Hersperidinase • Used for juice clarification.

Glucose oxidase-catalase • Commercial use for removal of oxygen.
Limoninase • Citrus juice debittering.
Rhamonosidase and B-glucosidase • Debittering of grapes.
Thiaminase • Vitamin B deficiency (beriberi disease).
Aldehyde oxidase • Soya off flavor removal.
Diacetyl reductase • Beer off flavor reduction.
Anthocyanoses • Discoloration
Chymosin • Phenyl alamine and methionine hydrolysis
Serum • Shear protectant
• Factors that affect Animal sensitivity shear conditions
are: cell size, availabiity of nutrients and presence of
shear protectants
Pluronic F68 • Acts on the surface properties of the cells and the
culture medium
• Shear protectant – surface active agent which stabilizes
foams

Polyacrylamide gel • Most commonly employed cross linked polymer

Crabtree effect • micoorganism

CONCEPTS
Enzymatic Catalyzed Reactions • The activation energy is lowered so that a larger
proportion of the substrate qualifies to overcome it.
• Lineweaver plot, Langmuir plot, Eadie Hofstee plot is
used for determining the value of Vmax.
• Michelis Menten, Briggs-Haldane, and Numerical
solution approach are the usual methods to solve the
rate equation of simple enzyme kinetics.
• Product releasing step is the slowest step in Michelis-
Menten equation.
• When [S] = 0.1Km (Michelis Menten constant) the
velocity of an enzyme catalyzed reactant is about
0.1Vmax.
• When [S] = Km (Michelis Menten constant) the
velocity of an enzyme catalyzed reactant is about
0.5Vmax.
• Enzyme active site catalyzes a chemical reaction.
• Enzymes are proteins, lowering activation energy.
• Lock and Key theory are based on the compatibility of
enzyme and substrate.
• Enzyme functioning at Vmax is limited by the rate at
which the enzyme can convert substrate to product.
• Enzymes act as anti-microbials.
Enzyme Inhibition • Can occur by reversible and irreversible inhibitors.
• Enzyme only function when they are in intact cells
(FALSE)
• Make thermodynamically favorable reactions to
proceed.
• Enzyme function by overcoming the activation energy
barrier of a reaction.
• Enzymes that bind to specific substrates and increase
the velocity of reactions involving substrates.
• Enzyme and reactant molecule – temporary
relationship,
• Enzymes provide activation energy for reactions
(FALSE).
•
Monod Model • Specific growth rate is dependent to the concentration
of the substrate until it reaches a maximum value.
-the rate of individual cells division or increase in their
biomass
-the rate of individual cells division or increase in their
biomass
-Specific growth rate factors: medium composition,
temperature, substrate concentration, produc
concentration, oxygen supply and pH.
-cells activity depends on the level of concentration of
dissolved oxygen
• Was derived from the analysis of the mechanism of
microbial growth.
• Relates specific growth rate to the substrate
availability.
• Maximum specific growth rate in batch culture is
equal to slope of a biomass against time for
exponential phase data only.
• Population doubling time (td) expressed as ln2/u
• Relationship between specific growth rate and
essential compounds by proposed by Monod in 1942.
• When product formation is approximately equal to the
rate of cell growth, the pattern of produce formation is
“growth associated”
Bioprocessing (Equipments) • Wash out occurs when dilution rate is higher than the
specific growth rate.
• It is necessary to permeabilize the cells when
intracellular enzyme of whole cells are to be used in a
bio-conversion process.
• Residence time distribution is independent of “micro
mixing.”
• Internal draft tube is preferred compared to external
because it is easier to clean and sterilize.
 • Bubble-free aeration systems require silicone tubing
or gas permeable membranes to facilitate gas transfer
• Swirling and vortex formation can be prevented by
using baffles and diffusion ring with turbines
-Vortexing – undesirable collision will lead to cell
damage, poor mixing at higher speed and mixing will not be
turbulent – for vortexing, Froude number is useful
• Flooding – condition/phenomenon which occur in a
bioreactor when air escapes without being distributed
by agitation
• Mass of substrate = Volume of reactor x substrate
concentration in the reactor
• Dilution rate = Volume of reactor/Volumetric Flow
rate
• Specific growth rate = Volumetric Flow Rate/Volume
of reactor
• Addition of antifoams to an aerated bioreactor will
decrease oxygen transfer rates because antifoams
increase the tendency of bubbles to coalescence, tend
to accumulate gas liquid interface and reduces surface
tension of liquid
• CONTINUOUS STEADY STATE
-Biomass, substrate and product concentration do not
change in time, concentration of substrate, product and
enzyme are constant. Constant environmental
conditions
-For steady-state condition, change of substrate
concentration (dCs/dt) is zero
-continuous cultures are not useful in pharmaceutical
industry
-major applications: continuous cultures in wastewater
treatment, production of metabolites, do not need to
shut down as frequently as batch
• FERMENTATION INDUSTRY
-antibiotic manufacturing process fermentation ranges
from 4-5 weeks
-effluent treatment is downstream
-pretreatment to biological feeds: heating to denature
proteins, addition of filter aids to increase porosity,
addition of electrolytes
-medium used to produce penicillin is glucose medium
-lowest ATP yield is in fermentation
-Escherichia Coli – not subjected to the glucose effect
(ability of glucose to inhibition)
-Fermenter should be filled with medium up to 75-
80%.
-dilute samples to optical density of <0.3
-monitored by controlling the changes in biomass
concentration
-proportional to the SA of the biomass concentrations.
 -large volume of seed culture of seed culture (10-40%)
is employed to decrease overall fermentation time
-to determine the level of damage to animal cells, the
level of lactate dehydrogenase activity is monitored
-fastest route of NADH reoxidation
-increase in stirrer speed can cause an increase in the
rate of oxygen transfer into a particular aerated
fermentation system
-gas gold up, characterizing the hydrodynamics in a
fermenter, mainly depends on the superficial gas
velocity and power consumption
-aerated bioreactors use detergent because it
discourages bubble coalescence
-detergent like substances produced by
microorganisms decrease surface tension, accumulate
gas liquid interface and decrease rate of bubble
coalesence
• BUBBLE COLUMN FERMENTER
-excessive foaming decreases productivity of the
fermenter
-non-mechanically agitated reactors
-Has large H/D ratio
-excessive foaming decreases productivity of the
fermenter
-limited to aerobic fermentation
-contents are mixed through compressed air
-bubble damage can be minimize by addition of shear
protectant, using a bubble free oxygen delivery system
