NAUI

PY
Nitrox
Diver
O
C
T
O
N
O
D
 NAUI Nitrox Diver ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Chapter 1- Introduction
PUBLISHED BY

PY
National Association of Underwater Instructors (NAUI)

PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
Jed Livingstone

Introduction
Introduction

PRINCIPAL AUTHOR
Peter Oliver

EDITOR

O
Jed Livingstone

REVIEWERS
Randy Shaw
Chad Barbay

C
Jelle Buisman
Mary Beth DeCroix
Carl Meilahn
Tim O’Leary

DESIGN AND LAYOUT

T
Dennis Guzman Design

PHOTOGRAPHY
Jed Livingstone Carl Meilahn

O
Tim O’Leary
Scott Raish
Jim and Julie Joseph

A SPECIAL THANKS TO:

N
Atomic Aquatics, Curt Bowen, Cochran UnderSea Technology,
Depth Perception, Fantasea Scuba, Mares, Oceanic,
UWATEC/Scubapro Neal W. Pollock, Ph.D.; Center for Hyperbaric
Medicine and Environmental Physiology, Duke University Medical Center

Copyright © 2004, 2005, 2008, 2010, 2012 by the National

Association of Underwater Instructors, Inc. (NAUI)
O

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,

stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without
prior written permission from the publisher.
D

Responsibly printed with soy based ink on recyclable material.

ii iii
 NAUI Nitrox Diver Chapter 1- Introduction

PY
Preface ENROLLMENT
This NAUI Textbook, NAUI Nitrox Diver is written to provide students in NAUI Nitrox Diver As stated previously EANx training can be integrated into the NAUI Scuba Diver course and so
courses and programs the knowledge necessary to safely use any Enriched Air Nitrox (EANx) breathing there are no certifi-cation prerequisites for enrollment into NAUI Nitrox training. Although junior div-

Introduction
Introduction

mixture up to EAN40. Specific learn-ing objectives are stated at the beginning of each chapter. Review ers can enroll and complete the training, and are encouraged to do so if they will be using EANx when
these carefully before and after studying each chapter to make sure you meet the educational goals. diving with their families, certification is restricted to those who are at least age 15 and who may inde-
If this book is being used as part of a course of instruction, your instructor may schedule the course pendently obtain diving services and dive without adult supervision.
in any sequence desired, so long as curriculum requirements are met. The chapters in this book should If you have enrolled in a continuing education program you are usually expected to provide your

O
be read in the order assigned by your instructor, not necessarily sequentially. You may not be assigned own equipment for the course. This includes full open water scuba gear with a properly cleaned and
some sections to read at all, but you are encouraged to read the entire book at your leisure in order to labeled EANx cylinder, instru-mentation, and an alternate air source. To qualify for certification, you
learn as much as you can about the varied aspects of enriched air diving. will need to attend all academic sessions, demonstrate the ability to safely participate in all open water
This book is not intended to teach you EANx diving activities without the guidance and supervision training activities (if required) and demonstrate under-standing and retention of the material presented
of a qualified NAUI Instructor. Local information, techniques and practices for all areas cannot possibly by scoring at least 75% on a comprehensive written examination.
be incorporated into this text. This publication provides only part of your education for EANx diving.

C
The bulk of what you will learn will be provided by the instructor. Do not attempt to participate in any
of the activities described in this book without the supervision of a qualified instructor.
RESPONSIBILITIES
You may be just starting your diving education and EANx diving is being integrated with the other You and your instructor have responsibilities during the NAUI Nitrox training. Your instructor
aspects and requirements of entry-level diver training. Or you may have already learned the fundamen- must determine that you have the necessary background and experience to safely participate in the
tals of diving and are learning about EANx diving as part of another continuing education course, e.g. activities of the course, provide an academic session, and if open water dives are included, an on-site
NAUI Advanced Scuba Diver, or as a specialty NAUI Nitrox Diver certification course unto itself. NAUI’s briefing for each activity, ensure that you are prop-erly equipped for the training dives, and oversee
extensive instructor qualification process and the trust we place in our instructor members makes this your diving activities. If you are already certified to dive with a buddy, you will be responsible for your

T
flexibility in course delivery possible. own safety and for the safety of your assigned dive buddy.
In any scenario, by the time you begin learning about EANx diving you know what you should and In continuing education courses for certified divers it is not the responsibility of your NAUI instruc-
should not do as a diver and you understand some basic diving theory. You are qualified to dive only tor to accom-pany you during the dives, although he or she must be present at the dive site, in control
under conditions similar to those in which you have received training. The purpose of this book, when of the activities, and ready to lend assistance if needed. You will be instructed what to do, how to do it,
used as part of a course of instruction, is to specifically increase your understanding of EANx diving and and how to avoid potential hazards. It will then be your responsibility to follow the instructions given.

About the NAUI Nitrox Diver Program or Course

O
to expand your skills and qualifications. Upon successful completion of your course, you will be quali-
fied to handle new diving circumstances and engage in additional diving activities. GETTING THE MOST FROM THE COURSE
To learn as much as possible and to become the best diver you can, the following actions are recommended:
1. Read and study each assigned section prior to the academic session on the subject matter.
2. Keep the learning objectives in mind as you study the chapters, and then review them after com-
N
The NAUI Nitrox Diver Program, usually consists of about three or four hours of academics during pleting the chapter to be sure you have acquired the knowledge.
which a writ-ten exam is administered and some practical exercises involving calibrating gas analyz- 3. As you study the chapters, keep notes on areas that are unclear to you so you can ask for clarifi-
ers and analyzing various breathing mixtures are conducted and your performance evaluated. After cation from the instructor during the academic sessions.
successfully completing the program your instructor will register you with NAUI Worldwide for an 4. Become familiar with the terms identified in bold letters. When a term is presented a second time in normal
Enriched Air Nitrox certification card so that you will be able to have your dedicated EANx cylinders text, refresh your memory of its meaning if it is unclear to you. The terms are also defined in the glossary.
refilled with enriched air. 5. Take a notebook to every session, including the open water dives. Take notes on all presentations. Save
The NAUI Nitrox Diver Course includes the same academic and practical training components, but the notebook for future reference. It will be especially useful if you decide to pursue further training.
O
also includes at least two open water dives during which you will apply the knowledge acquired during 6. Log your dives in detail.
the course. Completing the two required dives qualifies you to be registered for the Enriched Air Nitrox We commend you on your decision to qualify to use enriched air. You must do more to acquire this
Diver certification card as evidence that you successfully completed open water training as well. In any rating than to obtain a Nitrox rating with other diver training organizations, and we agree that second
event, either certification credential will provide you with the evidence you need to obtain enriched air best is not good enough! A NAUI Nitrox Diver is knowledgeable, skilled and respected. You will know
wherever your diving adventures take you. more, be able to do more, and feel more comfortable and confident as a diver when you have success-
fully completed this program. You will have met one of the highest standards of diver education.
D

iv v
 NAUI Nitrox Diver Table of Contents

PY
TABLE OF CONTENTS Converting between depth and
pressure by formula................................................23
Converting between depth and 5CHAPTER
Dive Tables and
Dive Computers 52 GLOSSARY Glossary 85

Preface ..................................................IV
TABLES
pressure with a table...............................................24 Learning goals ....................................................54
Tables and Charts 91
Table of Contents

Dive tables ...........................................................54

Table of Contents
About the NAUI nitrox diver course ....................iv Calculating partial pressures...................................24
Determining oxygen partial Enriched air nitrox dive tables ..........................54
Responsibilities ......................................................v

FORMULAS
pressure by table .....................................................26 NAUI enriched air nitrox tables..........................56
Getting the most of this course .............................v
The OCEANx calculator...........................................26 Equivalent air depth and Formulas 95

O
Knowledge review.....................................................27 standard air dive tables .....................................57
CHAPTER Introduction 2 Equivalent air depth by table .............................58

DIVE TABLES
Learning goals.......................................................4 Calculating equivalent air depth .......................59
Dive Tables 97
3CHAPTER
Using the OCEANx to establish
What is nitrox?.......................................................4
A bit of history........................................................4
The Physiology of equivalent air depth ..........................................60
Diving and Nitrox 30
INDEX
Why dive with enriched air nitrox .......................8 Using the NAUI RGBM nitrox dive tables .........61

C
Common misconceptions about nitrox..............10 Learning goals.....................................................32 The rule of halves ...............................................62 Index 101
Myth 1: “Nitrox is for technical diving.”.........10 Nitrogen: narcosis and Dive computers and nitrox ................................62
Myth 2: “Nitrox is for deep diving.” ...............10 decompression sickness......................................32 Knowledge review ...............................................64
Myth 3: “If you dive with Nitrogen narcosis.................................................32
Oxygen Precautions and
6
nitrox you won’t get bent.”...........................10 Decompression sickness .....................................33
Myth 4: “Nitrox is safer than air.”...................10
CHAPTER Preparing Nitrox 66
Oxygen: the good and the bad............................35
Myth 5: “If you dive with nitrox Oxygen and metabolism .....................................36

T
you won’t get narcosis.”................................11 Physiological effects of
Learning goals ....................................................68 Getting the most out of this book
Myth 6: “It is hard to dive with nitrox.” .........11 Oxygen handling ................................................68 Throughout this study book there will be sections
low oxygen levels (hypoxia) ..............................36
Terminology .........................................................11 Equipment considerations .................................69 that require your special attention. The following icons
Physiological effects of high oxygen levels .......36
Knowledge review ................................................12 Oxygen cleaning .................................................69 are used to mark these sections.
Central nervous system toxicity ..........................37
The 40% rule ......................................................69

O
Managing oxygen exposure................................38
Equipment preparation .....................................70

2CHAPTER
Avoiding CNS toxicity..........................................39
How nitrox is made ............................................71
Gases & Gas Mixtures 14 Knowledge review ...............................................40
Partial-pressure mixing ....................................71
Learning goals..........................................................16 Continuous-flow mixing ....................................72
What is air? ..............................................................16 Pre-mix ..............................................................72 Indicates that you should take note of
Choosnig the Best
4CHAPTER
N
Some facts about individual gases:.........................17 Pressure swing absorption ................................72 the information, because it forms the
Oxygen (O2) .........................................................17
Nitrogen (N2) .......................................................17
Nitrox Mix 42 Membrane separation ........................................73
Your responsibility .............................................74
basis for the final exam.
Learning goals.....................................................44
Argon (Ar).............................................................17 Enriched air nitrox mixtures..............................44 Knowledge review ..............................................75
Carbon dioxide (CO2)...........................................18 Maximum operating depth.................................44
Knowing What
7
Helium (He) & Neon (Ne)...................................18 Maximum operating depth by table...................45
How gases behave ....................................................18 Indicates information that will help you
Boyle’s law: pressure, volume, and density .........19
Calculating maximum operating depth ............46
CHAPTER You Breathe 78
O
Using the OCEANx to establish MOD..................46 complete the knowledge review at the
Units of measurement .............................................19 Learning goals ....................................................80
Choosing your “best mix” ..................................47 end of the chapter.
Henry’s law: the solubility of gases..........................20 Oxygen analyzers ................................................80
Best mix by table .................................................47
Dalton’s law: partial pressure in gas mixtures.......21 Analyzing your gas .............................................81
Calculating best mix ...........................................48
Converting between depth and pressure .................22 Cylinder labeling ................................................82
Using the OCEANx to establish best mix ............48
Filling out the logbook ......................................82
Knowledge review ................................................50
Knowledge review ..............................................83
D

vi vii
 NAUI Nitrox Diver Table of Contents

NAUI

PY
Nitrox
Table of Contents

Table of Contents
O
Diver

C
T
O
N
O
D

viii ix
 Chapter 1- Introduction

PY
Introduction
O
C
T
O
N
O
D

1
 NAUI Nitrox Diver Chapter 1- Introduction

CHAPTER

PY

Introduction
Introduction

O
C
Introduction

T
O
N
O
D

2 3
 NAUI Nitrox Diver Chapter 1- Introduction

PY
LEARNING GOALS used term. Actually, “nitrox” can refer to any mixture
of nitrogen and oxygen, so plain, ordinary air would be
In this chapter you will learn: nitrox, and in the past nitrox has even been used to refer
• What nitrox is. to nitrogen-oxygen mixtures with less oxygen than air

Introduction
Introduction

• Other names for nitrox. that were used in undersea habitat diving.
• The early history of diving with gases other than air. Reducing the amount of nitrogen in what you
• When NAUI sanctioned nitrox diving. breathe underwater addresses some of the problems
• What nitrox is not. caused by nitrogen. When using nitrox, it is possible to

O
dive longer to a given depth or to reduce the required
“Mother Nature provided the planet Earth with surface interval between dives. Nitrox may have other
a NITROX atmosphere known as air. She never said advantages too. Whether it is true or not, many nitrox
that air was the best medium for divers. Here, as in divers report that they feel less fatigued after their dives.
many fields of endeavor, human beings have used However, there are trade-offs. As we reduce the nitrogen
their knowledge of natural laws to go one step beyond

C
fraction, the oxygen fraction increases. As you will learn
what nature has provided for them.”—J. Morgan in this course, the higher oxygen content presents its own
Wells, Ph.D. (1987) limitations. Oxygen breathed under high pressures can
become poisonous. So for example, when diving with
nitrox, we must limit our maximum depth in order to
reduce the possibility of oxygen toxicity.
WHAT IS NITROX? Today, nitrox is almost universally accepted as a FIGURE 1-1: NITROX DIVING METHODS WERE FIRST PUBLISHED BY THE U.S. NAVY IN 1959 JUST AS RECREATIONAL DIVING INSTRUCTION (NAUI)
breathing gas for recreational diving. The benefits and WAS ALSO DEVELOPING

T
Air is a mixture of gases, primarily nitrogen (78%)
and oxygen (21%). Air has been the normal gas-of- advantages far outweigh the problems and possible
choice for scuba divers from the very beginning. After all, disadvantages. As a diver, you need a certain amount inhale it and exhale it. Being inert, nitrogen is unaltered In the early twentieth century, John Scott Haldane
we breathe it every day. It is all around us, so it is easy to of knowledge, awareness, caution, and sensibility to use in the respiratory process and, for all practical purpos- developed a quantitative model for nitrogen loading, and
compress and purify the air, store it in a cylinder, then nitrox safely, but this is just as true of diving in general. es, quantitatively obeys purely physical laws. Because devised tables that set safe time limits for single dives and
attach a regulator and go diving. But, air has limitations
as a diving gas.
As you learned in your basic scuba course, it is the
nitrogen in the air you are breathing that limits the depth
to which you can dive, the time you can stay at depth,
A BIT OF HISTORY
O
The development of nitrox use began slowly. It was
it is soluble in water and fats, some nitrogen passes
through our lungs into our circulatory system and is then
absorbed in the tissues of our body. A certain amount of
nitrogen naturally pervades our tissues at all times. Right
now, your body is saturated with dissolved nitrogen for
stage decompression schedules for dives that exceeded
the limits.
As noted above, one solution to the nitrogen prob-
lem seems obvious–breathe less nitrogen. If the air we
normally breathe is one-fifth oxygen and four-fifths
N
and the number of dives you can make in a day. first proposed for use in the military in 1943 as a way to the surrounding air pressure. When diving, the increased nitrogen, why not just take out some of the nitrogen and
Nitrox has some partial solutions to offer. As the reduce decompression problems. Nitrox diving methods pressure of depth causes additional nitrogen to be dis- go diving. This is not a new idea either. Our knowledge
term is used in recreational diving, nitrox is air in which were published in the U.S. Navy Diving Manual in solved in our tissues. If the nitrogen loading is excessive, of the physiological effects of the gases we breathe has
the fraction of nitrogen has been reduced. Commonly, 1959. In 1975, Morgan Wells and Dick Rutkowski of the it can cause nitrogen narcosis during the dive or, if the grown over a long period of time, and we are still learn-
this is accomplished by adding oxygen to air, but it can National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration ascent is too rapid, decompression sickness after you sur- ing.
just as easily be done by removing some of the nitro- (NOAA) began using nitrox mixes in NOAA diving proj- face (or in extreme cases, as you approach the surface). Pure oxygen has limited applicability in diving. In
gen. As the nitrogen percentage goes down, the oxygen ects. In 1979, NOAA published standards for the use of Drawbacks of nitrogen were recognized long before the 1870s, the same Paul Bert, in a separate set of exper-
O
percentage goes up. The resulting gas mixture has nitrox in the second edition of its NOAA Diving Manual. the development of scuba. In 1878, French physiologist iments, established that breathing pure oxygen under
been given several names: oxygen-enriched air, In the 1980s, nitrox began to appear in recreational div- Paul Bert established that nitrogen, liberated as bub- pressure could cause convulsions and death. However,
enriched air nitrox, and nitrox. You will also see it ing, but until the mid-1990s its use was frequently met bles following sudden decompression, was the cause of the hazards were not widely known for some time, and
called EANx, where the “x” is usually replaced by the with wariness, extreme caution, or even fear. NAUI offi- decompression sickness. Nitrogen bubbles collect and early scuba units were most often oxygen rebreathers
percentage of oxygen. EAN32 would be a nitrogen-oxy- cially endorsed training in the use of nitrox in 1992. expand, and the tissue or neurological insult that results that re-circulated pure oxygen while removing carbon
gen mixture that is 32% oxygen. Nitrox is the most widely Our body does not use the nitrogen we breathe–we presents as signs and symptoms of the bends. dioxide. Seemingly, the seriousness of the hyperbaric
D

4 5
 NAUI Nitrox Diver Chapter 1- Introduction
Chapter 1- Introduction

PY
among
could bemilitary
replaceddivers early to
by helium in increase
World War II. opera-
divers’ mixtures in about 1970. Using “equivalent air depth”, growing, but largely disregarded group of recreational
1878 Paul Bert shows nitrogen to be cause of
DCS. tionalAsworking
early asdepth.
1919, Workit was on suggested that nitrogen
helium-oxygen mixtures the NOAA
Credit Diving Programand
for developing began utilizing nitrox
introducing nitroxondiving
div- nitrox
NOAA. divers
Upon appeared.
his retirement, Rutkowski founded
1908 J. S. Haldane publishes first diving could
began bein replaced
earnest inbythehelium 1930s.toInincrease
1937, Max divers’
Geneopera-
Nohl, ing projectsforinstandard
techniques about 1975. A 32%
scuba goesoxygen
to Dr. mixture
Morgan for Wells. Rutkowski’s course wasand
Hyperbarics International especially popular with cave
the International
decompression tables. tional working depth. Work on helium-oxygen
breathing a helium-oxygen mixture and using a suit of mixtures AsNOAA divers
the first was settled
Director of theupon
NOAAasDiving
a standard. The second
Program, Wells divers and wreck
Association divers,
of Nitrox who towanted
Divers maketoavailable
have longer dive
courses

Introduction
Introduction
Introduction

1935 Behnke et al. attribute narcosis to nitrogen. began

his ownindesign,
earnestdove in theto a1930s.
depthInof 1937, Max Gene
128 meters (420 Nohl,
feet) began of the NOAA Diving
editionexperimenting with theManual, which appeared
use of nitrogen-oxygen times without drastically
for recreational divers and increasing
teach themtheirthe
decompression
NOAA nitrox
breathing a helium-oxygen
in Lake Michigan. mixture test
The first practical andofusinghelioxa suit
was of in December 1979,1970.
published
Usingthe“equivalent
results, calling the 32% diving techniques.
obligation, Awareness
and partially for thisofreason
Rutkowki’s
nitroxnitrox
became

Introduction
1937 Gene Nohl dives to 420 feet on heliox. mixtures in about air depth”,
his own design, dove to a depth of
the U.S. Navy’s salvage of the submarine USS Squalus 128 meters (420 feet) mix NOAA Nitrox I and including a set
the NOAA Diving Program began utilizing nitrox on div- of NOAA Nitrox course grew slowly but steadily, and over
identified by many as a kind of “technical diving” the nextinfew
1939 US Navy uses heliox for USS Squalus years This
a growing, but largely disregarded group of recre-
in
fromLake Michigan.
a depth of 74 The metersfirst(243
practical
feet) intest1939.
of heliox
Because wasof I dive tablesinthat allowed
1975.theA scuba diver tomixture
plan nitrox itself. view tended to preserve a mystique of exclu-

O
salvage. ing projects about 32% oxygen for
the expense
U.S. Navy’s andsalvage
rarity ofofhelium,
the submarine USS Squalus
heliox remained limited dives.divers
NOAA Severalwas methods
settledforuponmixing
as a nitrox wereThe
standard. alsosecond
pub- ational nitrox divers appeared.
sivity and surround nitrox use with an esoteric aura. On
1940 Lambertsen proposes N2, O2, He mixtures. Rutkowski’s course
to military
from a depth diving
of 74applications
meters (243until feet)it in
entered
1939. the com- of
Because lished. of
edition Forthecommon
NOAA Divingdiving ranges,
Manual, the which
diver, in effect,
appeared the other hand, there werewas especially
those popularnitrox
who presented with cave
1950sAndre Galerne using nitrox in commercial divers and wreck
diving.
mercial
the sphere
expense andsomeraritytime later. heliox remained limit-
of helium, inwas allowed to
December use apublished
1979, depth on the the results,
NOAA NitroxcallingI dive
the as “as easy as air.”divers,
Duringwho thiswanted to have
time, two speciallonger dive
purpose
times without drastically increasing their decompression
Nitrogen-oxygen mixtures
ed to military diving applications other
untilthan air havethe
it entered a his- 32% mix NOAA Nitrox I and including a set of than
tables that was one 10-foot increment shallower NOAA “nitrox” training agencies were established, but the more
1959 U.S. Navy Diving Manual introduces the actual obligation, and partially for this reason nitrox became
oxygen-enriched air.
tory extendingsphere
commercial back some
more timethan later.
half a century. Although Nitrox I divestandard
tables thatair dive profile.
allowed theAtscuba
the same
divertime as
to plan conventional community of recreational training agen-

C
the role of nitrogen in mixturesdecompression sickness NOAA Nitrox I was making its appearance, Wells and identified by many as a kind of “technical diving” in
Nitrogen-oxygen other than air had
havelong
a nitrox dives. Several methods for mixing nitrox were cies and equipment manufacturers seemed caught in the
1975 Morgan Wells using nitrox with NOAA the NOAA DivingForProgram were usingranges,
equivalent air in itself. This view tended to preserve a mystique of exclu-
been recognized, it was not until 1935 that A. R. Behnke middle. Was nitrox “the devil’s
divers. history extending back more than half a century. also published. common diving the diver, sivity and surround nitrox use gas”
withoran“the gods’aura.
esoteric ambro- On
and othersthe
Although firstrole
attributed
of nitrogen the debilitating
in decompression narcosissickness
that depth was
effect, calculations
allowed to to develop additional
use a depth on theprotocols
NOAA Nitroxfor I sia”? The time was one of misunderstanding and dissen-
1979 NOAA Diving Manual publishes NOAA the other hand, there were those who presented nitrox as
occurred during deep air dives to the increased partial other nitrox blends. EAN36 soon became known among sion within
Nitrox I as standard mix. had long been recognized, it was not until 1935 that A. dive tables that was one 10-foot increment shallower “as easy as the
air.”recreational
During thisdiving
time,industry.
two specialIt was also
purpose
pressure
R. Behnkeof and nitrogen.
othersInfirsttheattributed
early 1940s, theDr. Christian
debilitating nitroxtheusers
than as NOAA
actual standard Nitrox II, profile.
air dive althoughAtitthewassame
not
1985 IAND formed–Rutkowski expands nitrox to “nitrox” training agencies were established, but the
recreational diving. Lambertsen,
narcosis thatworking
occurredforduring the U.S. deepNavy, proposed
air dives to thethat 2001 that the NOAA Diving Manual
time as NOAA Nitrox I was making its appearance,edi-
until (fourth Wells more conventional community of recreational training
tion) finally published it as an “official” mix and includ- Knowledge + Ability + Experience STOP!
1988 Harbor Branch Workshop on EANx Diving. increased partial pressure of nitrogen. In the earlycould
various mixtures of nitrogen, helium, and oxygen and the NOAA Diving Program were using equivalent agencies and equipment manufacturers seemed caught
= Breathe

T
be usedDr.
1940s, to limit
Christianproblems of both oxygen
Lambertsen, workingtoxicity
for theandU.S. ed depth
air appropriate NAUI developed
calculations to developand designedprotocols
additional dive tables. in the middle. Was nitrox “the devil’s gas” or “the gods’
1991 Nitrox training agencies almost barred CONFIDENCE THINK
from DEMA Show.
decompression sickness. In the 1950s
Navy, proposed that various mixtures of nitrogen, heli- Dr. Ed Lanphier for other nitrox blends. EAN36 soon becameasknown
In 1985, Dick Rutkowski, who had served Deputy ambrosia”? The time was one of misunderstanding and
Diving nitrox
Coordinator & Breathe
1992 aquaCorps/SDRG pre-DEMA Workshop.
conducted
um, and oxygenextensive couldresearch
be usedfortothe Navy
limit on nitro-
problems of both among users under
as NOAA Morgan WellsII,
Nitrox andalthough
helped it dissension within the recreational diving industry. It was
ACT!
gen-oxygen mixtures. Lanphier was also largely respon- to develop the oxygen-enriched air techniques, retired COMPETENCE
oxygen toxicity and decompression sickness. In the was not until 2001 that the NOAA Diving Manual also during this period that many of the myths about
1992 NAUI sanctions teaching enriched air from NOAA. Upon his retirement,
sible forDr.theEd1959 Navyconducted
Diving Manual in which thefor
use published Rutkowski found- mix nitrox appeared. The development of a more balanced

O
nitrox. 1950s Lanphier extensive research (fourth edition) finally it as an “official”
of oxygen-enriched
the Navy on nitrogen-oxygen air made its appearance.
mixtures. Lanphier was ed Hyperbarics International and the
and included appropriate NAUI developed and designed International view took several years, and some of the myths persist to
1994 Rodale’s Scuba Diving supports nitrox Association during
this day.this period that many of the myths about nitrox
training.
The first use of oxygen-enriched
also largely responsible for the 1959 Navy air forDiving
commercial dive tables. of Nitrox Divers to make available courses
diving wasinprobably
Manual which thebyuse Andre Galerne of International
of oxygen-enriched air made for recreational
In 1985, Dick divers and teach
Rutkowski, whothemhadthe NOAAasnitrox
served Deputy appeared.
In 1988,The adevelopment
symposiumofona more balanced viewairtook
oxygen-enriched was
1995 Other recreational training agencies accept several years, and some of the myths persist to this day.
nitrox.
Underwater
its appearance. Contractors. In the late 1950s, Galerne Diving Coordinator under Morgan Wells andnitrox
diving techniques. Awareness of Rutkowki’s helped course
to held at Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institution in
developed
The first use a protocol using EAN50airthat
of oxygen-enriched forpermitted
commercial his grew slowly
develop but steadily, and air
the oxygen-enriched overtechniques,
the next fewretired
years from
a In 1988,
Florida. The aHarbor
symposium
Branch on Workshop
oxygen-enriched air wasAir
on Enriched
1996 NAUI publishes Enriched Air Nitrox Diver
N
divers to greatly extend their available working time at
standards. diving was probably by Andre Galerne of International
moderate depths of about 20 meters (65 feet). Maximum Dive Times (in minutes)
1997 NAUI publishes its first nitrox textbook. Underwater Contractors. In the late 1950s, Galerne
Galerne’s method used the concept of equivalent air Depth Depth Air EAN32 EAN36
1999 Reduced Gradient Bubble Model developed a protocol using EAN50 that permitted his
depth, which is based on the knowledge that reduced fsw msw
introduced. divers to greatly extend their available working time at NAUI Tables NAUI RGBM NAUI Tables NAUI RGBM NAUI Tables NAUI RGBM
partial pressures of nitrogen allow the use of considerably
2001 NAUI RGBM Nitrox Dive Tables published. moderate depths of about 20 meters (65 feet). Galerne’s 60 18 55 55 100 85 100 115
shallower-than-actual dive table depths in planning and
method used the concept of equivalent air depth,
executing dives. As this gave him considerable commer- 70 21 45 40 60 60 60 85
FIGURE 1-2:
FIGURE 1-2: TIMELINE
TIMELINE OF
OF THE
THE GROWING
GROWING KNOWLEDGE
KNOWLEDGE AND which is based on the knowledge that reduced partial
O
cial advantage, Galerne kept his techniques largely to
ACCEPTANCE OF ENRICHED AIR NITROX pressures of nitrogen allow the use of considerably shal- 80 24 35 30 50 47 60 60
himself.
rebreathers that re-circulated
oxygen problems in diving waspure oxygen
not fully while remov-
appreciated until lower-than-actual
Credit for developing dive tableanddepths in planning
introducing nitrox and
diving 90 27 25 25 40 38 50 46
ing carbon dioxide. Seemingly, the seriousness
a number of oxygen-toxicity accidents among military of the executing
techniquesdives. As this gave
for standard scubahim goesconsiderable
to Dr. Morgan commer-
Wells.
hyperbaric cial advantage, Galerne kept his techniques largely to 100 30 22 20 30 30 40 35
divers early oxygen
in Worldproblems
War II. in diving was not fully As the first Director of the NOAA Diving Program, Wells
appreciated until a number of oxygen-toxicity
As early as 1919, it was suggested accidents
that nitrogen himself.
began experimenting with the use of nitrogen-oxygen 110 33 15 16 25 25 30 31
D

FIGURE1-3:
FIGURE 1-3:AACOMPARISON
COMPARISONOFOFTHE
THENO-STOP
NO-STOPDIVE
DIVETIMES
TIMESUSING
USINGNAUI
NAUIDIVE
DIVETABLES
TABLESAND
ANDNAUI
NAUIRGBM
RGBMDIVE
DIVETABLES
TABLESFORFORAIR,AIR,32%
32%NITROX,
NITROX,ANDAND

66
36% NITROX. SHADED AREAS INDICATE OXYGEN PARTIAL PRESSURES ABOVE 1.4
36% NITROX. SHADED AREAS INDICATE OXYGEN PARTIAL PRESSURES ABOVE 1.4 ATA. ATA.
7
7
 Chapter 1- Introduction

NAUI Nitrox Diver Chapter 1- Introduction

Comparison of Dive Plans using Air and EAN36

PY
Diver 1: Air Diver 2: EAN36
held at Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institution in Although the workshop did not specifically attempt
Florida. The Harbor Branch Workshop on Enriched Air to draw the established recreational diving training orga- NAUI Dive Tables NAUI RGBM Tables NAUI Dive Tables NAUI RGBM Tables

Introduction
Nitrox Diving met to coordinate the current under- nizations into accepting or adopting enriched air, it can
standing and status of nitrox diving. It was sponsored nevertheless be seen as a turning point in the more gen- First Dive First Dive First Dive First Dive

Introduction
Introduction

by NOAA, which already had a decade of experience eral acceptance of enriched air nitrox diving. (Two more 24 meters (80 feet) 24 meters (80 feet) 24 meters (80 feet) 24 meters (80 feet)
in the safe use of oxygen-enriched air in scuba diving. pre-DEMA nitrox workshops were held–1993 in Orlando Dive Time: 30 minutes Dive Time: 30 minutes Dive Time: 30 minutes Dive Time: 30 minutes
The workshop addressed the validity of nitrox, mixing and 1994 in New Orleans.) Ending Group: G Ending Group: F
methods, appropriate use, etc. They concluded that the In 1992, NAUI officially endorsed nitrox training by

O
concepts were sound and essentially endorsed enriched NAUI instructors. One hour surface interval One hour surface interval One hour surface interval One hour surface interval
air nitrox when used appropriately. The proceedings, As late as 1993, Skin Diver Magazine took an edi- Entering Group: F Entering Group: E
authored by Dr. R. W. (Bill) Hamilton and others, torial position against the use of nitrox by recreational
appeared in 1989. divers as certain to lead to dangerous misuse and acci- Second Dive Second Dive Second Dive Second Dive
Still, nitrox use remained controversial within the dents. Then, in 1994, Rodale’s Scuba Diving ran an 17 meters (55 feet) 17 meters (55 feet) 17 meters (55 feet) 17 meters (55 feet)

C
recreational diving community. The recreational train- article on becoming nitrox certified, the first mainstream Max. Dive Time: Max. Dive Time: Max. Dive Time: Max. Dive Time:
recreational diving periodical to support nitrox training. 19 minutes 55 minutes 62 minutes 115 minutes
ing agencies’ official position was that enriched air div-
ing was inappropriate to their sphere and clientele. In 1995, PADI, British Sub-Aqua Club, and other rec-
reational training agencies announced that they would FIGURE1-4:
FIGURE 1-4:AACOMPARISON
COMPARISONOFOFDIVE DIVEPLANS
PLANSSHOWING
SHOWINGTHE THEDIVE
DIVETIME
TIMEADVANTAGE
ADVANTAGE USING NITROX–THE DIVER BREATHING EAN36 EAN36 HAS
In 1991, the Diving Equipment Manufacturers SIGNIFICANTLY GREATER NO-DECOMPRESSION TIME THAN
SIGNIFICANTLY GREATER NO-DECOMPRESSION TIME THAN THE AIR DIVER THE AIR DIVER
Association (DEMA) almost banned nitrox training soon offer enriched air nitrox instruction programs. Also
in 1995, Skin Diver Magazine declared the use of nitrox For example, a diver making an initial dive to 27 minutes for her 17 meters (55 feet) dive. If using the
providers from the DEMA show in Las Vegas. Their pro-
acceptable. meters (90 feet)
For example, usingmaking
a diver air would anhave
initiala maximum dive
dive to 27 meters NAUI
Diver RGBM EAN36
two, using EANTables,
36 andshe NAUIwould
EANhave
36 Divea maxi-
posed action prompted the first of what was to become
In 1996, NAUI codified standards for Enriched Air time of 25 minutes on the NAUI Dive Tables.
(90 feet) using air would have a maximum dive time of The same mum
Tables,dive time ofthe115
finishes firstminutes!
dive with a Letter Group of F.