and headspace aeration.
-Column fermenters H/D ratio is >3.
-rate limiting step in the movement of oxygen from the
gas phase in bubble to the cell is the movement of
oxygen through “bubble boundary layer”
-oxygen concentration can be determined by
measuring the steady state oxygen concentration in a
mixed aerated reactor before inoculation
• PACKED BED FERMENTER
-for glucose isomerization by immobilized enzyme
-poorest mixing per unit volume
-mixing profiles closest to plug flow
• AIRLIFT BIOREACTOR
-high oxygen transfer efficiencies
-downcomer – region of reactor were liquid travels
downwards
-non-mechanically agitated reactors
-disengagement zone – spent gases released from the
liquid
-are preferred over stirred tank reactors because of
higher oxygen transfer rates and more uniform shear
conditions.
 -draft tube main function is to distribute shear forces
throughout the reactor and minimize bubble
Coalescence.
-contents are mixed through compressed air
-oxygen transfer rate is higher and surface area for gas
exchange is higher in airlift bioreactor than in bubble
column of the same size
-sparging region is called air riser – located outside the
reactor for better heat transfer efficiencies
-disengagement zone, air riser and downcomer
• CONTINUOUS STIRRED TANK FERMENTER
-number of baffles – 4
-can be employed to aerobic and anaerobic
fermentation
-can be used for high viscosity medium
-mechanical agitation and aeration are effective for
suspension of cells and mixing the medium
-contents are mixed to mechanical agitator
-H/D ratio of <3
-either laminar, transient or turbulent
-cellular productivity is proportional to the dilution
rate
-dilution rate at maximum, cellular productivity will
decrease
-baffles permit turbulence conditions to arise at low
stirrer speed and allow axial mixing – without baffles,
vortex forms
-higher heat transfer at higher stirrer speed
-tachometer – used for measuring the rate of rotation
(rpm) of the stirrer shaft.
-turbines – impeller used for wide range of viscosities
-mig, intermig, and propellers – stirrers for microbial
process, least amount of energy stirrer for same yield
compared to other impellers – desired for strong
vertical currents for heavily suspending particles
-turbine impeller-consists of flat impeller blades with
vertical pitch welded to a horizontal disk
-radial flow impellers-provide shear conditions for
breaking up bubbles and direct flow towards the walls
of the reactor – Rushton turbine – used for aerobic
microorganism culture because they provide high
shear mixing conditions
-vortexing in stirred tank reactors can be prevented by
installing baffles and shifting impeller to an off-center
position
-axial flow impeller – impeller with 45 to the vertical
and an impeller which directs liquid flow towards the
base of the reactor – used for crystallization processes
easy separation of the solids from the mother liquor –
specially designed axial impellers can minimize
impeller damage – provide better lift of solid
 compared to radial flow impellers – provide low shear
conditions and are suited to shear sensitive process –
generate a flow parallel to its shaft
-center off impellers-should only be used for reactors
with <10 m3.
-flooded impeller – if the stirrer is too slow, bubbles
will accumulate and coalesces under the impeller
-power number (newton’s number) is the ratio of
imposed to inertial force
- large propellers (400 to 800rpm), small propellers
(1150 to 1750 rpm)
• JET LOOP REACTOR
-contents are mixed through external pumping
• PLUG FLOW REACTOR
-highest concentration of substrates is exposed to the
cells that are located near the entrance of feed
-axial velocity profile on cross-section will be constant
-ideal tubular flow fermenter without radial variations
• BATCH REACTOR
-specific growth rate changes during fermentation
-used to produce vinegar because it can maintain low
ethanol concentrations -when fermenting yeast
becomes metabolically uncoupled, ethanol production
becomes non-growth associated
-anti biotics for batch reactor- presence of precursors is
often toxic to cells, higher yields in stationary phase,
higher yields when cell growth slows
-high biomass yields at low glucose concentrations and
high dissolved oxygen concentrations
-major application is pharmaceutical industry
-yeast is commonly used because it can respire at low
glucose concentrations
-aspergillus niger- production of amylase in a batch
reactor to minimize starch concentrations to lessen
viscosity
-monoclonal antibodies – hybridoma cells yields
higher lactate at high glucose concentrations
-Escherichia Coli- Fructose diphosphate accumulation
inside the cells leading to fermentation (well aerated
medium)
-Pseudomonas aeruginosa – continue metabolism at
high substrate concentrations
-Penicillin – secondary metabolite
• TOWER FERMENTERS
-continuous beer production
• TRICKLE BED REACTOR
-waste water treatment
• FLUIDIZED BED BIOREACTOR
-higher mass transfer rates than packed bed because
particles move with the fluid.
 -the function of disengagement zone is to loss particles
from the reactor, reduce the velocity of the particles
near the surface of the reactor, reduce foaming
problems
-mixing is achieved by gravity of fluid and upward
movement of incoming feed
• CHEMOSTAT
-An open system in which growth rate is maintained
by adding a nutrient at the same rate as that medium
containing microorganism is removed.
-Mainting uniform nutrients concentration.
-continuous reactor in which only the flow rate is used
To control the rate of cell or product
-specific growth rate can be diluted from the dilution
rate
• TURBIDOSTAT
-Growth rate is maintained by the removal and
addition of media at such a rate to maintain a constant
cell density.
-Recommended during continuous fermentation for
high dilution rates near the washout point.
• ION EXCHANGE
-composed of polymeric network
-ionic functional groups
-counter ions
• BEAD MILL
-optimum wet solid content for cell suspension (30-
60%)
-efficiency of cell disruption depends on the
concentration of cells, amount and size of beads, type
and rotational speed of agitation
• ADSORPTION
-contact filtration -stage wise operation
-conventional adsorption is a reversible process
-if solute passes through a membrane, rejection
coefficient is >1
-if membrane rejects all solute rejection coefficient is
=1
• FILTRATION
-conventional filtration involves separation of large
particles generally > 10um
-micro filtration refers to the separation of suspended
material such as bacteria using a membrane with spore
sized of 0.02 to 10um
- Common filter medium – canvas, synthetic fabrics,
metal or glass fiber
• EXTRACTION
-selectivity should be more than 1
• CHROMATOGRAPHY
 -based on the rate of movement of the solute in the
column
• CENTRIFUGE
-based on the rate of movement of the solute in the
column