T
a series of pre-DEMA workshops on the use of nitrox diver using a nitrox mix with 36% oxygen (EAN36) On the second dive, thethe
diver usingdive
enriched
Nitrox training and certification in its revised NAUI 25 minutes on the NAUI Dive Tables. The same diver One hour later, she begins second as an air“E
in recreational diving. The workshop was attended by would have a maximum dive time of 50 minutes on nitrox
Standards and Policies Manual. Shortly thereafter, using a nitrox mix with 36% oxygen (EAN36) would diver.”has Shea has43-minute
an adjustedadvantage
maximumover the
divediver
timeusing
of 62
stakeholders from across the recreational diving industry. the NAUI EAN36 Dive Tables. Using the NAUI Reduced air if using the NAUI Dive Tables or a 60-minute advan-
NAUI published the first nitrox training textbook from a have a maximum dive time of 50 minutes on the NAUI minutes for her 17 meters (55 feet) dive. If using the
The nitrox training providers were allowed into the show. Gradient Bubble Model (RGBM) Tables, the diver would tage
mainstream recreational dive training agency. EAN Dive Tables. Using the NAUI Reduced Gradient NAUIifRGBM using the EANNAUI RGBM Tables.
36 Tables, she would have a maximum
Nevertheless, in December 1991, DEMA distributed a have36

O
Today, enriched air nitrox has become a viable and 25 minutes if using air and 46 minutes if using Another benefit
dive time of 115 minutes! of nitrox is the possibility of a short-
warning concerning the use of enriched air in standard Bubble Model (RGBM) Tables, the diver would have 25
valued part of recreational diving, and “nitrox fills” are EAN36. er required
On thesurface
second interval.
dive, the In theusing
diver example above,airthe
enriched
scuba gear. minutes if using air and 46 minutes if using EAN36.
available to qualified divers at diving destinations around Nitrox has advantages in repetitive dives. Looking at nitrox
nitrox has a 43-minute advantage over the diverafter
diver has 62 minutes available dive time usinga air
In 1992, the controversy over the promotion of Nitrox has advantages in repetitive dives.
a typical recreational dive profile, let’s compare a series Looking at one-hour
the world. In this text and in your EANx training course if using thesurface interval
NAUI Dive if using
Tables or a the NAUI Dive
60-minute Tables. if
advantage
enriched air diving among recreational divers prompted a typical
of recreational
two dives: one diver dive profile, let’s
is breathing compare
air, and a series
the other Ifusing
the air diver using the same tables wanted to have a
you will learn the facts about enriched air nitrox and how the NAUI RGBM Tables.
aquaCorps publisher Michael Menduno, who felt that of two dives: one diver is breathing air,
diver is breathing EAN36. The first dive is to 24 and the other dive time of 30benefit
minutes, he would
to use it safely. Another of nitrox is thehave to attain
possibility of aa Letter
shorter
N
part of the controversy was related to lack of informa- diver is(80
meters breathing
feet) forEAN30 36 . The first
minutes. Afterdive is to 24 meters
a one-hour surface Group of D before beginning the second dive. To move
required surface interval. In the example above, the
tion, to call for a second pre-DEMA workshop to address (80 feet)the
interval, forsecond
30 minutes. Afterbeatoone-hour
dive will 17 meterssurface inter-
(55 feet). from
nitrox“G” to has
diver “D” 62requires
minutes a surface
availableinterval timeafter
dive time of ata
the use of oxygen-enriched air in recreational diving. val, the
Diversecond dive will
one, using air be
andtoNAUI17 meters (55 feet).
Dive Tables, emerges least 2 hours 59 minutes! The NAUI RGBM
one-hour surface interval if using the NAUI Dive Tables. Tables are If
The Workshop on Evaluating Enriched Air (“Nitrox”)
Technology met immediately before the DEMA show in
WHY DIVE WITH ENRICHED AIR NITROX? from the first dive with a Letter Group of G. One hour
later,
Diver
from entering
one, using
the water
the first dive
air and
with aasLetter
NAUI
an “FGroup
Dive Tables,
diver,”oftheG. diver
emerges
One hourhas
based
the airondiver
do not
a one-hour
change.
using thesurface interval,
same tables so those
wanted numbers
to have a dive
From the preceding, you should have gained an time of 30 minutes, he would have to attain a Letter
Houston. It was jointly sponsored by the Scuba Diving an adjusted
later, enteringmaximum
the waterdive time“Fofdiver,”
as an 19 minutes for the
the diver has Group Technical
of D before divers will breathe
beginning a highly
the second oxygen-rich
dive. To move
Resource Group, and Dr. Bill Hamilton served as gen- appreciation of nitrox and some of the benefits of its use in
17-meter (55-foot) dive. If the diver
an adjusted maximum dive time of 19 minutes for theis using the NAUI nitrox mixture during their shallower decompression
from “G” to “D” requires a surface interval time of at
diving. Without going into great detail, we’ll note a few of
O
eral chairman. The several sections of the workshop RGBM
17-meter Tables, he hasdive.
(55-foot) a maximum
If the diverdive time ofthe55NAUI
is using min- stops
least 2orhours
long exposures
59 minutes!inThe the shallow
NAUI RGBM zonesTables
in orderareto
them. You will gain a greater appreciation of both the ben-
addressed the technologies (uses and abuses) as currently efits and the necessary precautions as you learn more about utes for the second dive.
RGBM Tables, he has a maximum dive time of 55 min- more efficiently eliminate nitrogen from
based on a one-hour surface interval, so those numbers their bodies.
practiced and surveyed the enriched air experience, the diving with oxygen-enriched air. Diver two, using
utes for the second dive. EAN36 and NAUI EAN36 Dive do not Another
change. very common use of nitrox in diving is sim-
physiology of oxygen exposure, mixing and handling First and most notably, nitrox allows divers to extend Tables, finishes the first dive with a Letter Group of F. ply as a safety margin. Divers who choose to dive conser-
nitrox, training and certification, and liability and the their bottom time and enjoy longer dives without having a One hour later, she begins the second dive as an “E vatively will often breathe nitrox but continue to use air
manufacturers. required-decompression obligation. diver.” She has an adjusted maximum dive time of 62 dive tables or an air computer. Over a series of dives, they 9
D

8 9
 NAUI Nitrox Diver Chapter 1- Introduction

PY
will absorb significantly less nitrogen than their tables nitrox mixes. nitrox divers do not subject themselves to oxygen pres- The amount of a component gas in a mixture may
or computers indicate, effectively lowering their risk of sures where this could be a factor. In order to reduce be expressed as a percentage or a fraction. A percentage
decompression sickness. Myth 3: “If you dive with nitrox you won’t get narcosis on deep dives, technical divers use trimix to compares the quantity of the component gas to a total
Finally, there may be truth in the claim of divers bent.” lower both the nitrogen and the oxygen content of their of 100; a fraction compares it to one. EAN36 can be said

Introduction
Introduction

that they are less physically tired after a series of dives breathing gas. to be 36% oxygen and 64% nitrogen, or it can be said
on enriched air nitrox. With less nitrogen in their bodies Enriched air nitrox only reduces the fraction of that the fraction of oxygen is 0.36 and that of nitrogen is
nitrogen in the gas you breathe; it does not eliminate
than they would have had diving on air, the divers may
it. Moreover, no breathing gas mixture, dive table, or
Myth 6: “It is hard to dive with nitrox.” 0.64. In formulas and calculations, the gas component is
indeed feel less fatigue at the end of their diving day or always expressed as a fraction.

O
dive computer can absolutely eliminate the possibility of This book will help you to learn the proper plan-
diving trip. It is best to not use terminology in which the com-
decompression sickness. Nitrox has advantages over air ning and procedures for conducting dives with enriched
ponents are unspecified. Terms like “60-40 mix” are
because the partial pressure of the nitrogen is less for air nitrox. Most of the procedures are simple, and where
ambiguous. This is particularly so because in some usag-
any given depth. Nitrogen accumulation is slower, but there are calculations involved, the formulas are usually
es it is customary to state the oxygen first, and in others
backed up with tables where you can look up the nec-
COMMON MISCONCEPTIONS ABOUT NITROX you must still monitor depth and time–as well as the
es-sary derived information. Using nitrox involves an
to state the inert gas first. If the meaning is not specified,

C
specifics of your breathing mixture–to avoid excessive either number could refer to the oxygen content, and get-
As was said earlier, many misunderstandings developed nitrogen accumulation in your body. The knowledge and understanding of partial pressures and oxygen limits,
ting it wrong could have disastrous results.
about nitrox as it began to be known (but not well under- procedures in this text will help you control the risks of somewhat more advance planning and preparation than
Welcome to the world of nitrox diving! Dive safely.
stood) in the recreational diving industry. Before you decompression sickness while maximizing the safety and air diving, and an acceptance of your added responsi-
This book will give you tools and techniques to extend
move on to the next topic in this course, you should be enjoyment of your dives. bil-ity for safe diving. But the training to become a nitrox
your enjoyment of the underwater world.
aware of some of the persistent myths about nitrox and be diver is far less than the initial training that prepared you
able to sift the fact from the fiction. Myth 4: “Nitrox is safer than air.” to be a scuba diver. Once you are in the water, the rule of
nitrox diving is the same as any other diving: Plan your
Myth 1: “Nitrox is for technical diving.”

T
Nothing that we do is entirely without risk. All diving dive, and dive your plan.
Although technical divers use oxygen-enriched involves some risk, and as noted above, there are risks
air when appropriate, such as during in-water decom- associated with nitrox. In this course, you will learn
pression stops, the use of nitrox does not make a dive procedures and techniques to responsibly manage and
TERMINOLOGY

O
“technical.” Technical dives are planned decompression minimize the risks of using oxygen-enriched air. Nitrox
dives, deep dives where both nitrogen and oxygen in the has advantages over air in many diving applications,
such as increased available dive time and decompression You will meet a number of new or unfamiliar terms
breathing gas may be diluted with helium (trimix), dives
advantages, but with these advantages comes your added in this book. Some of them, such as “partial pressure,”
in which one changes between gas mixes during the dive,
responsibility to be mindful of oxygen levels and depth you encountered in your first scuba course, but you may
dives that use an oxygen percentage greater than 40%,
and time limits, analyze you own gas mixture, properly have not used or seen them since then. Important terms
or dives into overhead environments such as caves or
N
maintain your equipment, and dive prudently. will be emphasized in bold type at least the first
wrecks.
time they are used in this book and defined in context
when necessary. A glossary is included at the end of the
Myth 2: “Nitrox is for deep diving.” Myth 5: “If you dive with nitrox you won’t get book where you can look up definitions of unfamiliar
Quite the opposite. Because of the increased concen- narcosis.” terms.
tration of oxygen in nitrox, there are stringent depth lim- It is easy to assume that the reduced nitrogen in Enriched air nitrox, nitrox, oxygen-enriched air,
its imposed to prevent oxygen toxicity. Nitrox is a mid- nitrox should reduce narcosis just as it provides advan- and EANx are used interchangeably throughout this
O
range breathing gas and provides the greatest advantages tages in other areas. The fact is that narcosis involves text. Where applicable, the “x” may be replaced by the
for dives in the 15- to 33-meter (50- to 110-foot) depth many factors, some of which are psychologi-cal. oxygen percentage (e.g. EAN36). In your reading else-
range. Beyond that depth the decompression advantage Evidence on nitrox and narcosis is sparse, but it is best where, you will also see references to NOAA Nitrox I and
gain is minimal, and the risk of oxygen toxicity problems to regard the narcotic potency of nitrox as the same as NOAA Nitrox II. These terms refer to EAN32 and EAN36
increases rapidly. Later in this book you will learn how to that of air. While it has been theorized that unmetabo- respectively, and NOAA is currently trying to change its
determine maximum operating depth (MOD) for various lized oxygen may be as narcotic as nitrogen, recreational terminology to NN32 and NN36.
D

10 11
 NAUI Nitrox Diver Chapter 1- Introduction

Notes

PY
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION - KNOWLEDGE REVIEW
1. The nitrogen in the air you are breathing limits

Introduction
Introduction

_______________________________________________________________,
______________________________________________________________, and
___________________________________________________________________.

O
2. The gas mixture that is higher in oxygen and lower in nitrogen has been given several names, including:
______________________________,
______________________________, and
______________________________.

C
3. When diving, _________________________________________________________
causes additional nitrogen to be dissolved in our tissues.

4. In 1878, Paul Bert established that _____________, liberated as bubbles following sudden
decopression, was the cause of __________________________________________.

T
5. Credit for developing and introducing nitrox diving techniques for standard scuba goes to __________
______________________________.

6. NAUI officially endorsed nitrox training by NAUI instructors in ___________.

7. Advantages of nitrox include:

a)_________________________________________________________________.
b)_________________________________________________________________.
O
N
c)_________________________________________________________________.
d)_________________________________________________________________.

8. Nitrox is a ___________________ breathing gas and provides the greatest advantages for dives in
the _______________________________ depth range.

9. The “x” in EANx is often replaced with the ______________________________.

O

10. A ______________ compares the quantity of the component gas to a total of 100; a
_____________________________ compares it to one.
D

12 13
 NAUI Nitrox Diver Chapter 2- Gases & Gas Mixtures

CHAPTER

PY
Gases & Gas Mixtures

Gases & Gas Mixtures

O
C
Gases &
Gas Mixtures

T
O
N
O
D

14 15
 NAUI Nitrox Diver Chapter 2- Gases & Gas Mixtures

PY
LEARNING GOALS Each of the individual components in a gas mixture
will exert its chemical or physical effects independently,
We normally simplify the numbers and say that
oxygen is 0.21 or 21% of atmospheric air. We will also
NITROGEN (N2)
In this chapter you will learn: according to its proportion in the mixture. include argon, as an inert gas, with the nitrogen and say Nitrogen is a largely inert gas. It is not used in
• The composition of air. The pressure of the gas is a manifestation of the that nitrogen is 0.79 or 79% of air. The amount of carbon metabolism and serves essentially to dilute the oxygen
Gases & Gas Mixtures

Gases & Gas Mixtures

• How gases behave. force with which its molecules strike the container. You dioxide varies somewhat around the world (there is more in the air we breathe. It is also colorless, odorless, and
• The relationship between pressure and gas volume. can increase the pressure of the gas by compressing it present in the more industrialized northern hemisphere), tasteless. Although it does not combine easily with other
• About the solubility of gases. into a smaller container (there are more molecules in elements, it is a component in many organic compounds
and while carbon dioxide has a significant role in general
• What partial pressure is and how to determine a given volume) or by increasing its temperature (the and is in all living organisms. When breathed at higher

O
human physiology as well as the physiology of diving, at
partial pressure. molecules increase their energy and speed up). There is a pressures, it has a pronounced anesthetic effect referred
only about 350 parts per million (ppm) of air, it does not
• How to determine absolute pressure at depth. proportionality to pressure, temperature, and volume that to as nitrogen narcosis.
enter into nitrox calculations. The
• How to determine the partial pressure of a gas will be discussed later in this chapter. Nitrogen narcosis is one of the reasons that rec-
“others” category includes neon, helium, krypton, sulfur
in a mixture at depth. Gases (and solids) will dissolve in liquids. Just as reational diving is limited to about 40 meters (130 feet).
dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, etc.
the amount of a solid, such as salt, that will dissolve is The mechanisms of narcosis are only partly understood,
and several factors seem to be involved–including psy-

C
Matter has three common forms: solid, liquid, and different for different liquids, such as water and gasoline,
gas. Solids have definite volume and shape. Liquids have the amount of a gas that can dissolve varies from solvent chological predisposition, stress, and anxiety, but hyper-
definite volume but flow and assume the shape of their baric nitrogen is the major contributor. Narcosis can
container. Gases have neither shape nor volume. A gas
to solvent. The amount of gas that can be dissolved in a
liquid is directly proportional to the pressure of the gas
SOME FACTS ABOUT INDIVIDUAL GASES: impair a diver’s ability to function at greater depths, and
will uniformly fill the container that holds it. It can be severity increases with depth. A favorite tongue-in-cheek
allowed to expand by increasing the size of the container,
on the liquid. The solubility of a gas also varies with the Oxygen (O2) “law” of divers is Martini’s Law: “Breathing air, each 15
temperature: more gas will dissolve at lower temperature.
or it can be compressed by forcing it into a smaller con- Oxygen is one of the most abundant elements on meters (50 feet) of depth is equivalent to drinking one dry
earth. It is present not only as a gas–as free oxygen in martini on an empty stomach.” The symptoms of nitro-

T
tainer or by making the container smaller.
A gas is composed of molecules (or atoms) that are WHAT’S IN AIR? the atmosphere and as an element in atmospheric carbon
dioxide; it is a constituent in many other compounds,
gen narcosis also parallel those often seen in alcoholic
intoxication: inability to concentrate and multi-task,
in constant motion. Visualize extremely small, widely Our atmosphere is a mixture of gases. The propor-
separated individual molecules of a gas in constant, such as silicon dioxide (quartz and sand). By weight, easy distraction, loss of motor ability and dexterity, mood
tions of the gases in air, excluding water vapor, are near-
random motion, bouncing off each other and the sides of almost half of the composition of the earth’s outer crust is changes, etc. Sensitivity to narcosis varies from person
ly uniform around the globe. The composition of dry air,

O
their container in a completely elastic way, and you will oxygen in various compounds. Oxygen is highly reactive to person and time to time. There is no certain evidence
expressed as fractions is:
have a rough picture of an “ideal gas.” The behavior of and combines readily with most other elements. As a that breathing oxygen-enriched air reduces the risk of
Oxygen (O2) 0.2095
any real gas only approximates the theoretical ideal, but Nitrogen (N2) 0.7808 gas, it is colorless, odorless, and tasteless. Oxygen is our narcosis. Theoretically it might, but clinical studies have
at the pressures encountered in scuba diving, the approx- Argon (Ar) 0.00934 life-supporting gas and is the essential component of all produced mixed results, perhaps because the individual
imation is very close. Carbon dioxide (CO2) ~0.00035 (average) breathing gas mixtures. It is used in respiration, combin- differences among human subjects outweigh the physics.
Others 0.00004 ing with glucose in our cells to produce carbon dioxide
N
A “gas” can be a mixture of individual component
gases. Air is such a mixture; it is predominately nitrogen Oxygen (O 2 ) 20.946% and water. Although it is essential for body metabolism, Argon (Ar)
Nitrogen (N 2) 78.084%
and oxygen. Once combined, the component gases will be when it is breathed in excessive amounts under pressure, Argon makes up about 1% of air. As noted above, it
evenly distributed in the gas mixture according to their oxygen can be very toxic. Oxygen supports combustion, is included as part of the nitrogen component in enriched
proportions. Also, the component gases will not normally and many substances will spontaneously ignite or burn air nitrox calculations. Argon is one of the
separate; they will stay mixed. When you add oxygen to furiously in a pure or high oxygen environment. “noble gases” meaning it is virtually completely inert, not
air to make nitrox, the oxygen will not separate out and Much of what you will learn in this course is about combining with other elements. (The other noble gases
pool at the bottom of the cylinder. The component gases the risks of oxygen, the proper use of oxygen, setting
O
are helium, neon, krypton, xenon, and radon.) It has
will generally be molecules, made up of more than one appropriate limits by controlling the oxygen fraction in a narcotic potency slightly over twice that of nitrogen.
atom each composed of one or more elements (oxygen the nitrox you use and the depth to which you dive, safety Because argon has lower heat conductivity than air, it
molecules, carbon dioxide molecules, etc.), but they may Carbon Dioxide (CO2 ) 0.035% Argon (Inert) considerations in oxygen handling, and care of scuba and is often used as an inflation gas for dry suits to improve
and Other Gases 0.004% 0.934%
also be individual atoms (argon, helium, and neon do not air-fill equipment that will be exposed to high concentra- their insulating properties.
form molecules). FIGURE 2-1: COMPOSITION OF DRY AIR tions of oxygen.
D

16 17
 NAUI Nitrox Diver Chapter
Chapter2-2-Gases
Gases & Gas Mixtures

PY
Carbon Dioxide (CO2) by many investigators over a period beginning in the sev- Boyle’s
Boyle’s Law: Pressure, Volume, and Density
Carbon dioxide is colorless, odorless, and tasteless in
enteenth century. Scientific laws are frequently associated The
The relationship
relationshipbetween
betweenpressure,
pressure,volume,
volume,and and UNITS OF MEASUREMENT
with the names of persons who first observed and formu- density
density of gases was studied by Sir Robert Boyle inthe
of gases was studied by Sir Robert Boyle in the There are several ways to measure pressure.
small quantities. It combines readily with water to form
lated them, and the rules of gas behavior are no exception. seventeenth
seventeenthcentury.
century.There
Therearearefour
fourvariables
variablesthatthatcan
canbebe
Gases & Gas Mixtures

Gases
carbonic acid, and at higher concentrations it has an In diving, our concern is with multiples of

Gases && Gas

acidic taste and odor, which you can sometimes sense Although the gas laws were discovered independent- altered
altered ininaagas
gassample–pressure,
sample–pressure,volume, volume,temperature,
temperature, atmospheric pressure.
when you sniff fizzing carbonated beverages. At high ly, they can actually be derived from the general kinetic and
and quantity. Boyle fixed the amountofofgas
quantity. Boyle fixed the amount gasand
anditsitstem-
tem-
concentrations (above about 10%), it can be extremely theory of gases, which is easy to visualize in a simplified perature during his investigations. He found
perature during his investigations. He found that when that when
One atmosphere is the pressure of the air at

O
toxic and cause convulsions and death. Carbon dioxide is form. A gas is composed of molecules, which are exceed- he
he changed
changedthe thepressure,
pressure,thethevolume
volumeresponded
respondedininthe the sea level. This is the unit most commonly

Gas Mixtures
a natural byproduct of our respiration and combustion of ingly small and separated by great distances relative to opposite direction.
opposite direction. used in this book.
organic compounds. Boyle’s
Boyle’sLaw Lawstates:
states:“At
“Ataaconstant
constanttemperature,
temperature,the
their size. The molecules are in constant random motion,

Mixtures
The concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmos- volume of a gas
the volume of avaries inversely
gas varies with absolute
inversely pressure,
with absolute
traveling in straight lines until they bounce off each other while the density of a gas varies directly with absolute In the metric system (International System or
phere actually varies depending on place and season, and or their container. The pressure of a gas is the measured pressure, while the density of a gas varies directly with
pressure.” Expressed as a formula, S.I.), a commonly used equivalent is bars.
much of the concern about global warming is due to the absolute pressure.” Expressed as for a given gas
a formula, for sample:
a given

C
impact force of its molecules striking the container. The One atmosphere equals 1.013 bars. This is
increasing fraction of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere gas sample:
force of impact is related to the speed and mass of the PV = K not significantly different from an atmosphere
from burning fossil fuels and other sources. The amount of pressure, and the two are generally used
gas molecules. If we heat a gas, we are adding energy, PV = K
of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere was about 280 parts interchangeably.
increasing the speed of the molecules and the force of the where P is the absolute pressure; V is the volume; and K
per million (ppm) in the early 19th century. Currently,
impacts. The pressure rises. The pressure also depends iswhere
a constant.
P is the absolute pressure; V is the volume; and K
sampling at Mauna Loa, which because of its favorable
location and altitude is considered to be a reliable indica- on the frequency of impacts: more impacts means more is a constant. Other equivalents can be used:
force applied. If we compress a gas, more molecules are As a working formula, we usually use:
tor, showed a carbon dioxide content of 316 ppm in 1959

T
increasing to 373 ppm in 2002, an increase of 18%. in a given volume and the density increases. As the density As a working formula, we usually use: 1 atmosphere = 760 millimeters of mercury
P1V1 = P2V2
increases, the frequency of impacts on a unit area increas- = 29.92 inches of mercury
P1V1 = P2V2
Helium (He) & Neon (Ne) es, and the pressure is higher. where the P and V are the absolute pressure and the vol-
(the “weather report” measure)
= 101.3 kilopascals (kPa)
Both helium and neon are less dense than nitrogen. ume
wherefortheanyP two
andsetsV areof the
conditions
absolute(the “before”
pressure andand thethe
= 1.013 bars

O
They have a very low narcotic potential and so are pos- “after”).
volume for any two sets of conditions (the “before” and
= 14.7 lbs/in2 (psi)
sible candidates to reduce both the nitrogen content and 1 ata the “after”).
A commonplace example Boyle’s Law is the action
= 10 meters of seawater (msw)
the oxygen content of the breathing gas in deep diving. Surface A commonplace
of breathing. The diaphragmexampleisBoyle’s
a muscleLawthat
is the action
is located
= 33 feet of seawater (fsw)
Both are expensive; neon is very expensive. Helium is the of breathing.
just below ourThe lungs.diaphragm
When weisinhale,
a muscle that isthe
we move located
dia-
mixing gas of choice for diving deeper than the air depth just below
phragm our lungs.and
downward, Whenthe we inhale,
lungs we move
increase the
in volume.
range. You will learn more about helium if you venture
10m / 33 ft 2 ata
diaphragm
This decreases downward,
the pressure and inside
the lungs
our increase
lungs so in thatvolume.
it is Most of these equivalents are actually close
N
into technical diving. “Trimix” refers to a mixture of oxy- Thisthan
less decreases the pressure
the outside pressure. inside
As aour lungs
result, airsoflows
thatintoit is approximations. In all calculations, 10 msw =
gen, helium, and nitrogen. Neon is not only too expensive 20m / 66 ft 3 ata
less than
our lungs. the outside pressure. As a result, air flows into 1 bar.
for general use; it is also very slowly released from the our lungs.
There are three important aspects of Boyle’s law for
body tissues and so requires long decompression times. divers:There are three important aspects of Boyle’s law Fresh water is 2.5% lighter than seawater.
30m / 99 ft 4 ata for divers:
1. Large quantities of gas can be compressed into You could use 10.25 meters or 34 feet of
1. cylinders.
Large quantities of gas can
If the pressure be compressed
is doubled, twice asinto much fresh water as equivalent to an atmosphere of
cylinders. If the pressure
gas will be in the cylinder. is doubled, twice as much pressure. The difference has little physiologi-
O
gas will be inairthewillcylinder.
HOW GASES BEHAVE FIGURE 2-2: BOYLE’S LAW: PRESSURE AND VOLUME ARE INVERSELY
2. Inhaled
2. depth.
Inhaled air will
When diving,
be denser with an increase in
be denser with andelivers
the regulator increasebreath-
in
cal consequence in diving, and in practice,
instrument errors and other approximations
The interrelation of pressure, volume, and tempera- RELATED depth. When diving, the regulator
ing air at the ambient pressure. Evendelivers breath-
at recreational can easily outweigh the 2.5% difference.
ture of gases are described by the “gas laws” or the Ideal ing air at the ambient pressure. Even at
depths, an alert diver can notice that the air feels recreation-
Gas Laws. You met them in your entry-level scuba al depths,beyond
“thicker” an alerta certain
diver can notice that the air feels
depth.
course. The separate laws were formulated experimentally “thicker” beyond a certain depth.
D

18 1919
 NAUI Nitrox Diver Chapter 2- Gases & Gas Mixtures

PY
3. During ascent, the reduction of pressure will cause equals the impinging gas partial pressure. In other words, to the gas tension of the dissolved gas–the high pres-
the gas in our lungs to expand. If you hold your the amount of a gas that will dissolve in a liquid is direct- sure gradient. As the gas tension increases, the pres-
breath, not allowing the excess gas to be exhaled, you ly related to the pressure of the gas on the liquid. sure gradient becomes less, and the gas dissolves less
risk rupturing your lungs–with possibly calamitous This is described in Henry’s Law: “The amount of rapidly until equilibrium is reached and ingassing stops.
Gases & Gas Mixtures

Gases & Gas Mixtures

consequences. any given gas that will dissolve in a liquid at a given tem- This is known as saturation. When the pressure of the gas
You may also remember the other gas laws that relate perature is a function of the partial pressure of the gas on the liquid is reduced, offgassing occurs, again more
temperature to volume (if the pressure is held constant) that is in contact with the liquid and the solubility coef- rapidly at first, then slowing until equilibrium is reached.
and temperature to pressure (if the volume is held con- ficient of the gas in the particular liquid.” According to This can be seen by looking at the surface interval credit

O
stant). These have less obvious relevance in enriched air Henry’s law, the relationship is linear. If one quantity of table on a set of standard dive tables. The diver offgasses
nitrox diving, but you will get to know them well if you gas will dissolve at one atmosphere of pressure, then three rapidly for the first two hours or so after surfacing, then
take the NAUI Master Scuba Diver course. quantities of gas will dissolve at three atmospheres. progressively more slowly until offgassing is complete.
Temperature also affects the quantity of a gas that will
be absorbed by a liquid. The solubility of a gas is inversely
related to the temperature–the higher the temperature,

C
HENRY’S LAW: THE SOLUBILITY OF GASES the lower the solubility and vice versa. DALTON’S LAW: PARTIAL PRESSURE IN GAS
The solubility of a gas in a liquid depends on tempera-
Gases dissolve in liquids. Solids dissolve in liquids too.
You know that sugar dissolves in water because you can
ture and the partial pressure of the gas over the liquid. MIXTURES
It also is governed by the nature of the solvent and the An understanding of partial pressure and its con-
see it happen. Most persons are less aware that gases also FIGURE 2-5: DALTON’S LAW: AS THE TOTAL PRESSURE INCREASES
nature of the gas. Nitrogen, for instance, is about five sequences is probably the most important concept to
dissolve, although carbonated beverages are a perfect OR DECREASES, THE PARTIAL PRESSURE OF EACH COMPONENT
times more soluble in fatty tissue than in watery tissue. grasp for safe diving with enriched air nitrox. The partial GAS INCREASES OR DECREASES PROPORTIONATELY
everyday example of gas solubility. Some gases are more
This difference in solubility is something that must be pressure of a gas in a mix is the portion of the total pres- sure of the mixture is equal to the sum of the individual

T
soluble in a liquid than other gases, and some liquids are
considered in decompression theory. sure exerted by that gas. Whether we are at the surface or pressures exerted by each individual gas. Physically and
better solvents of a gas than other liquids.
Henry’s Law addresses the quantity of a gas that will diving, our body responds to each gas in a gas mixture chemically, each individual gas acts according to its
When the pressure of a gas on a liquid is increased,
dissolve, but it does not describe the rate at which the gas according to its partial pressure. With oxygen-enriched partial pressure this was first observed in the early nine-
more of the gas will dissolve in the liquid until the par-
will dissolve. Whenever the pressure of a gas on a liquid is air as well as with the more exotic mixtures of technical teenth century by the English chemist John Dalton.
tial pressure of the dissolved gas (or gas tension)

O
increased, molecules of gas begin to diffuse into the liq- diving, we are manipulating the gas percentages, and Dalton’s Law states: “The total pressure exerted by
Solubility of Gases
uid, and we say ingassing occurs. In the beginning, the therefore the partial pressures, of the gas mixtures that we a mixture of gases is equal to the sum of the pressures
gas moves rapidly into solution, driven by the high partial choose to breathe. We must know what we are doing and that would be exerted by each of the gases if it alone were
pressure of the gas on the liquid compared be able to plan safe limits to our diving. present and occupied the volume.” In other words, the
In the balance of this chapter, you will learn about whole is equal to the sum of the parts. The pressure exert-
partial pressure and how to determine the partial pressure ed by each component gas is termed the partial pressure
N
of any gas in your breathing mixture at any depth. In the of that gas. Expressed mathematically:
sing next chapter, we will explore how nitrogen and oxygen
Gas Tension

1. Equilibrium = 3. Equilibrium at Ingas affect your body at different pressures.

1 ATM Increased Pressure Ptotal = P1 + P2 + P3 + ... + Pn
For any single, pure gas, the pressure of the gas is the
total pressure. Its effect upon us or in chemical reac- where Ptotal is the total pressure of the gas mixture, and
Offga
ssing tions, its solubility, and so on are directly related to its P1, P2, etc. are the partial pressures of each component
pressure. Oxygen, for instance, supports our life and also gas.
O
combustion. If there is too little oxygen, even pure oxy- Dalton’s Law can be expressed another way: “The
Time
gen, we will lose consciousness and die, and materials partial pressure of any component gas in a mixture is
2. Non-equilibrium 4. Non-equilibrium
with pressure with pressure
will burn poorly if at all. If the oxygen pressure is high, it the fraction of that gas in the mixture times the total gas
increased decreased can be toxic to us and objects will burn furiously. pressure.” Expressed as a formula:
The amount of a gas which dissolves in a liquid is proportional In any mixture of gases, such as air, the total pres- Pg = Fg x Ptotal
FIGURE
to the 2-3: HENRY’Sof LAW:
pressure THE inSOLUBILITY
the gas OF A GAS
contact with IS DIRECTLY
the liquid FIGURE 2-4: RATE OF INGASSING AND OFFGASSING IS RELATED TO
D

RELATED TO THE PRESSURE OF THE GAS THE PRESSURE GRADIENT

20 21
 NAUI Nitrox Diver Chapter 2- Gases & Gas Mixtures

PY
where Pg is the partial pressure of the component gas; Fg Atmospheres absolute is usually abbreviated “ata” or Pata = D fsw + 33 fsw
DEPTH DEPTH WATER ABSOLUTE 33 fsw / atm
is the fraction of the component gas in the mixture; and FEET METERS PRESSURE PRESSURE “ATA” to distinguish it clearly from “atm,” which could
Ptotal is the total pressure of the gas mixture. also mean gauge pressure. Many short-handedly use or:
A useful way to state this for recall purposes is simply: “ata” as a word in itself - usually in the plural form
Gases & Gas Mixtures

D msw + 10 msw

Gases & Gas Mixtures

“The part is a fraction of the whole.” (In formulas, “is” 0 0 0 1 ata “atas.” Don’t be taken aback if someone asks: “What’s the Pbarabsolute =
10 msw / bar
translates into “equals” and “of” into “times.”) You will Pee Oh Two of Eee A En thirty-two at four atas?” As you’ll
meet this statement and its formulation several times and discover shortly, the answer is 1.28 atmospheres. Once you have converted the depth to absolute pressure
in many guises in this book. in atmospheres/bars, it is simple to determine the partial

O
33 10 1 atm 2 ata
The partial pressure of a gas is abbreviated using the pressure of a gas at that depth. Just multiply the absolute
chemical symbol for the gas. PO2 means partial pressure pressure by the gas fraction to find the partial pressure of
of oxygen, and PN2 means partial pressure of nitrogen. the gas at depth.
Some scientific conventions use ppO2 and ppN2.
66 20 2 atm 3 ata
CONVERTING BETWEEN DEPTH AND You may also need to convert an absolute pressure into
When using enriched air nitrox, we need to be aware of its equivalent depth in fsw or msw. The above equation
the partial pressures of nitrogen and oxygen to which our PRESSURE BY FORMULA works equally well if rewritten to solve for depth:

C
body is being exposed. By knowing our exposure to nitro- Coverting depth to pressure uses a simple equation
gen, we are able to estimate how much inert gas in which you first find the water (hydrostatic) pressure U.S./Imperial:
(nitrogen) we will take up in our tissues compared to 99 30 3 atm 4 ata in atmospheres and then add one atmosphere for the D fsw = (Pata - 1 atm) × 33 fsw / atm
breathing air, and we can plan our dive times accord- sea-level air pressure to convert to the absolute pressure.
ingly. By knowing our exposure to oxygen, we are able to Written as an equation using the U.S./Impreial system: If you choose to convert from atmospheres absolute to
control and limit the risk of oxygen toxicity from too high D fsw gauge pressure first. Or it can be written:
Pata = + 1 atm
a partial pressure of oxygen. We take the nitrogen partial 33 fsw / atm

T
132 40 4 atm 5 ata D fsw = (Pata × 33 fsw / atm) - 33 fsw
pressure into consideration to determine our nodecom-
where P = the pressure in atmospheres absolute
pression limits and our tissue nitrogen levels at the end of if you choose to convert from atmospheres absolute to fsw
D = the depth in feet of seawater
the dive. We take the oxygen partial pressure into consid- absolute first and then subtract the air pressure (in fsw)
eration to determine our safe oxygen exposure. FIGURE 2-6: ABSOLUTE PRESSURE EQUALS WATER PRESSURE PLUS to find the depth.
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE For example: What is the absolute pressure at a depth of

O
It is easy to calculate the partial pressure of a gas if we
zero at the surface even though you are actually under 108 fsw?
know the fraction of the component gas in the total mix- For example: At what depth is the absolute pressure equal
one atmosphere of air pressure. Each 10 meters (33 feet) Pata = 108 fsw + 1 atm = 4.27 ata
ture and the absolute pressure. 33 fsw / atm
to 3.5 atm?
Determining absolute pressure during a dive is a that you descend in the ocean adds another atmosphere
D fsw = (3.5 ata - 1 atm) × 33 fsw / atm = 82.5 fsw
simple conversion from the depth into an appropriate of pressure to the one atmosphere of surface pressure.
The absolute pressure is “absolutely everything,” and it is Using the S.I./metric system:
pressure unit (usually atmospheres). For any depth, we
N
can find the absolute pressure, and then, knowing that one atmosphere more than what your depth gauge is tell- Pbarabsolute = D msw + 1 bar In S.I./metric the equation becomes:
ing you. When you are at a depth 20 meters of sea-water 10msw / bar
“the part is a fraction of the whole,” we find the partial
(msw) / 66 feet of seawater (fsw), the absolute pressure D msw = (Pbarabsolute - 1 bar) × 10 msw / bar
pressure of the gas at that depth.
is three atmospheres–the two atmospheres of water pres- where P = the pressure in bars absolute
sure plus the one atmosphere of air pressure. In diving D = the depth in meters of seawater or:
calculations, it is always necessary to consider absolute
For example: What is the absolute pressure at 27 msw? D msw = (Pbarabsolute × 10 msw / bar) - 10 msw
CONVERTING BETWEEN DEPTH AND pressures.
In diving using the metric system, the bar is the com- Pbarabsolute = 27 msw + 1 bar = 3.7 bars
O
absolute

PRESSURE mon pressure unit instead of atmospheres. Although a 10 msw / bar For example: At what depth is the absolute pressure equal
to 4.6 bars?
Recall from your entry-level scuba course the differ- bar is just slightly less than an atmosphere, the difference These equations can be written another way, by
ence between absolute pressure and gauge pres- is negligible for diving calculations and you will usually adding the one atmosphere or bar of pressure, expressed D msw = (4.6 barabsolute - 1 bar) × 10 msw / bar = 36 msw
sure. Depth is a gauge pressure. Your depth gauge reads find bars and atmospheres used interchangeably. Ten as depth, to the actual depth and then performing the
msw equals one bar. division:
D

22 23
 NAUI Nitrox Diver Chapter 2- Gases & Gas Mixtures

PY
([ ] )
Absolute Pressure at Depth You have seen the
the formula
formulaearlier
earlierininthis
thischapter:
chapter: Pgas
D fsw = - 1 atm × 33 fsw / atm
Pg = Fg x Ptotal Fgas
Depth Depth Pressure Pg = Fg x Ptotal
(fsw) (msw) (ata) or summed up as: “The part is a fraction of the whole.” In a similar way, the partial pressure for any compo-
Mixtures

Gases & Gas Mixtures

0 0 1 or summed up as: “The part is a fraction of the whole.” nent gas in any breathing mixture (nitrox or trimix) can
GasMixtures

This equation can be rearranged to find the gas be determined for any depth. For example, the fraction
10 3 1.3
This equation canifbeyou
fraction/percentage rearranged
know thetopartial
find the gas frac-
pressure and of nitrogen in EAN32 is 0.68 (the nitrox mix is 68%
20 6 1.6 tion/percentage
the total pressureif (F
youg = know
Pg /the partial
Ptotal ) orpressure
to find theand the nitrogen). At a depth of 30 meters (99 feet), the absolute

O
30 9 1.9 total pressure
absolute (Fg if=you
pressure Pg know
/ Ptotal
the) or to findpressure
partial the absolute
and pressure is 4 atmospheres. So, the partial pressure of the
Gases && Gas

pressure if you knowofthethepartial

fraction/percentage gas (Ppressure = and
P / fraction/
F ). nitrogen (PN2) is 2.72 atmospheres (0.68 × 4 = 2.72).
40 12 2.2 total g g
percentage of the gas
Some people find(Pittotal
easier=toPguse/ Faggraphic
). memory
50 15 2.5 Written out as a metric calculation:
picture rather than a mathematical formula or a pic-
Some people find it easier to use a graphic memory
Gases

60 18 2.8 ture rather than

mnemonic a mathematical
phrase. formula
The figure below or athe
shows mnemonic
mathe-
phrase. The figure below shows the mathematical relation- First find the absolute pressure at 30 msw.

C
70 21 3.1 matical relationship of partial pressure, gas fraction,
ship of partial
and total pressure, gas fraction, and total pressure.
pressure. Pabsolute = D msw +1 bar = 30 msw +1 bar = 4 bars
80 24 3.4 10msw / bar 10msw / bar
90 27 3.7
Then find the partial pressure of the nitrogen in EAN32 at
100 30 4.0 Partial
Partial that absolute pressure.
110 34 4.4 Pressure
Pressure PN2 = FN2 × Pabsolute = 0.68 × 4 ata = 2.72 ata
120 37 4.7

T
FIGURE 2-8: MANY TABLES ARE AVAILABLE TO SIMPLIFY NITROX As a U.S./Imperial calculation:
130 40 5.0 DIVE PLANNING
140 43 5.3 Total Gas
Gas As an S.I./metric problem: First find the absolute pressure at 99 fsw.
Pressure Fraction
Fraction 1.4 bars
150 46 5.6 Pabsolute = = 6.67 bars Pabsolute = D fsw + 1 atm= 99 fsw +1 atm = 4 ata
0.21

O
33 fsw / atm 33 fsw / atm
FIGURE
FIGURE 2-7:
2-7: THIS
THIS TABLE
TABLE CAN
CAN BE
BE USED
USED TO
TO CONVERT
CONVERT EITHER
EITHER FROM Then convert to depth:
DEPTH TO ABSOLUTE
FROM DEPTH PRESSURE
TO ABSOLUTE OR ABSOLUTE
PRESSURE PRESSURE
OR ABSOLUTE Then:
D msw = (6.67 bars −1 bar) × 10 msw/ bar = 56.7 msw
TO EQUIVALENT
PRESSURE DEPTH DEPTH
TO EQUIVALENT PN2 = FN2 × Pabsolute = 0.68 × 4 ata = 2.72 ata
To use the figure, cover the item you want to know
CONVERTING BETWEEN DEPTH AND or To usefor.
solve theThefigure, cover the item
mathematical you wantwill
expression to know or
be shown As a U.S./Imperial problem:
The two separate calculations could also be combined
solve
by thefor.
twoThe mathematical
exposed items. If expression will be shown
“partial pressure” is cov- P 1.4 ata
N
PRESSURE WITH A TABLE by the two exposed items. If “partial pressure” is cov- Pabsolute = gas = = 6.67 ata into a single formula:

( )
ered, the side-by-side terms indicate that they are to be Fgas 0.21
D msw Fgas × (D msw + 10 msw)
ered, the side-by-side terms indicate that they are to be Pgas = Fgas × + 1 bar =
You can
Youalso
canuse
alsothe
useabove table for
the above conversions
table between
for conversions multiplied. Similarly, if you want to know what fraction 10 msw / bar 10 msw / bar
multiplied. Similarly, if you want to know what fraction Then convert to depth:
depth
betweenanddepth
pressure. Interpolating
and pressure. is simple ifis using
Interpolating simplemet- will provide a desired partial pressure on the dive, cover
will provide a desired partial pressure on the dive, cover D fsw = (Pabsolute - 1 atm) × 33 fsw / atm or
ric depth–each
if using meter adds 0.1
metric depth–each ata. adds
meter In U.S./Imperial
0.1 ata. In mea- “fraction.” The uncovered terms (“partial pressure” over

( )
“fraction.” The uncovered terms (“partial pressure” over = (6.67 ata - 1 atm) × 33 fsw / atm = 187 fsw D fsw Fgas × (D fsw + 33 fsw)
sure, each threemeasure,
U.S./Imperial feet addseach
approximately 0.1 ata.
three feet adds approxi- “total pressure”)
pressure”) telltellyou
youtotodivide
dividethe
thedesired
desiredpartial
partial Pgas = Fgas × + 1 atm =
“total 33 fsw / atm 33 fsw / atm
mately 0.1 ata. pressure by
pressure by the absolute pressure
the absolute pressure atat depth.
depth. For the mathematically inclined, this two-step procedure
For example: At what depth does thethe
For example: At what depth does partial pres- of
O
partial pressure can also be written as a single formula: It is straightforward to calculate oxygen or nitrogen
sure of oxygen
in the airin(21%
the airO (21% O ) reach a partial pres-
CALCULATING PARTIAL
PARTIAL PRESSURES
([ ] )
oxygen 2) reach2a partial pressure of 1.4 partial pressures at depth for enriched air nitrox. Of course,
CALCULATING PRESSURES sure of 1.4 atmospheres?
atmospheres? D msw =
Pgas
Fgas
- 1 bar × 10 msw / bar to save the effort of calculating, one can employ an oxygen
To determine
To determine the partial
the partial pressure
pressure of aingas
of a gas in a mix-
a mixture, First
First find
find thethe absolute
absolute pressure
pressure at which
at which thethe
POPO2 2 partial pressure table, which can quickly show the partial
ture, multiply
multiply the gasthefraction
gas fraction (the
(the gas gas percentage
percentage expressed as reaches 1.4 atmospheres. Then convert that
reaches 1.4 atmospheres. Then convert that absolute absolute or: pressure of oxygen for various mixes over a range of depths.
expressed as a fraction of one) by the
a fraction of one) by the absolute pressure.absolute pressure. pressure to
pressure to its equivalent depth.
its equivalent depth.
D

2424 25
 NAUI Nitrox Diver
NAUI Nitrox Diver Chapter 2- Gases & Gas Mixtures

PY
Oxygen Partial Pressure (in atmospheres absolute) at Depth
FO2 Air 0.24 0.26 0.28 0.30 0.32 0.34 0.36 0.38 0.40 CHAPTER 2: GASES AND GAS MIXTURES - KNOWLEDGE REVIEW
Depth Depth
(fsw) (msw) 1. Each of the individual components in a gas mixture will exert its chemical or physical effects inde-
Mixtures

40 12 0.46 0.53 0.58 0.62 0.66 0.71 0.75 0.80 0.84 0.88 pendently, according to ____________________________________.
Mixtures

Gases & Gas Mixtures

50 15 0.53 0.60 0.65 0.70 0.75 0.80 0.86 0.91 0.96 1.01
2. We say that oxygen is ________% of atmospheric air and that that nitrogen is __________% of air.
60 18 0.59 0.68 0.73 0.79 0.85 0.90 0.96 1.01 1.07 1.13
& Gas

70 21 0.66 0.75 0.81 0.87 0.94 1.00 1.06 1.12 1.19 1.25 3. The symptoms of nitrogen narcosis parallel those often seen in _____________________.

O
& Gas

80 24 0.72 0.82 0.89 0.96 1.03 1.10 1.16 1.23 1.30 1.37
90 27 0.78 0.89 0.97 1.04 1.12 1.19 1.27 1.34 1.42 1.49 4. If we heat a gas, we are adding ________________, increasing the speed of the molecules and the
Gases

100 30 0.85 0.97 1.05 1.13 1.21 1.29 1.37 1.45 1.53 1.61
force of the impacts.
Gases

110 33 0.91 1.04 1.13 1.21 1.30 1.39 1.47 1.56 1.64 1.73
5. Boyle’s Law states: “At a constant temperature, the _____________ of a gas varies

C
120 36 0.97 1.11 1.21 1.30 1.39 1.48 1.58 1.66 1.76 1.85 ______________ with __________________, while the ______________ of a gas varies
130 40 1.19 1.28 1.38 1.48 1.58 1.68 1.77 1.88 1.98 ______________ with ________________.”
FIGURE 2-9: OXYGEN PARTIAL PRESSURE AT DEPTH FOR VARIOUS NITROX BLENDS–MODERATE SHADING INDICATES AN OXYGEN PARTIAL
FIGURE 2-9: PRESSURE
OXYGEN PARTIAL PRESSURE
BETWEEN 1.4 ANDAT1.6DEPTH FOR VARIOUS
ATA. DARK SHADINGNITROX BLENDS–MODERATE
INDICATES OXYGEN PARTIALSHADING
PRESSUREINDICATES
IN EXCESSANOFOXYGEN
1.6 ATA.PARTIAL 6. Henry’s Law states: “The amount of any given gas that will dissolve in a liquid at a given temperature is a
PRESSURE BETWEEN 1.4 AND 1.6 ATA. DARK SHADING INDICATES OXYGEN PARTIAL PRESSURE IN EXCESS OF 1.6 ATA. function of the __________________________________________________________
_____________ and the solubility coefficient of the gas in the particular liquid.”
DETERMINING
DETERMINING OXYGEN
OXYGEN PARTIAL
PARTIAL PRESSURE
PRESSURE BY
BY
TABLE

T
TABLE 7. The partial pressure of a gas in a mix is _________________________________________.
Using
Using Figure
Figure 2-9,2-9, to find
to find thethe oxygen
oxygen partial
partial pres-
pressure
sure
for a for a nitrox
nitrox mixture,mixture, move the
move along along
topthe
rowtop rowoxy-
to the to the 8. Dalton’s law states: “The total pressure exerted by a mixture of gases is equal to _____________
oxygen fraction of the mix. Then move down
gen fraction of the mix. Then move down that column to that col- _________________________________________________________________

O
umn
the rowto of
thetherow of thedepth.
desired desiredIf the
depth. If the
exact mixexact
or themix
exactor _________________________________________________________________
the
depth is not shown, round up to the next higher value.high-
exact depth is not shown, round up to the next _________________.”
er value.
9. Each __________________________________ that you descend in the ocean adds another
atmos-phere of pressure to the one atmosphere of surface pressure.
THE OCEAN
THE OCEANX CALCULATOR
CALCULATOR
N
Another toolXthat can be used to determine oxygen par- 10. When you are at a depth 20 meters of seawater (msw) / 66 feet of seawater (fsw), the absolute pressure is
Another tool that can be used to determine oxygen _________________________________.
tial pressures, as well as several other useful values, such
partial pressures, as well as several other useful values,
as equivalent air depth, is the OCEANx calculator. With
such as equivalent air depth, is the OCEANx calculator. 11. To convert depth to absolute pressure, you first find the water (hydrostatic) pressure in atmospheres and
the oxygen percentage set on the OCEANx calculator,
With the oxygen percentage set on the OCEANx calculator, then add ____________________________________________.
values for depth and oxygen limits are displayed in win-
values for depth and oxygen limits are displayed in win-
dows. The use of the OCEANx calculator will be presented
dows. The use of the OCEANx calculator will be presented
in Chapter 4: Choosing the Best Nitrox Mix. 12. To determine the partial pressure of a gas in a mixture, multiply the ______________________
O
in Chapter 4: Choosing the Best Nitrox Mix.
by the __________________________.

13. Using the “Oxygen Partial Pressure at Depth” table, what is the PO2 of EAN34 at a depth of 24 msw (80
fsw)?________________________.