Water Treatment • SOFTENING PROCESSING

-zeolite removes temporary and permanent hardness of
water, calcium and magnesium precipitates as
insoluble zeolites – zeolite gets exhausted after certain
time and can be regenerated by 10% sodium chloride
solution
-temporary hardness – bicarbonates of calcium and
magnesium – can be removed by adding calcium
hydroxide and distillation – when boiled, forms
carbon dioxide
-permanent hardness – chlorides and sulfates of
calcium and magnesium – can be removed by adding
soda ash and Calgon and distillation
-maximum desirable limit (BIS) of total hardness in
drinking water is 300 ppm – 2000 ppm maximum
-maximum turbidity for drinking water is 10 NTU
-maximum amount of mercury in drinking water is
0.001 mg/L
-hardness of water does not make unfit for drinking
-permanent hard water may be softened by passing it
through sodium hexametaphosphate
• WATER TREATMENT
-secondary treatment – uses microorganisms to
consume wastes
-tertiary treatment – chemical coagulation and
flocculation
-Chemical oxygen demand (COD) – amount of
oxygen that would be removed from the water to
oxidize pollution
-Biological oxygen demand (BOD)
-acid used mostly for removal of milk stone is nitric
acid
-aluminum sulphate – sometimes added in the
process of coagulation and flocculation
-physical method used as germicidal in modern time
for treatment of drinking water – UV radiation
-Sanitizer used specifically for vitreous enamel are
weak alkali with sodium silicate – inhibitors are
added to prevent corrosion – sanitizers used for rubber
made equipment are strong alkali
-common methods for disinfection in wastewater are
UV light and Chlorination
-Sand and Charcoal – commonly used substances
used in a filter
 -lagoons – characterized as anaerobic, facultative and
aerated
-rain and snow – ultimate source of water
-rainwater – purest form of naturally occurring water
-Sedimentation – remove particles that are denser
than water
-biological treatment – Lagoon, activated sludge
process, oxidation ditches
• ACTIVATED SLUDGE PROCESS
-biomass is recycled to increase efficiency, reduce
sludge volumes and increase concentration of cells
-a portion of the clarifier influent water entering the
reactor
-sometimes referred as fluid bed biological oxidation
system
-coliform bacteria – indication of human feces
• STERILIZATION
-sterilization method is dependent on the nature of
additive, volume and feed rate.
-del factor increase as final number of cells decreases
-filter material used for air filtration system are: glass
wool, glass fiber and norite
-air filtration in fibrous filter are electrostatic
attraction, impaction, and interception
-collection efficiency by interception increases with
the particle diameter and air flow velocity.
-sterilization can be carried out by heat, radiation and
chemical agents and ultrasonic (mechanical)
-mechanical means of accomplishing sterilization of
fermentation or media/equipment is ultrasonic
 MATERIAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

DEFINITION OF TERMS
Crystalline materials Atoms are situated in repeating/periodic way. Examples are
ceramics, polymers, metals
Non-crystalline materials Atoms have no periodic packing, occurs from comples
(Amorphous) structure and rapid cooling
Metallic crystal structures Tends to be density packed. Reasons for packing: typically one
element is present, so all atomic radii are the same, metallic
bonding is not directional, nearest neighbor distances tend to
be small in order to lower bond energy, electron cloud shields
cores from each other
Unit cells Subdivide the structure into repeating entities, represent the
symmetry of crystal structure – all atom position in the crystal
may be generated by translation of the unit cells along each of
its edge, basic structural unit or building block, hard sphere
model aggregate atoms reduced sphere model
-smallest repetitive volume which contains the complete lattic
pattern
Simple cubic structure (SC) -Have due to low packing density, closed packed direction are
cube edges, coordination number 6 (number of neighbors)
-atomic packing factor (APF) is 0.52
Body centered structure (BCC) -Atoms touch each other along “cube” diagonals. Examples are
Cr, W, Fe, Tantalum, Molybdenum, coordination number 8
-Atomic packing factor is 0.68
Faced centered cubic structure -Atoms touch each other along “face” diagonals, all atoms are
(FCC) identical, shaded differently only for one ease of viewing.
Examples are Al, Cu, Au, Pb, N, Pt, Ag. Coordiantion # 12
-atomic packing factor is 0.74
Atomic packing factor -volume of atom in unit cell/volume of unit cell.
Metals -high density (metals>ceramics>polymers), metals have close
packing (metallic bonding), often large atomic masses
Ceramics Less dense packing, often lighter elements
Polymers Low packing density (often amorphous), lighter elements (C,
H, O), composites have intermediate values
Polycrystalline Most engineering materials are polycrystalline, Nb-Hf-W plate
with an electronbeam wield, each grain is single crystal, if
grains are oriented, overall component properties are not
directional, grain sizes typically range from 1nm to 20cm-large
and small grains
Isotropic Physical property that has the same value when measured in
different directions
Anisotropic Physical property that has a different value when measured in
different directions
Single crystals Property varies with direction
Polycrystals Properties may/may not vary with direction
Polymorphism Two or more distinct crystal structures for the same material
(allotropyl polymorphism)
X-ray diffusion Diffractiln gratings must have spacings comparable to the
wavelength of diffracted radiation
Solidification Result of having casting a molten materia. 2 steps: nuclei form
– nuclei to grain structure
Grain boundaries Regions between crytals, transition of lattice of one region to
that of the other, slightly diordered, low density in grain
boundaries, high mobility, diffusivity and chemical reactivity
-imperfections, more suspceptible to etching
Equiaxed Roughly same size in all directions
Columnar Elongated grains
Grain refiner Added to make smaller, more uniform, equiaxed grains
Point defects Type of impefection: vacancy atoms(vacant atomic sites in a
structure), interstitial atoms(space between atoms),
substitutional atoms
Line defects Dislocations: edge dislocation (extra-half-plane of atoms
inserted in a crystal structure), screw dislocation (spiral planar
ramp resulting from shear deformation), mixed dislocation
(screw and edge)
Planar defects Grain boundaries and surface: boundary plane (reflection of an
atom), stacking faults (for FCC metals an error in ABCABC
packing sequence)
Optical microscopy Useful up to 2000x magnification, polishing removes surface
features, etching changes reflectance, depending on crystal
structure orientation
 GENERAL CHEMISTRY (BETTELHEIM)

Random Facts
Hypothermia – at extremely low temperatures, too much heat is lost and body temperature drops
Hyperthermia – can be caused by either high outside temperature or by the body itself when an
individual develops a high fever
20 out of 116 elements are necessary for human life – the 6 most important are carbon, hydrogen,
nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus and sulfur, 88 elements found on earth’s crust – silicon aluminum and
iron are the most common
Isotopic abundance – refers to the relative amounts of the isotopes of an element present in a sample of
that element.
Deuterium/hydrogen ratio on mars is five times larger than earth, O17/O18 ratio is also larger in mars
than in earth
Strontium 90 – have similarities to calcium, above – ground nuclear testing is conducted and strontium
90 spread by winds, eaten by cows and gotten into milk and children a 1963 treaty banned above
ground testing, but some countries still do it.
Malachite – copper containing stone, yielded pure copper at 200°C
Carbon 14 – half-life of 5730 years is used to date archeological objects as old as 60000 years
Radon poses a particular health hazard among radioactive elements because it is a gas at normal
temperatures and pressures.
Magnetic resonance imaging - MRI (Sir Peter Mansfield and Paul Lauterbur)– best known of various
medical imaging techniques, nuclear magnetic resonance was discovered in the 1950s, resonance
occurs when proper combination of external magnetic field and radio frequency waves causes a nuclear
bar magnet to flip from alignment with external field to alignment against it.
Free radicals – compounds that have unpaired electrons
Radioactive fallout from nuclear accidents – Chernobyl