26
D

26 27
 NAUI Nitrox Diver Chapter 2- Gases & Gas Mixtures

Notes

PY
Gases & Gas Mixtures

Gases & Gas Mixtures

O
C
T
O
N
O
D

28 29
 NAUI Nitrox Diver Chapter 3- The Physiology of Diving and Nitrox

CHAPTER

PY

The Physiology of Diving and Nitrox

The Physiology of Diving and Nitrox

O
C
The
Physiology

T
of Diving and O
Nitrox
N
O
D

30 31
 NAUI Nitrox Diver Chapter 3- The Physiology of Diving and Nitrox

PY
LEARNING GOALS NITROGEN: NARCOSIS AND has minimal narcotic potency, it is used as a diluting gas
in trimix when diving to depths where nitrogen narcosis
In this chapter, you will learn: DECOMPRESSION SICKNESS becomes a serious concern or incapacitating.
• The physiological effects of nitrogen in diving. In our normal lives above water, nitrogen just dilutes The effects of narcosis can be measured at shallower

The Physiology of Diving and Nitrox

The Physiology of Diving and Nitrox

• Basic information about nitrogen narcosis and the concentration of oxygen in the air. Remember that depths, but they become more pronounced when the Dive Dive Dive
Depth
decompression sickness. our bodies do not need or use nitrogen in metabolism. partial pressure of nitrogen is approaching four atmos-
The problem develops when, under increased pressure, pheres, which is about 40 msw (132 fsw) when breathing
• The physiological effects of low oxygen levels. Time
as in diving, higher concentrations of nitrogen become air. Symptoms increase with increasing depth. Other fac-

O
• The physiological effects of high oxygen levels. dissolved in our bodies. tors also affect the degree of narcosis. Anxiety and stress, Represents tissue nitrogen levels
• Signs and symptoms of oxygen toxicity. fatigue, cold, hard work, high carbon dioxide levels in
• The limits of hyperbaric oxygen exposure. Nitrogen Narcosis the body, and alcohol have all been shown to enhance
FIGURE 3-1: TISSUE NITROGEN LEVELS INCREASE DURING DIVES
You were introduced to nitrogen narcosis in your narcosis. On the other hand, positive motivation seems
AND DECREASE DURING SURFACE INTERVALS
entry-level scuba course as well as in the discussion of to reduce its effects. Some divers report acclimatization
When we dive, we subject ourselves to external

C
following repeated exposures, but studies have shown that useful, and we can now use some of the concepts you
physical forces that are beyond our everyday experience. the composition of air in Chapter 2. Nitrogen narcosis is
any adaptation is largely subjective. learned in earlier chapters of this book. Again, if you
Our body does its best to keep its functions balanced and produced by increased nitrogen partial pressure. It is a
Narcosis itself is not the danger, but the impaired want to learn more about decompression theory, the
within safe ranges (homeostasis), but past some point, stuporous condition characterized by impaired mental
judgment, loss of orientation, and reduction in prob- NAUI Master Scuba Diver course will greatly increase you
short- and long-term exposure to the hyperbaric div- and physical performance and changes in mood and
lem solving capabilities are, and the “narked” diver is knowledge and understanding.
ing environment may affect us in ways that range from behavior. Although there is marked variation in individ-
at increased risk. It may become difficult for a diver to During a dive, our bodies are exposed to increased
mildly impeding to life threatening. In this course we are ual susceptibility and effect, narcosis places a depth limit
on safe diving using compressed air. Nitrogen narcosis monitor time, depth, and air supply, remember the dive pressure. While we are underwater, the increased par-
concerned with the physiological effects of the gas we
plan, or concentrate on the task at hand. Perhaps the tial pressure of the nitrogen in the air (or gas) we are

T
will be breathing–oxygen enriched air. The dictionary was called “rapture of the deep” by Jacques Cousteau and
is often referred to by divers as being “narked.” most insidious thing about nitrogen narcosis is that div- breathing forces additional nitrogen into solution in the
defines physiology as “the study of the organic processes
Reasoning and judgment, recent memory, and abil- ers may not be aware that they are impaired. tissues of our body (Henry’s Law). Passing out of the
and phenomena of an organism or any of its parts or
ity to concentrate are the first to be affected by narcosis. At first glance, you might assume that you should be lungs through the walls of the alveoli, dissolved nitrogen
of a particular bodily process.” A basic knowledge of
Perceptual narrowing and careless behavior can also be less subject to nitrogen narcosis when diving with nitrox enters the blood and is carried to all parts of our body.
the physiology of nitrogen and oxygen will help you to
understand their effects in diving, and you will be able to
use that knowledge to plan safe dives and avoid possible
undesirable effects.
This chapter discusses possible harmful things
that can result from nitrogen and oxygen overexposure,
O
symptoms. The diver may feel a pleasant euphoria–espe-
cially in warm, comfortable, tropical waters–but, on the
other hand, may experience feelings of dread or forebod-
ing. An early study called it “semi-loss of consciousness”
and noted that divers at depths of 60 meters (200 feet)
because you have replaced some of the nitrogen with
oxygen. However, there is no hard or definitive evidence
to support this, and it is safer to assume that there is no
appreciable benefit to breathing nitrox.
As you will remember from your entry-level scuba
course, nitrogen narcosis is easily reversible. An ascent to
There, the pressure gradient between the nitrogen dis-
solved in our blood and the nitrogen in the surrounding
tissues causes dissolved nitrogen to move into the tissues.
The greater the pressure (depth) and the longer we are
submerged, the more nitrogen will dissolve in our bodies
N
their prevention, and first aid procedures for breath- would neglect to perform assigned tasks and would not until eventually the gas tension (partial pressure) of the
remember events of the dive after they returned to the a shallower depth is all that is required. The symptoms dissolved nitrogen in our tissues reaches equilibrium
ing-gas-related problems. Earlier chapters introduced
surface. Divers have reported that it feels “darker,” that disappear as you ascend. It could also be that the stress or with the partial pressure of the nitrogen in our breathing
you to the importance of the nitrogen and oxygen in your
they feel closed in, or that they have to concentrate more anxiety that you are experiencing at depth is as much due mixture at that depth. This may take more or less time
everyday life as well as when diving. This chapter will
intently on what they are doing. to psychological factors of being outside your personal depending on many factors, including the type of tissue
review this information and take your understanding a
The mechanisms of nitrogen narcosis are imper- “comfort envelope.” In this case, the obvious solution is and the circulation to it. Because nitrogen is metaboli-
step further.
fectly understood, but they are thought to be similar also an ascent to a shallower, more comfortable depth. cally inert, it simply remains in our tissues while we are
The information presented here is still only an intro-
at depth.
O
duction, and it is primarily focused on practical infor- to that of gases used in general anesthesia for surgical
mation as it applies to diving with oxygen-enriched air. procedures. Narcotic effects are not limited to nitrogen. Decompression Sickness When we ascend properly from a dive, the reverse
If you want to explore these subjects in greater depth, the Any inert gas breathed under pressure can cause nar- You learned about the basics of decompression occurs. The partial pressure of nitrogen in our lungs is
NAUI Master Scuba Diver course or courses in aspects of cosis, and the malady is more correctly called inert gas sickness (DCS or “the bends”)–what causes it, its signs now reduced (to 0.79 atmosphere at the surface), and
technical diving offer opportunities for you to do so. narcosis. The narcotic potency of an inert gas is related and symptoms, how to avoid it, and how it is treated–in what is now excess dissolved nitrogen migrates from the
to its solubility in lipid (fatty) tissues. Because helium your entry-level scuba course. A brief review will be areas of higher nitrogen tension (tissues) and diffuses
D

32 33
 NAUI Nitrox Diver Chapter 3- The PhysiologyChapterof 3Diving and Nitrox
- The Physiology of Diving and Nitrox

PY
To plan
plan dives,
dives,we weuseusedive
divetables
tablesorordive
divecomputers.
comput-
Because we reduce the rate of nitrogen
ers. Because we reduce the rate of nitrogen uptake uptake when we USES AND PHYSIOLOGY OF OXYGEN
breathe
when weoxygen-enriched
breathe oxygen-enriched air, specialair, nitrox dive nitrox
special tables or
computers are used for nitrox diving.
dive tables or computers are used for nitrox diving. We can also useWe a OXYGEN

The
PARTIAL
The Physiology of Diving and Nitrox

The Physiology
calculated
can also use “equivalent
a calculated air depth” with standard
“equivalent air depth” airwith
tables.
These
standardtoolsairaretables.
discussedTheselatertoolsin are
theirdiscussed
own chapter.
later in PRESSURE

Physiology ofof Diving

theirAsown
a responsible
chapter. diver, you should be mindful of EAN50 used in 6 ata (50 msw/165 fsw)
otherAspredisposing
a responsible factors
diver,thatyouare likelybetomindful
should increaseof 3.0 ATA
recompression chamber treatment.

O
other predisposing
susceptibility to DCS.factors that are which
Dehydration, likely to increase
reduces thesus-
ceptibilityoftoyour
efficiency DCS.circulation,
Dehydration, which
is now reducesto the
believed be aeffi- 2.8 ATA 100% oxygen used in 2.8 ata (18 msw/60 fsw)
recompression chamber treatment.
ciency contributor
major of your circulation, is now believed
to the development of DCS.to be a major
Divers
contributor
are well advisedto theto development
drink plenty ofof fluidsDCS. Divers are well
and avoid EAN used in 6 ata (50 msw/165 fsw)
2.4 ATA 40
advised toamounts
excessive drink plenty of fluids
of diuretic and avoid
drinks, such asexcessive
coffee, caf- recompression chamber treatment.

Diving and
C
FIGURE 3-3: BUBBLES IN RIGHT ATRIUM AND VENTRICLE OF AN amountssoft
feinated of diuretic
drinks, and drinks, such which
alcohol, as coffee,
cancaffeinated
contribute
EXPERIMENTAL SUBJECT FOLLOWING DECOMPRESSION softdehydration
to drinks, andinsteadalcohol, of which
preventingcan contribute to dehy-
it. During diving, 100% oxygen used in commercial/military
Image courtesy of Neal W. Pollock, Ph.D.; Center for Hyperbaric Medicine drationexercise
heavy insteadwill of preventing it. Duringtodiving,
increase circulation heavy
the exercised 2.2 ATA on-site “surface decompression” chambers at

and Nitrox
FIGURE 3-2: DISSOLVED CARBON DIOXIDE IS INVISIBLE IN A SEALED
and Environmental Physiology, Duke University Medical Center exercise
parts andwill increase
speed circulation
up ingassing. Aftertodiving,
the exercised
exerciseparts
can
2.2 ata (12 msw/40 fsw).
and speedlikelihood
up ingassing. Afterformation,
diving, exercise can
1.6 ATA NOAA maximum oxygen partial pressure limit
BOTTLE OF SODA BUT APPEARS AS BUBBLES WHEN weakness and tingling in the limbs, limb and joint pain increase of bubble while resting

Nitrox
THE PRESSURE IS SUDDENLY REDUCED and dysfunction, skin rashes and itching, vertigo, loss of and relaxing will give the body better opportunityresting
increase likelihood of bubble formation, while to off- for a working scientific diver.
sensation, paralysis, and even death. Divers once referred andproperly.
gas relaxing General
will givephysical
the bodyfitness
betterisopportunity to off-
also beneficial
into the free-phase nitrogen within the blood stream
to “niggles” (from the word “niggling,” meaning trou- gas properly. General physical fitness
because it promotes more efficient muscle use and blood is also beneficial 1.4 ATA NAUI recommended maximum oxygen partial

T
(that is, nitrogen is already present as micro-bubbles). because it promotes more efficient muscle
pressure for recreational diving.
blesome or irritating), mild symptoms of DCS that would flow. A person’s general circulation becomesuse lessand
effi-blood
The interplay between the dissolved phase and the
free phase (bubbles) determines the effectiveness of
probably (or hopefully) resolve themselves and go away flow. A person’s general circulation
cient with increasing age, and therefore older divers becomes less effi-are 0.5 ATA Threshold for long-term exposure pulmonary
oxygen toxicity effects.
over time. But in reality, anyone with a suspected case of cient with
advised increasing
to dive age, and therefore older divers are
more conservatively.
safe nitrogen elimination as well as possible damage to advised to dive more conservatively.
DCS should be administered 100% oxygen as immediate 0.35-0.4 Normal oxygen partial pressure limit for

O
the body. Ideally, the free phase nitrogen is carried via
first aid, examined by a trained physician, and if decom- ATA commercial “saturation divers.”
the blood to the lungs where it passes into the alveoli
and is exhaled. This elimination occurs over time until pression sickness is suspected, receive recompression OXYGEN: THE GOOD AND THE BAD 0.21 ATA Normal oxygen level in the atmosphere at sea
the nitrogen tensions in our body’s tissues are again in chamber treatment. If in doubt, treat!Untreated, even the OXYGEN: THE GOODscuba
In your beginning ANDcourse,
THEyour
BADinstructor level.
equilibrium with the partial pressure of nitrogen in the mildest case of decompression sickness may worsen over In your
probably said:beginning
“At extreme scuba course,
depths, yourtheinstructor
even oxygen in
time, and permanent injury is a more likely outcome.
0.14-0.16 Initial signs and symptoms of hypoxia appear.
atmosphere. This absorption and elimination of nitrogen probably
the air you said: “At extreme
breathe can becomedepths,toxic,
evenbutthethis
oxygen
onlyinhap-
the ATA
N
are termed ingassing and offgassing. You have probably heard that “all dives are decom- pensyou
air at breathe
depths farcangreater
becomethan recreational
toxic, but this only limits, so
happens
However, if we dive too deep, for too long, and then pression dives.” This is a truism, in that; any reduction in don’t
at worry
depths farabout
greaterit.”than
Endrecreational
of subject. Nowlimits,you so are
don’t
0.09-0.10 Serious signs and symptoms of hypoxia.
ascend too fast, the pressure gradient between the dis- pressure is consistent with the literal definition of decom- learning to dive withofoxygen-enriched
ATA
worry about it.” End subject. Now youair, areand oxygento
learning
solved nitrogen and the ambient pressure is too great pression. Every diver ascending from depth is experienc- toxicity
dive withand oxygen safety are
oxygen-enriched air, very
and real
oxygenconcerns.
toxicity and 0.08-0.10 Most persons lose consciousness.
for proper, controlled offgassing, and excess released ing decompression in this sense. Divers, however, usually oxygenOxygen is vital
safety are very toreal
ourconcerns.
being. It is our essential life- ATA
nitrogen diffuses into the free-phase bubbles within the use decompression to mean the controlled reduction of support element.
Oxygen If we
is vital are deprived
to our being. It of oxygen,
is our our sur-
essential 0.08 ATA Coma and death.
body. Once the bubbles enlarge and begin to aggregate pressure on ascent in order to control bubble growth and vival time is element.
life-support measuredIfinwejust areminutes.
deprivedStill, our bodies
of oxygen, our FIGURE 3-4: USES AND PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT
prevent decompression sickness. It is the rate of ascent FIGURE 3-4: USES AND PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT
O
they cause mechanical injury and also block the blood operate well only within a rather narrow
survival time is measured in just minutes. Still, our range of oxygen
LEVELS OF OXYGEN
flow to tissues, and the trauma presents as decompression that will determine level of risk with regard to bubble partial operate
bodies pressures.wellToo
onlyhigh an oxygen
within a ratherlevel can be
narrow just of
range as LEVELS OF OXYGEN
sickness. growth in accordance with Boyle’s Law calculations. As harmful as too low.
oxygen partial pressures. Too high an oxygen level can be required
many when handling
substances, pureand
special care oxygen or gas mixtures
precautions are required
The signs and symptoms of DCS vary greatly divers, we plan our dives to prevent excessive nitrogen just asMoreover,
harmful because
as too low.oxygen is so highly reactive, sup- when handling pure oxygen or gas mixtures thatchapter
that are high in oxygen concentration. A later are highof
depending on the location of the injury and the severity of loading during the dive and to control bubble growth on porting combustion and
Moreover, because oxygen combining aggressively
is so highly reactive,with thisoxygen
in book concentration.
is devoted to oxygen
A later handling
chapter ofand
this equipment
book is
the case. They can range from simple excessive fatigue to ascent in order to avoid “getting bent.” many substances,
supporting special
combustion andcare and precautions
combining aggressively are with considerations.
devoted to oxygen handling and equipment considerations.
D

34 3535
 NAUI Nitrox Diver Chapter 3- The PhysiologyChapterof3 Diving and Nitrox
- The Physiology of Diving and Nitrox

PY
Oxygen and Metabolism shallow depth can lead to hypoxia. Although extremely MAXIMUM AND CONTINGENCY OPERATING DEPTHS long
reservedrunfor
of yourenriched
thecontingencies.
house alwaysWith
diving, theairgenerally
nitrox mixture,
wins.appropriate
For recreational
1.4 POata2PO
selection
Oxygen is our life-support gas, the gas we extract
rare (only one reported death since accident records nitrox accepted 2 is more
exposure
from air in respiration and use in metabolism to gener-
have been kept) hypoxia has also occurred from internal EAN32 EAN36 than adequate
limit for 99.9% ofabsolute,
is 1.4 atmospheres the diveswith you 1.6
mayata want to
reserved
rusting of a steel cylinder stored over many months with accomplish.
for contingencies. With appropriate selection of your
ate heat and energy. It is absorbed through our lungs,

The
The Physiology of Diving and Nitrox

The Physiology
some water inside, which supported additional rusting MAXIMUM DEPTH 33 msw (110 fsw) 27 msw (90 fsw) Among
enriched air the many
nitrox factors that
mixture, canPO
1.4 ata increase
2 is moreyourthan
combined with the hemoglobin in our red blood cells, that consumed the oxygen in the stored air. adequate for 99.9% of the dives you may want toHit”)
susceptibility to CNS oxygen toxicity (an “Ox-Tox
and delivered to the tissues via the arterial system. There PO2 1.39 1.34

Physiology ofof Diving

are heavy exercise, increased carbon dioxide build-up
accomplish.
it is metabolized to produce our life-maintaining energy. CONTINGENCY DEPTH 40 msw (130 fsw) 33 msw (110 fsw)
Physiological Effects of High Oxygen Levels fromAmong
whatever thecause,
manychilling
factorsorthat hypothermia,
can increase andyourwater