Nictric Oxide – forms as a by-product in the combustion of fosil fuels and can be a component in
having nitric acid in acid rain.
Enamel – outermost layer of the tooth (95% hydroxyapatite) – acids causes tooth decay, comes from
fermentation of bacteria in remnants of food which can damage the Dentin – underlying soft material
Voltaic Cells – electrochemical cell that uses chemical reaction to produce electrical energy
Antiseptic – compund that kills bacteria, tincture – mixture of iodine and ethanol used for medical
purposes. Oxidizing antiseptic not only kills bacteria but also harms sa skin – they are replaced by
phenolic antiseptics
Entropy – when the order is perfect, the entropy of the system is zero
Hyperbaric medicine – used for treatment of gas gangrene, smoke inhalation, cyanide poisoning, skin
grafts, thermal burns and diabetic lesions
Sphygmomanometer – instrument used to measure blood pressure
Acid rain – mainly composed of sulfuric acid and nitic acid.
Casein – emulsifying agend – another example is egg yolk
Hemodialysis – is a process that performs the same filtration function as your kidneys
Enteric coated aspirin tablets have a polymeric coat that is acid resistant
Haber process (Fritz Haber -1908) – converts nitrogen to ammonia, reaction at 500°C
NaOH is also called “lye”
Antacid – also called as “acid reducers” neutralize acidity
Metabolic acidosis – caused by starvation and heavy exercise – occurs when blood pH level are below
7.35 – 7.45
Alkalosis – when blood pH levels are above 7.45
Taxus Brevifolia – slow growing tree – can treat ovarian and breast cancer
Tetrodoxin – is produced from species of tetraodontidae
Rhodopsin – reddish compound found in retina, combination of a molecule called opsin and one
molecule 11-cis-retinal
Diclorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) -best known insceticide worldwide
Carcinogen – is a compound that causes cancer – Benzo(a)pyrene is found in cigarette smoke,
automobile exhaust, and charcoal – benzo(a)pyrene is transformed into diol and epoxide which causes
the mutation of DNA
Iodine common is seafoods and dairy products, used to cure goiter (hypothyroidism)
Treatment of toulene with nitric acid forms trinitritoulene (TNT)
Allure red (red 40) and sunset yellow (yellow 6) are synthetic foods colors
Nitroglycerin is one of the main ingredients in making dynamite and NO from nitroglycerin is a plain
reliever
Potassium dichromate oxidation of ethanol to acetic acid – used for breath alcohol screening to
determine a person’s blood-alcohol content
Ethylene oxide – a chemical sterilant
Diethyl ether – used as a muscle relaxant anesthesia (Charles Jackson)
N2O – laughing gas
Alkaloids can cause psychological effects when ingested
Benzodiazepine – derivates of the modern tranquilizers

Esters are used as flavoring agents

Pyrethins: pyrethrum are natural insecticides produced by specific species of plants
Penicillin and cephalosporins: are B-lactam antibiotics
Willow bark contains salicin – which is a pain reliever
Most common sunblock agent is zinc oxide (ZnO)

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY (PBE QUESTIONS)

SCIENTISTS
Jons Jacob Berzelius Isomerism
Friedrich Wohler Wolher’s synthesis – ammonium cyanate forming urea
Adoph Wilheim Hermann Kolbe Kolbe’s Synthesis – carbon disulfide formung acetic acid
Gilbert Lewis Lewis Structure – covalent bonding
Robert Robinson Movement of electrons
Linus Pauling Resonance
August kekule Carbon atoms having 4 bonds
Nitrogen – 3 bonds
Oxygen – 2 bonds
Hydrogen – 2 bonds
Odd Hassel Chair conformation of cyclohexane
Morris Kharasch Regioselectivity of hydrogen bromide – peroxide effect
Herbert C. Brown Hydroboration – oxidation
Ryutaro Tsuchida Electron group theory
Nevil Vincent Sidgwick & Refined the Electron group theory
Herbert Marcus Powel
Ronald Nyholm & VSEPR theory – molecular geometry
Ronald Gillespie
Linus Pauling Introduced the concept of hybridization of orbitals in order
to take into account the known geometries of certain
compounds, which did not include H2S
DEFINITION OF TERMS
Lewis Structure • Electrons are shared between 2 atoms through a
covalent bond
• Unshared electrons belong only to a single atom
Resonance • Delocalization of electrons
• Electrons are shared by several nuclei
• Elecrtons distribute themselves to achieve the most
stable arrangement
 • Contributing structures and resonance hybrid
“True” – Lweis structure of the possible
arrangements
Constitutional Isomers • Compounds whose atoms are bonded differently,
differ in connectivity
• Difference in connectivity can change physical
properties
Stereoisomers • Compounds whose atoms are oriented differently,
differ in oreintation in space
• Cis or trans (E or Z)
• Enantiomers – stereoisomers that are mirror images
of one another that are not superimposable
• Diastereoisomers – not mirror images
Saturated hydrocarbons • Contains carbon-carbon single bonds
• Alkanes- Paraffins -(Cn H2n+2)
• Increase cholesterol – increase likelihood of heart
diseases
Unsaturated hydrocarbons • Contains one or more carbon-carbon double or
triple bonds
• Olefins (alkenes) – (CnH2n)
• Alkynes (CnH2n-2)
• Healthier – omega 3 fatty acids – double 3 C-
atoms away from a terminal methyl group
• Omega 3 fatty acids -linoleic acid,
eicosapentaenoic acid, docosahexaenoic acid
Hyperconjugation • Electron delocalization due to the orbital overal
between a methyl group and the positively charged
carbon
Regioselectivity • Where does it bond?
Stereoselectivity • how does it orient itself?
Peroxide Effect • when a peroxide or an alkyl hydroperoxide is
present, hydrogen bromide will add to the alkene
according to the opposite of markovnikov’s rule
Aldehydes • have at least one hydrogen on the carbonyl group

•
• Are easily oxidized to carboxylic acid during
hydrolysis step
• To isolate the aldehyde sucessful, a reducing agent
is applied, often Zinc
• Zinc Function: reduces ozonide and reacts with any
oxidants present
• More modern technique involves reacting the
alkene with ozone in methanol followed by
reduction using dimenthyl sulfide
 •
Ketone • has two carbon groups attached to the carbonyl
group

•
Electron Group Geometry • Focuses on the geometric distribution of electron
groups
• Focused on the quantity of electron groups around a
central atom
Electron groups • Includes lone pair, an unpaired electron, and bonds
(single, double, and triple)
Nujol Mull • It is the suspension in mineral oil which is placed in
betweeh HCl, AgI, and KCl, or stainless steel plates
to obtain a good spectrum
Sigmatropic Arrangements in organic • They are similar to the (3,3) cope rearrangement
reactions where the beta ring of a steroid undergoes photon
activated retroelectrocyclization
FORMULAS
Formal Charge • Formal charge = no. of valence electrons – electron
count
• Electron count = (0.5*no. of shared electrons) +
unshared electrons
Degree of unsaturation • The number of pi bonds and rings in a molecule
• Calculate the max no.of hydrogen = 2n + 2; n =
no. of C-atoms – subtract the actual no. of
hydrogen atoms form the max H – divide the
difference by 2
• Ignore the oxygen atoms, for each halogen = +1
hydrogen atoms, for every N atom = -1 hydrogen
atom
•
VSEPR notation 𝑉𝑆𝐸𝑃𝑅 = 𝐴𝑋𝑛 𝐸𝑛
A = Central Atom
Xn = # of bond pair groups (singel, double, triple)
En = # of lone pair (lone pair and unpaired electrons)
Max number of stereoisomers 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑆 = 2𝑛 ; 𝑛
= # 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑜𝑢𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠

𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑜 − 2 = 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑠
Optical purity • %of one enantiomer - %of the other enantiomer
• Assume 90% : 90% W and 10% racemic mixture =
5% W and 5% X; total: 95%W and 5%X
• Racemic mixture – mixture of 2 enantiomers in
equal quantities – enantiomers have the same
magnitude for observed rotation but at different
direction (α = 0°)
CONCEPTS
Guidelines for knowing that kind of • Start from alkanes (Cn H2n+2)
hydrocarbon that can have the same • For every double bond, -2H
moleculat formula as the given • For evergy triple bond, -4H
• For every ring, -2H
Alkane nomenclature • Identify parent alkane – longest continuous carbon
chain
• Identify substituent groups
• Number the parent alkane in the direction that will
given the lowest number to the substituent group
at the first point of branching
-hypen separtes a substituent
-if there are multiple amount of substituents,
separate each with a comma and add the
appropriate suffix
For Highly Branched Alkanes
1.for the type of substituents connected to parent alkane
• If there are two or more different substituents
present, the alkyl groups are listed in alphabetical
order – prefix are not included – italicized prefixes
are not included unless they are being compared
2. for assigning locants to each substituent
• Use the point of difference rule – choose the
direction that gives the lowest locant than the other
option, if still tha same choose the lowest locant that
appears first in the alphabetized order
Nomenclature with halogen and alcohol 1. Functional Class Nomenclature for alkyl halides
functional group • The alkyl group and the halide are separated into two
words
• The alkyl group is named based on the longest
continuous carbon chain starting from the carbon
where the halogen is attached. The – yl form of the
alkyl group is used
• The halogen is named by changing is suffix to – ide.
2. Substitutive Nomenclature for Alkyl Halides
• The alkyl group is treated as the parent alkane and
the halogen is considered as a halo substituent
(chloro,fluoro,iodo,bromo,)
• The locant is assigned by giving the substituent
carbon (where the halogen is attached to) the lowest
number possible
 • In terms of priority, alkyl groups and halogen
substituents are in the same level, when both are
present, the direction used will be the one that
gives the lowest number to the substituent closest
to the end of the carbon chain
3. Functional class nomenclature for alcohols
• The alkyl group and the term alcohol are separated
into two words
• The alkyl group is named based on the longest
continuous carbon chain starting from the
carbon where the hydroxyl substituent is
attached. The -yl form of the alkyl group is used
• Alcohol is added at the end of the word
4. Substitutive Nomenclature for alcohols
• The alkyl group is treated as the parent alkane
where its ending is -e is replaced with -ol
• Locants are assigned by giving the lowest number
to the carbon where the hydroxyl substituent is
attached
• The hydroxyl’s locant is either
-placed immediately before the -ol suffix, where the
hypens separate it from the parent alkane and the suffix
(2004 recommendation)
-placed before the parent alkane
Alkene nomenclature • Replace -ane from the alkane with -ene for alkene
• Carbon chain is numbered based on the lowest
number as much as possible
• Double bonds take priority over alkyl and halogens
but suceed alcohols
• Molecules that contain both alkene and hydroxy
group are called enols. When naming the molecule,
the -en suffix precedes the -ol (-enol)