O
The primary waste product is carbon dioxide, which–dis- PO2 1.58 1.56 immersion (astoopposed
susceptibility CNS oxygen to “chamber
toxicitydiving”).
(an “Ox-Tox One can-
solved in the serum of our blood–is delivered back to the Oxygen is essential to us, and it also plays an
not predict oxygen toxicity.
Hit”) are heavy exercise, increased carbon dioxide
lungs via the venous side of the circulatory system and important role in the treatment of diving maladies such FIGURE 3-5: MAXIMUM OPERATING DEPTHS AND MAXIMUM
FIGURE 3-5: MAXIMUM OPERATING It is also
build-up fromimpossible
whatever tocause, predict a reliable
chilling sequence
or hypother-
exhaled. as decompression sickness. Divers planning stage-de- CONTINGENCY DEPTHSDEPTHS AND MAXIMUM
FOR STANDARD
MIXES, BASED
CONTINGENCY DEPTHS FORPOSTANDARD MIXES, BASED of toxicity signs and symptoms.
mia, and water immersion (as opposed to “chamber The first noticeable sign
compression dives will breathe high concentrations of ON A NORMAL MAXIMUM 2 OF 1.4 ATA, AND A may be theOne epilepsy-like convulsions.
oxygenThis may not be

Diving and
ON A NORMAL MAXIMUM PO2 OF 1.4 ATA, AND A diving”). cannot predict toxicity.
Physiological Effects of Low Oxygen Levels oxygen during decompression stops in order to offgas CONTINGENCY LIMIT PO2 OF 1.6 ATA

C
CONTINGENCY LIMIT PO2 OF 1.6 ATA serious in itself, but it is most certainly
It is also impossible to predict a reliable sequence a problem if it of
nitrogen more quickly, but safely. As nitrox divers, we
(Hypoxia) use oxygen-enriched air to safely prolong our dive time tain military and commercial diving, or recompression occurs atsigns
toxicity
out of a
a depth
scuba
and of 30 meters The
symptoms.
regulator. Drowning
(100first
feet)noticeable
is a
while breathing
very
sign
likelynotresult.
Pulmonary toxicity is not a concern of the recre- may be the epilepsy-like convulsions. This may be

andNitrox
Our bodies are optimized to operate at greatest effi- or to increase our nitrogen safety margins. However, chamber treatment.
ational nitrox diver;
Pulmonary CNSistoxicity
toxicity is a concern.
not a concern of the recre- Many preliminary manifestations of CNS
serious in itself, but it is most certainly a problem if it oxygen toxicity
ciency when the oxygen partial pressure approximates because we are utilizing an oxygen-enriched mixture, have been at areported,
depth of either singly(100or infeet)
combination. The

Nitrox
we must control and monitor the inspired partial pres- ational nitrox diver; CNS toxicity is a concern. occurs 30 meters while breath-
that of standard sea-level air, 0.21 atmospheres abso- mnemonic
lute. People who live at altitude do become acclimated sure of oxygen we are breathing as well as pay attention ing out of aacronym “ConVENTID”
scuba regulator. Drowning is useful for remem-
is a very likely
bering the most obvious of them.
result. Many preliminary manifestations of CNS ConVENTID stands
oxygen
to lower oxygen levels by increasing the number of red to the other parts of dive planning. If we did not do so, for: Convulsions,
CENTRAL NERVOUS
NERVOUS SYSTEM
SYSTEM TOXICITY
TOXICITY have beenVisual disturbances, Ears,orNausea,

T
blood cells in their bodies and other changes. But, if the we could easily get into trouble by diving to depths that CENTRAL toxicity reported,
tion. The mnemonic acronym “ConVENTID” is or
Twitching or Tingling,
either singly
Irritability, and
in combina-
Dizziness useful
partial pressure of oxygen falls too low, the oxygen sup- allow the oxygen partial pressure in our breathing gas to Susceptibility toto CNS
Susceptibility CNS oxygen
oxygentoxicity
toxicityvaries
variesgreatly
greatly Dyspnea.
for remembering the most obvious of them. ConVENTID
ply is inadequate to the task of fully supporting us, the become dangerously high.
between individuals and is affected by other factorsand
between individuals and is affected by other factors and stands for: Convulsions, Visual disturbances, Ears,
symptoms of hypoxia, which means “low oxygen,” begin With oxygen and nitrox, it is entirely possible to get conditions as
conditions as well.
well. One’s
One’soxygen
oxygentolerance
tolerancehas hasalsoalsobeen • Convulsions
Nausea, Twitching orareTingling, the mostIrritability,
obvious and andmost seri
Dizziness
“too much of a good thing,” There are two types of oxy-

O
to appear. The brain, which requires large amounts of shownshown
been to varytofromvary day
fromtodayday.toIt day.
is impossible to predict-
It is impossible to ous
or Dyspnea. signs. Possible precursors to convulsions are:
energy, is among the first to suffer. gen toxicity. predictably relate CNS oxygen toxicity appearancedefinite
ably relate CNS oxygen toxicity appearance to any to Visual disturbances,
•• Convulsions are the most tunnel vision,
obvious anddazzle
most or seeing
Manifestations of hypoxia include impaired mental Central nervous system toxicity has a wide PO2definite
any and timePOexposure. Nevertheless, it is certain that
performance and defective memory, blueness of the lips range of signs and symptoms, the most dramatic being 2 and time exposure. Nevertheless, it is “fireflies.”
serious signs. Possible precursors to convulsions are:
the greater
certain thatthetheoxygen
greaterpartial pressure
the oxygen and the
partial longerand
pressure the • Ear ringing, tinnitus,tunnelor sounds
(cyanosis), fatigue, visual disturbances, and dizziness. epilepsy-like convulsions. CNS toxicity can result from time of exposure, the more likely it is that symptoms of
• Visual disturbances, vision,likedazzle
an approach-
or
the longer the time of exposure, the more likely it is ing train in
seeing “fireflies.” a tunnel.
For most persons, symptoms begin to appear if the par- relatively short exposures to high partial pressures of CNS symptoms
that oxygen toxicity of CNS willoxygen
develop.toxicity
In setting willoxygen
develop.expo- In Nausea,
•• Ear including
tinnitus,vomiting.
N
tial pressure of inspired oxygen falls below about 0.16 oxygen. sure limits, it is best to err on the side of safety. ringing, or sounds like an approach-
setting oxygen exposure limits, it is best to err on the Twitching,
• ing train in aespecially
tunnel. of the lips and small facial
atmosphere. If the partial pressure of inspired oxygen The other type is called pulmonary toxicity or Beginning
side of safety. with its first presentation of oxygen-en- musclesincluding
• Nausea, or the hands, or tingling (paresthesia)
vomiting.
falls below about 0.10 atmosphere more severe symp- whole body toxicity. Pulmonary toxicity results from riched air
Beginningfor scubawithdiving
its firstin presentation
the second edition of the
of oxygen- especially in the fingers.
• Twitching, especially of the lips and small facial
toms leading to unconsciousness will occur. Because the prolonged exposure to elevated partial pressures of oxy- NOAA Diving
enriched air forManual (1979),inNOAA
scuba diving has recommended
the second edition of Irritability
• muscles or therestlessness,
hands, or tingling euphoria, dysphoria
(paresthesia)
breathing stimulus is largely controlled by carbon dioxide gen (above about 0.5 atmosphere). As the name implies, athemaximum
NOAA Diving Manual (1979), NOAA has In
oxygen partial pressure of 1.6 ata. the
recom- (uneasiness or feelings
especially in the fingers. of impending doom), anxi-
levels rather than oxygen levels, a hypoxic diver rarely its most pronounced effects are on the lungs, producing new fourth
mended edition (2001),
a maximum oxygen theypartial
add thepressure
cautionary com-
of 1.6 ety, or general
• Irritability, confusion.
restlessness, euphoria, dysphoria
feels any warning of impending loss of consciousness. signs and symptoms such as chest tightness, breathing ment: “A slightly lower level provides
ata. In the new fourth edition (2001), they add the less oxygen expo- Dizziness or
• (uneasiness andfeelings
vertigooforimpending
dyspnea (difficult
doom),oranxi-
O
Hypoxia is not a problem for divers breathing either discomfort and pain, shortness of breath, and coughing. sure risk.” Diving
cautionary comment: to a PO higher than
“A2slightly lower1.6 ataprovides
level has been labored breathing).
air or oxygen-enriched air, but it must be monitored in Development of pulmonary toxicity requires long-term likened to knocking on the door of a casino. Once you go ety, or general confusion.
less oxygen exposure risk.” Diving to a PO2 higher
some rebreather situations or deep diving applications. exposures such as encountered in saturation diving, cer- in, you1.6could win,beenor you could toloseknocking
a little, oronyou • Dizziness and vertigo or dyspnea (difficult or
than ata has likened thecould
door
Extremely deep dives may require low percentages of tain military and commercial diving, or recompression of a casino. Once you go in, you could win, or you For
lose a lot, but in the long run the house always wins. Otherlabored
signs canbreathing).
include facial pallor, slowed heart rate
recreational Other signs can include facial pallor, slowed heart rate
oxygen in the “bottom mix” (the breathing gas used chamber treatment. could lose a nitrox
little, ordiving, the generally
you could lose a lot, accepted
but inPO the2 (bradycardia), pupil dilation, hiccups, and hallucina-
at depth), and mistakenly breathing the bottom mix at exposure limit is 1.4 atmospheres absolute, with 1.6 ata (bradycardia),
tions. pupil dilation, hiccups, and hallucinations.
D

36 3737
 NAUI Nitrox Diver
NAUI Nitrox Diver
Chapter 3- The Physiology of Diving and Nitrox

PY
If a convulsion
convulsionwere weretotooccur
occurunderwater,
underwater,there thereisis In addition to a general PO2 limit, NOAA, in the
NOAA OXYGEN EXPOSURE LIMITS
little that
that can be done until the active phase of theseizure
can be done until the active phase of the third edition of its Diving Manual, introduced oxy-
PO2 Maximum Maximum is over and
seizure the and
is over muscles relax. Muscle
the muscles relax.contraction may
Muscle contrac- genexposure time limits for a range of oxygen partial
Single Dive 24-Hour tion may cause the diver to lose the regulator, but also
cause the diver to lose the regulator, but the victim the pressures from 0.6 ata to 1.6 ata (see Figure 3-6). The
(atm)

The Physiology of Diving and Nitrox

Nitrox

Limit (minutes) Limit (minutes) table shows allowable time for a single dive at any PO2
and Nitrox

ceases to
victim alsobreathe
ceasesduring the active
to breathe during phase as the phase
the active vigorous,
as
1.60 45 150 uncontrolled
the vigorous, muscle contractions
uncontrolled muscleinterrupt breathing
contractions inter- as well as the maximum accumulated exposure time over
and the
rupt tongue and
breathing blocksthethe airway.
tongue No attempt
blocks should
the airway. No any 24-hour period. For example, for a PO2 of 1.0 ata
1.55 83 165 be madeshould
attempt to surface victimstoofsurface
be made an “Ox-Tox
victimsHit” at this
of an “Ox- (equivalent to 38 meters/124 feet on air), the maximum
Diving and

O
1.50 120 180 Tox
time Hit” at this
because theytime
are because
effectivelythey are effectively
holding hold-
their breath. dive time for a single dive is 300 minutes (and is the
Physiology ofof Diving

ing theirthe
Because breath. Because
convulsion wastheprecipitated
convulsionbywas precipitat-
breathing same for any 24-hour period). For a PO2 of 1.4 ata (33
1.45 135 180 ed by breathing
a high a highofpartial
partial pressure oxygen, pressure of oxygen,
and oxygen and
tensions meters/111 feet on EAN32) the time limit for a single dive
1.40 150 180 oxygen
in the bodytensions in the body
are therefore high,arethetherefore high, thewell
person remains per- is 150 minutes (and 180 minutes in any 24-hour period).
son remainsduring
oxygenated well oxygenated during
the convulsion, andthehypoxia
convulsion,
is not In all cases, a recreational nitrox diver’s single dive
1.35 165 195

C
and hypoxiaCarbon
a problem. is not dioxide
a problem.
levelsCarbon
will alsodioxide
become levels
very time will be limited by the no-decompression limits as
ThePhysiology

1.30 180 210 will

highalso become
because very higharebecause
the muscles the muscles
exercising are the
heavily while well as the diver’s gas supply. These will be less than
exercising
victim is notheavily whileWhen
breathing. the victim is not breathing.
the post-convulsive, resting the NOAA single dive oxygen exposure limit, and the
1.25 195 225 When the post-convulsive,
phase begins, the muscles relax,resting
andphase begins,remains
the victim the controlling limit, if it arises at all, would be the 24-hour
1.20 210 240 muscles
unconscious. relax,Atandthisthe victim
point, remains
the victim canunconscious.
be taken to theAt oxygen exposure limit. Even then, only the most dedi-
this point, the victim can
surface and first aid care begun. be taken to the surface and cated and determined nitrox diver would possibly exceed
The

1.10 240 270 first aid care begun. the 24-hour limit. (A diver using EAN36 and diving to
1.00 300 300 the maximum dive times allowed by the NAUI EAN36

T
Dive Tables would have to perform seven square-profile
0.90 360 360
MANAGING OXYGEN EXPOSURE dives to 27 meters (90 feet) with dive times of 50 minutes
0.80 450 450 for the first dive and 24 minutes for each repetitive dive
The best way to avoid oxygen oxygen toxicity
toxicityproblems
problemsisis to
with a minimum surface interval of 2 hours 39 minutes
0.70 570 570 to stay within correct oxygenexposure
exposurelimits.
limits.AsAsstated
stated

O
stay within correct oxygen
between each dive.)
above, the generally
generally accepted
accepted limit
limitforfordiving
divingisis1.4
1.4ata
ata
0.60 720 720
PO2, with 1.6 ata ata PO
PO22 asas aa contingency.
contingency.These Theselimits
limits are
FIGURE 3-6: NOAA OXYGEN EXPOSURE TIME LIMITS. THE TABLE are not
not lineslines
drawndrawn
withwith a sword
a sword in the
in the sand–see
sand–see thethe
casino
FIGURE 3-6: NOAA OXYGEN EXPOSURE TIME LIMITS. THE TABLE
GIVES THE LIMITS FOR A SINGLE DIVE EXPOSURE TO casino comments
comments above. above. Many have
Many divers diversdived
have todived to 61
61 meters
GIVES THE LIMITS FOR A SINGLE DIVE EXPOSURE TO
VARIOUS PO2 LEVELS AND FOR EXPOSURE DURING ANY
VARIOUS PO2 LEVELS AND FOR EXPOSURE DURING (200
metersfeet)
(200and even
feet) andconsiderably
even considerablydeeper deeper
on air,on andair, AVOIDING CNS TOXICITY
N
24-HOUR PERIOD. (NOAA DIVING MANUAL, 4TH EDITION, most havehave
and most returned nonenone
returned the worse
the worsefor wear. But But
for wear. pru- CNS toxicity is avoided by abiding by easily man-
ANY 24-HOUR PERIOD. (NOAA DIVING MANUAL, 4TH
2001). OXYGEN PARTIAL PRESSURES BETWEEN 1.4 ATA dence
prudenceshould be part
should of all
be part divedive
of all planning,
planning,andandif you
if aged limits. Avoid excessive oxygen partial pressures.
EDITION, 2001). OXYGEN PARTIAL PRESSURES
AND 1.6 ATA ARE SHADED. have reason
you have to dive
reason beyond
to dive beyondrecreational
recreationallimits, youyou
limits, Remember that the recommended maximum PO2 for
BETWEEN 1.4 ATA AND 1.6 ATA ARE SHADED.
should definitely
definitely bebe preparing
preparing for for and
and taking
takingaaNAUI
NAUI recreational nitrox diving is 1.4 atmospheres, with a PO2
Appearance of any sign or symptomsymptom ofof oxygen
oxygentoxic-
toxi- trimix training
training course
course as as well
wellasasoneoneinindecompression
decompression of 1.6 atmospheres as a contingency amount. Plan your
city
ity isisreason
reasontototerminate
terminatethethedive.
dive.But,
But,because
becauseprecursor
precur- techniques. In In deep
deep diving,
diving, trimix
trimixreduces
reducesnot notonly
onlyyour
your dives and choose a nitrox mix that is appropriate to the
sor symptoms are highly variable–as well as
symptoms are highly variable–as well as subjective–and subjective– oxygen exposure but but also
also your
yournitrogen
nitrogenexposure.
exposure.(If(Ifyou dive. In the next chapter you will learn how to find the
and
they they
may may not occur,
not occur, it is doubly
it is doubly important
important that
that divers you
want to safely dive deep and remember whatwhat
want to safely dive deep and remember youand
O
you saw maximum operating depth for any given enriched air
divers keep their PO
keep their PO2 exposure exposure within an acceptable
2 within an acceptable limit. In saw and did down
did down there, trythere,
trimix.)try trimix.) nitrox mixture as well as how to determine the optimal
limit. In one study,
one study, convulsions convulsions werenoticed
were the first the first noticed
manifes- The oxygen exposure
exposure limits
limitsdescribed
described ininthis
thisbook
book mix when you know the planned depth of the dive.
manifestation in 40% of the subjects studied.
tation in 40% of the subjects studied. In another study, In another carry an extremely low risk risk ofof oxygen
oxygentoxicity.
toxicity.They
Theyare are
study, nausea was the most common first manifestation, well below any levels
levels that
that might
mightreasonably
reasonablybebeexpected
expected
nausea was the most common first manifestation, fol-
followed by muscular twitching and vertigo. to cause problems.
problems.
lowed by muscular twitching and vertigo. to cause
D

3838 39
 NAUI Nitrox Diver Chapter 3- The Physiology of Diving and Nitrox

Notes

PY
CHAPTER 3: THE PHYSIOLOGY OF DIVING AND NITROX - KNOWLEDGE REVIEW
1. ______________________________ is a stuporous condition characterized by impaired mental
and physical performance and changes in mood and behavior.