Alkene Stereoisomerism
• Z-configuration (Zusammen, “together”) – cis
• E-configuration (Entgegen, “opposite”) – trans
Addition reaction of Alkenes A. HYDROGENATION OF ALKENES
• Addtion of an H2 molecule to the multiple bonds of
an organic molecule
• Hydrogenation of all alkenes is exothermic
• Hydrogenation catalysts: Pt, Pd, Ni, Rh
• Usual solvent: Ethanol, hexane or acetic acid
•
B. ELECTROPHILIC ADDITION OF
HYDROGEN HALIDES TO ALKENES
• Solvents used: Pentane, Benzene, Dichloromethane,
Chloforom, Acetid acid
• Regioselectivity of the hydrogen halide addition to
the double bond follows Markovnikov’s Rule
• Carbocation Rearrangement – is also feasible for
the electrophilic addition of hydrogen halides to
alkene – either by hydride shift or alkyl shift

•
C. FREE RADICAL ADDITION OF HYDROGEN
BROMIDE TO ALKENES
• In 1929, Morris Kharasch studied why
regioselectivity of hydrogen bromide addition to
alkenes is unpredictable (sometimes it follows
markovnikov’s rule sometimes it doesn’t) –
peroxide effect

•
D. ACID CATALYZED HYDRATION OF
ALKENES
• (50%H2SO4/H2O) to catalyze the hydration of
the alkene and directly form an alcohol that
follows markovnikov’s rule
• The reversed catalyzed dehydration of alcohols

•
E. HYDROBORATION - OXIDATION
• Produced by Herbert C. Brown
• Reaction that produces an alcohol that corresponds
to the structure of an alkene undergoing
hydration that follows the opposite of
markovnikov’s rule
• Most often used boron hydride for hydroboration is
diborane (B2H6) with diglyme as the solvent
while the oxidation half is often catalyzed by a
basic hydrogen peroxide solution
•
F. VICINAL DIHALIDE FORMATION
• Halogens react with alkenes via electrophilic
addition forming vicinal dihalide. The halogen is
either chlorine or bromine
• Fluorine is often not used due to the violent
reaction and a tendency to displace hydrogen
• Vicinal diiodides on the other hand tend to lose the
iodine atoms and end up reforming the alkene
• Common solvents: acetic acid, carbon tetrachloride,
chloroform, dichloromethane
• Commonly done at room temperature or below,
its stereochemistry follows anti addition

•
G. VICINAL HALOHYDRIN FORMATION
• In an aqueous solution, chlorine and bromine reacts
with alkenes to form a vicinal halohydrin,
compounds that have a hydroxyl and halogen group
attached on adjacent carbons
• The stereoselectovity of the reaction follows anti-
addition
• Regioselectivity – the water molecule attacks the
more highly ssubstituted carbon of the double bond,
leaving the other one for the halogen atom

•
H. OZONOLYSIS
• Involves an ozone molecule reacting with an
alkene, cleaving the pi and sigma bond of the
carbon double bond forming an ozonide

• Ozonides can undergo hydrolysis in water to

produce carbonyl compounds – either two
aldehydes, two ketones, or one aldehyde and one
ketone

•
Preparation of alkenes A. DEHYDRATION OF ALCOHOLS
• Follows Zaitev’s Rule
• Carbocation rearrangement – when secondary
alcohols undergo dehydration, the carbocation
would often undergo rearrangement in such a way
transforming the secondary carbocation into a more
stable tertiary carbocation
• Stereoselectivity – alcohol dehydration is
selectivity, that is, it produces one molecule in
greater amounts than the other. The condition being
that the major product is its most stable form. More
often, it is the trans-isomer formed.
• Other alkyl groups may shift to the positively
charged carbon. A proton may also be shifted via
hydride shift

•
B. DEHYDROHALOGENATION OF ALKYL
HALIDE
• A beta elimination reaction that involves the loss
of a hydrogen and halogen atom to form the alkene
• The reaction can also be carried out in the presence
of a strong base such as sodium
ethoxide/potassium ethoxide aldohol as solvent
• Other combination include: sodium methoxide in
methyl alcohol, potassium hydroxide in ethyl
alcohol, potassium tert-butoxide in tert-butyl
alcohol or dimethyl sulfoxide
• Regioselectivity – follows zaitev’s rule
• Stereoselectivity of dehydrohalogenation forms the
more stable compound, usually being the trans-
isomer or E-configuration

Cahn-Ingold-Prelog Priority Rules (trans • Higher atomic number takes priority over lower
and cis) ones
• When the atoms attached are identical, compare
atoms with each other on the basis of there atomic
numbers
 • Work outwards form the point of attachment
comparing all the atoms attached to a particular
atom
• When working outward from the point of
attachement, always evaluate substituent atoms one
by one, never as a group
• An atom that is multiply bonded to another atom is
considered to be replicated as a substituent
Alkane Stability • Carbon atoms directly proportional to heat of
combustion and inversely proportional to stability –
first criteria
-more C atoms, more heat of combustion, less
stable
• Branching (no.of substituents) is inversely
proportional to heat of combustion and directly
porportional to stability – second criteria
-more substituents, less heat of combustion, more
stable
Alkene Stability • Carbon atoms inversely proportional to stability –
first criteria
-more C atoms, less stable
• Branching (no.of substituents) is directly
porportional to stability – second criteria
• Conformation of D.B (trans>>cis)

Conformations of alkanes and Staggered Formations

cycloalkanes • Each C-H bond of one carbon bisects the H-C-H
angle of the other carbon (Gauche DA = 60°), (Anti
DA=180°).
Eclipsed Conformations
• Each C-H bond of one carbon aligns with the C-H
bond of the other carbon (DA= 0°)
Dehedral Angle (DA) /Torsional Angle
• Angle between the H-C-C plane and the C-C-H
plane
Forms of Strains 1. Torsional Strain
2. Bond Length Strain
3. Angle Strain
4. Van der Waals Strain
Chair Configuration a. Large substituents prefer the equitorial position
because it avoids van der waals strain (1,3 diaxial
position)
b. Cis/trans conformation are based on the relative
positions of the substituent on their respective C-
atoms – trans more stable than cis
Entropy (Boltzmann’s and Clausius’ Entropy tends to increase:
View) • Total free energy of the system (temperature)
• Mobility
-phase transition, formation of mobile species
and volume occupied
Intermolecular forces a. Van der Waals Forces
b. Dipole-dipole Forces
c. Hydrogen Bonding
• Intermolecular forces is directly proportional to
physical properties
• The more IF, the higher its properties (boiling
point, Melting point, Density)
Reaction of alcohols to HX • SN1 – carbocation formation
• SN2 – nucleophilic attack
• For SN1: tertiary and secondary
• For SN2: primary and methyl
• Tertiary>Secondary>Primary>methyl
• Inductive Effect – the positively charged carbon
draws the electron form the sigma bonds around it.
Carbocation is stabilized because of inductive
effect in the alkyl group
Markovnikov’s Rule • Deduced by Vladimir Markovnikov in 1870
• States that when an asymmetrical alkene reacts with
hydrogen halide, the hydrogen adds to the carbon
that has greater number of hydrogens, and the
halogen adds to the carbon having fewer
hydrogens

•
Zaitev’s Rule • The alkene formed in the greatest amount is the one
that corresponds to the removal of hydrogen from
the beta carbon having the fewest hydrogen (more
substituted)
• Dehydration of alcohols: hydrogen is removed in
the beta carbon that would result in the most
substituted form of the alkene (most stable)

•
Electron Group Geometry • 2 electron groups = linear
• 3 electron groups = trigonal planar
• 4 electron groups = tetrahedral
• 5 electron groups = trigonal dipyramidal
• 6 electron groups = octahedral
VSEPR notation • 2 = AX2 = linear
 • 3 = AX3, AX2E = trigonal planar, bent
• 4 = AX4, AX3E, AX2E2 = tetrahedral, trigonal
bypiramidal, bent
• 5 = AX5, AX4E,AX3E2, AX2E3 = trigonal
bipyramidal, seesaw, T-shaped, Linear
• 6 = AX6, AX5E, AX4E2 = octahedral, square
pyramidal, Sqaure planar
Orbital hydribization • Number of electron gorups 2 = sp hybrid orbitals
• Number of electron gorups 3 = sp2 hybrid orbitals
• Number of electron gorups 4 = sp3 hybrid orbitals
• Number of electron gorups 5 = sp3d hybrid orbitals
• Number of electron gorups 6 = sp3d2 hybridorbitals
Chirality • The mirror image of a molecule is not
superimposable
• Stereogenic center/chirality center – carbon atom
bonded to 4 different substituents – a molecule that
has one chirality center is chiral but a molecule
with 2 or more chiralty center can be chiral or
achiral (superimposable)
• Meso compounds – achiral molecules with chirality
centers – plane of symmetry

PIPE COLOR CODES

HARDHAT COLOR CODES
HAZARD SYMBOLS
CHEMICA HAZARD COLOR CODES
TYPES OF FIRE EXTINGUISHERS
HAZARD COLOR CODES