The Physiology of Diving and Nitrox

The Physiology of Diving and Nitrox

2. The mechanisms of nitrogen narcosis are thought to be similar to _________________________

___________________________________________.

O
3. This absorption and elimination of nitrogen during a dive are termed _______________________
and _______________________________.

4. The signs and symptoms of decompression sickness vary greatly and can range from
__________________________________________________________________ to
____________________________________________________________________,

C
____________________________________________________________________,
____________________________________________________________________,
____________________________________________________________________,
____________________________________________________________________,
_________________________________________________________________, and
____________________________________________________________________.

T
5. The primary waste product in metabolism is ______________________________________.

6. Symptoms of hypoxia begin to appear if the partial pressure of inspired oxygen falls below about
_______________________.

O
7. Central nervous system oxygen toxicity can result from ______________________________ to
__________________________ partial pressures of oxygen. Pulmonary oxygen toxicity results from
____________________________ to _____________________ partial pressures of oxygen.

8. For recreational nitrox diving, the generally accepted PO2 exposure limit is
_____________________, with ______________________ reserved for contingencies.
N
9. Among the many factors that can increase your susceptibility to CNS oxygen toxicity are
_____________________________, __________________________________,
_____________________________, and _______________________________.

10. The mnemonic acronym “ConVENTID” (for remembering the most obvious signs and symptoms of CNS
oxygen toxicity) stands for:
O

Con ____________________, T______________________,

V______________________, I_______________________,and
E______________________, D______________________.
N______________________,
D

40 41
 NAUI Nitrox Diver Chapter 4- Choosing the Best Nitrox Mix

CHAPTER

PY

Choosing the Best Nitrox Mix

Choosing the Best Nitrox Mix

O
C
Choosing
the Best

T
Nitrox Mix O
N
O
D

42 43
 NAUI Nitrox Diver Chapter
Chapter44-- Choosing the Best Nitrox Mix

PY
LEARNING GOALS said: “Once you strap the tank on your back, diving with
nitrox is just like diving with air.” To a large degree this
oxygen
oxygen partial
be
partial pressure
calculated
calculated forfor
pressure ofof 1.4
other
other
1.4 atmospheres,
oxygen
oxygen
atmospheres,but
partialpressures
partial pressures
butititcan
can be
as aswell.
well.
MAXIMUM OPERATING DEPTH BY TABLE
In this chapter, you will learn: is true–if you have properly prepared and planned your When a cylinder
cylinder isis filled,
filled, the
themixture
mixtureininaacylinder
cylinderisis determine the
To determine the maximum
maximumoperating
operatingdepth,
depth,gogototo
• About Maximum Operating Depth and deter- dive and follow your plan. analyzed,
analyzed, logged,
logged, and and aa contents
contentslabel
labelisisplaced
placedon onthe
the the column
column inineither
eitherthe
themetric
metricororimperial
imperialMOD MODtable
table

Choosing
Choosing the Best Nitrox Mix

mining it for any nitrox mixture. contains the

that contains thepercent oxygenininyour
percentoxygen yourmix.
mix.IfIfyour
your

Choosing the
cylinder. At that time,time, the
the MOD
MOD should
shouldbebewritten
writtenprom-
promi-
• How to use the OCEANx Calculator. inently
nently onon the cylinder’s contents label. label. IfIf the
thereference
reference mix isis not
mix not on
onthe
thetable,
table,use
usethe
thenext
nextgreater
greaterpercent.
percent.
• What “Best Mix” means and how to calculate it. limiting
limiting PO PO22 isis other
otherthan
than1.41.4ata,
ata,this
thisshould
shouldbebenotednoted Move down the the column
columntotothe
therow
rowthat
thatisisyour
yourchosen
chosen
ENRICHED AIR NITROX MIXTURES on the
the cylinder
cylinder too.too. maximum
maximumoxygen oxygenpartial
partialpressure
pressure(probably
(probably1.4).1.4).The
The

O
Up to this point, you have learned theory and con- Maximum
Maximum operating
operatingdepth
depthcan canbebeestablished
establishedusingusing maximum
maximumoperating
operatingdepth
depthininmeters
metersororfeet
feetofofseawater
seawater

the Best
cepts related to diving with oxygen-enriched air. This Historically, there are two standard nitrox mixes, a table
table (see
(see Figure
Figure 4-1:4-1: Maximum
Maximum Operating
OperatingDepth),
Depth),oror shown at
is shown at the
the intersection
intersectionofofcolumn
columnand androw.
row.
included such topics as gases, gas mixtures, partial pres- 32% oxygen and 36% oxygen, also called NOAA Nitrox

Best Nitrox
it can be
be easily
easily calculated
calculatedusing
usingthe theconcept
conceptintroduced
introduced Example 1:1: You
Example You are
are given
given aacylinder
cylinderofofEANEAN3636..To
To
sure, physiology, decompression sickness, oxygen toxicity, I and NOAA Nitrox II. Many basic nitrox courses teach in Chapter
Chapter 22 that
that“the“thepart
partisisaafraction
fractionofofthe thewhole.”
whole.”The the MOD,
find the MOD, read
read across
across the
the top
top row
row toto the
the column
column
and recommended maximum oxygen partial pressures. only the use of these two mixtures. In this NAUI course, OCEANx
The OCEANx calculator also can
calculator alsobecanused to findto maximum
be used find maxi- marked 36%. Then Then read
read down
down that
thatcolumn
columntotothe therow
rowfor

Nitrox Mix
With this chapter, you will begin learning how to however, you will be qualified to plan dives using any

C
operating
mum operatingdepth for a range
depth for a of nitrox
range of mixtures.
nitrox mixtures. 1.4 ata.ata.
for 1.4 YourYour
maximum
maximum operating depthdepth
operating is 28ismeters or
28 meters
use this knowledge to plan and execute safe dives using oxygen enriched air mixture from air up to 40% oxygen
nitrox. This and the remaining chapters of this book are (the upper limit that does not require special cleaning of Maximum Operating Depth (in fsw) for Various Nitrox Mixes

Mix
more practical in nature. all equipment–see Chapter 6). Percent O2 21% 22% 24% 26% 28% 30% 32% 34% 36% 38% 40%
For instance, you already know that you should The partial pressure of oxygen is the limiting factor PO2
limit the partial pressure of the oxygen that you breathe for all diving with oxygen-enriched air. If you are to limit 1.0 ata 124 117 104 93 84 77 70 64 58 53 49
at depth in order to minimize the risk of oxygen toxicity. your exposure to a PO2 of 1.4 atmospheres (1.6 ata as 1.1 ata 139 132 118 106 96 88 80 73 67 62 57
In this chapter we will present how to determine the a contingency), then you must be able to establish the 1.2 ata 155 147 132 119 108 99 90 83 77 71 66

T
maximum depth to which you should dive with any given maximum operating depth for the gas mixture with 1.3 ata 171 162 145 132 120 110 101 93 86 79 74
nitrox mix. We will also show how to approach this from which you are diving. On the other hand, if you know 1.4 ata 187 177 159 144 132 121 111 102 95 88 82
the other direction, that is, how you can optimize your your planned maximum depth in advance, you should be
nitrox benefit by choosing the best fraction of oxygen for 1.5 ata 202 192 173 157 143 132 121 112 104 97 90
able to pick the best mix for that dive from the range
1.6 ata 218 207 187 170 155 143 132 122 113 105 99

O
your blend if you are planning to dive to a known depth. available to you (air to 40% oxygen) and request the
In later chapters, you will learn how to use nitrox dive FIGURE 4-1a: TABLE SHOWS MAXIMUM OPERATING
OPERATING DEPTH
DEPTH FOR
FOR BREATHING
BREATHINGGASES
GASESFROM
FROMAIR
AIRTOTOEAN
EAN40. FORINTERMEDIATE
INTERMEDIATEOXYGEN
OXYGENFRACTIONS,
FRACTIONS,
optimal blend of oxygen and nitrogen when you have 40. FOR
tables in your dive planning as well as how to use stan- your cylinder filled by the blending technician. USE
USE THE NEXT RICHER MIX. FRACTIONAL DEPTHS HAVE BEEN ROUNDED DOWN TO THE NEXT SHALLOWER WHOLE NUMBER.DEPTHS
THE NEXT RICHER MIX. FRACTIONAL DEPTHS HAVE BEEN ROUNDED DOWN TO THE NEXT SHALLOWER WHOLE NUMBER. DEPTHS
dard air dive tables when diving with nitrox, precautions GREATER
GREATERTHAN
THAN130
130FSW
FSWARE
ARESHADED
SHADEDDARK.
DARK.MODS
MODSFOR
FORTHE
THERECOMMENDED
RECOMMENDEDMAXIMUM
MAXIMUMEXPOSURE
EXPOSUREOFOF1.4
1.4ATA
ATAARE
ARELIGHTLY
LIGHTLYSHADED.
SHADED.
that you must use when handling oxygen and oxygen
rich mixtures, and how oxygen-enriched air is prepared. Maximum Operating Depth (in msw) for Various Nitrox Mixes
N
Percent O2 21% 22% 24% 26% 28% 30% 32% 34% 36% 38% 40%
Actually, diving with enriched air nitrox is similar
to diving with air. In all diving, we plan our dives using
MAXIMUM OPERATING DEPTH PO2
dive tables or dive computers to monitor and control The maximum operating depth (MOD) is the 1.0 ata 38 35 31 28 26 23 21 19 17 16 15
our nitrogen loading. We dive with an awareness of and maximum depth that should be dived with a given nitrox 1.1 ata 42 40 36 32 29 26 24 22 20 18 17
respect for the environment and the limitations of our mixture. You will have to know your MOD if you are only
1.2 ata 47 44 40 36 33 30 27 25 23 21 20
training and ability. We are responsible divers–respon- able to obtain a particular nitrox blend, such as EAN32.
Regardless of the blend, you need to establish the maxi- 1.3 ata 52 49 44 40 36 33 30 28 26 24 22
sible for our own safety, responsible to our dive partner,
1.4 ata 57 54 48 43 40 36 33 31 28 26 25
O
and responsible in our attitude and impact on the ocean mum depth to which you can dive using that cylinder. If
or aquatic environment we are visiting. The added differ- you are able to obtain a custom blend to your specifica- 1.5 ata 61 58 52 47 43 40 36 34 31 29 27
ence is that with nitrox there are more variables involved tions, you can use the more flexible “best mix” and ask 1.6 ata 66 63 57 51 47 43 40 37 34 32 30
because we are now in control of what we are breathing. for an appropriate oxygen percentage in your mix. FIGURE 4-1b: TABLE SHOWS MAXIMUM OPERATING DEPTH FOR BREATHING GASES FROM AIRAIR TO
TO EAN 40. FOR
EAN40. FOR INTERMEDIATE
INTERMEDIATEOXYGEN
OXYGENFRACTIONS,
FRACTIONS,
Also, using oxygen means that we must be aware of cer- For normal recreational nitrox diving, the MOD USE THE NEXT RICHER MIX. FRACTIONAL DEPTHS HAVE
HAVE BEEN
BEEN ROUNDED
ROUNDED DOWN
DOWN TOTO THE
THE NEXT
NEXT SHALLOWER
SHALLOWER WHOLE
WHOLE NUMBER.
NUMBER. DEPTHS
DEPTHS
tain special precautions regarding its use. It is sometimes should be derived from the recommended maximum GREATER
GREATER THAN 40 MSW ARE SHADED DARK. MODS FOR THE RECOMMENDED MAXIMUM EXPOSURE OF 1.4 ATA ARE LIGHTLYSHADED.
THAN 40 MSW ARE SHADED DARK. MODS FOR THE RECOMMENDED MAXIMUM EXPOSURE OF 1.4 ATA ARE LIGHTLY SHADED.
D

44 4545
 NAUI Nitrox Diver Chapter
Chapter 44-- Choosing the Best Nitrox Mix

PY
95 feet. If you dive deeper, you will exceed 1.4 ata PO2. Ptotal = Pg / Fg or Pata = PO2 limit / FO2
Oxygen Percentages for Best Mix
Example 2: You receive a cylinder that contains
EAN33, and you choose to dive to a more conservative Remember to convert the oxygen percentage to a PO2 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6
oxygen partial pressure of 1.3 atmospheres. To find your fraction. fsw msw

Choosing
Choosing the Best Nitrox Mix

Choosing the
MOD, read across the top row to the column marked 34% 40 12 40% 40% 40% 40% 40%
(rounding up from 33%). Then read down the column to Pata = 1.4 atmospheres / 0.36 = 3.9 atmospheres absolute 45 14 40% 40% 40% 40% 40%
the row for 1.3 ata. Your maximum operating depth for 50 15 40% 40% 40% 40% 40%
your chosen oxygen partial pressure is 28 meters or 93 feet. Step 2: To find the depth at which the absolute pressure 55 17 40% 40% 40% 40% 40%

O
60 18 40% 40% 40% 40% 40%

the Best
is 3.9 ata, use the formula from Chapter 2:
65 20 40% 40% 40% 40% 40%

Best Nitrox
70 21 40% 40% 40% 40% 40%
D fsw = (Pata −1atm) × 33 fsw / atm =
CALCULATING MAXIMUM OPERATING (3.9 ata -1 atm) × 33 fsw/atm = 95 fsw
75 23 37% 40% 40% 40% 40%
80 24 35% 38% 40% 40% 40%
DEPTH

Nitrox Mix
85 26 34% 36% 39% 40% 40%

C
To calculate the maximum operating depth for any (rounding down), or 90 27 32% 35% 38% 40% 40%
nitrox mixture, begin by finding the total pressure that it 95 29 31% 34% 36% 39% 40%

Mix
takes to produce the maximum acceptable oxygen par- D fsw = (P ata × 33 fsw/ atm) − 33 fsw = FIGURE4-2:
4-2:OCEANx
OCEANXCALCULATOR
CALCULATOR 100 30 30% 32% 35% 37% 40%
FIGURE
tial pressure. Then convert this total pressure to a depth. (3.9 ata × 33 fsw/atm) - 33 fsw = 95 fsw 105 32 29% 31% 33% 36% 38%
can be
(See set on4-2).
Figure the Oxygen
OCEANx.percentages
With the appropriate
from 25% tooxygen
40%
You can do this in two separate steps, or the two steps can percentage dialed into the window at the upper oxygen
edge of 110 33 28% 30% 32% 35% 37%
Using S.I./metric measurements with a value of 10 msw/ can be set on the OCEANx. With the appropriate 115 35 27% 29% 31% 33% 36%
be blended into a single formula, as will be shown later. the wheel, the calculator
bar, the depth is 29 meters. percentage dialed into theshows
windowtheatactual depthedge
the upper for par-
120 36 26% 28% 30% 32% 35%
Example: What is the maximum operating depth for tial pressures of oxygen from 1.0 to 1.6 atmospheres.

T
of the wheel, the calculator shows the actual depth for 125 38 25% 27% 29% 31% 33%
EAN36 (using 1.4 ata PO2 as your acceptable limit)? These actual depth values appear
The two step process can be combined into a single for- partial pressures of oxygen from 1.0intothe1.6“AD fsw” win-
atmospheres. 130 40 24% 26% 28% 30% 32%
Step 1: Find how many total atmospheres of pressure dow at the bottom. The OCEANx also displays thewindow
equiv-
mula by replacing the total pressure in Step 2 with its These actual depth values appear in the “AD fsw”
will produce your target PO2. To help you remember the FIGURE
FIGURE4-3:
4-3:BYBYSELECTING
SELECTINGTHETHEPLANNED
PLANNEDMAXIMUM DEPTH
equivalent “PO2 limit / FO2” that you used in Step 1: atalent
the air depthThe
bottom. for OCEANx
actual divealsodepths up the
displays to aequivalent
PO2 of 1.6 MAXIMUM DEPTH
formula, use the mnemonic phrase: “The part is a fraction of and other oxygen exposure information, such as NOAA AND THE MAXIMUM OXYGEN PARTIAL
AND THE MAXIMUM OXYGEN PARTIAL PRESSURE PRESSURE
air depth for actual dive depths up to a PO2 of 1.6 and

( )
O
the whole” or the diagram that was presented in Chapter 2: PO2 limit single dive oxygen exposure time limit. Equivalent air (USUALLY
(USUALLY1.41.4ATA),
ATA),THETHEBEST OXYGEN
BEST OXYGENPERCENTAGE
PERCENTAGE
D fsw = - 1 atm × 33 fsw / atm other oxygen exposure information, such as NOAA single
FO2 depth will be used in the next chapter’s discussion
dive oxygen exposure time limit. Equivalent air depth will of FOR
FOR THE NITROX MIX IS EASILY ESTABLISHED.
THE NITROX MIX IS EASILY ESTABLISHED.
Partial using
be usedstandard air chapter’s
in the next dive tablesdiscussion
with nitrox.of using standard ALTHOUGH
ALTHOUGHPERCENTAGES
PERCENTAGESHIGHER HIGHERTHAN
THAN40%40%AREARE
Or, if finding the absolute pressure first and then sub-
Pressure air dive tables with nitrox. OBTAINEDBYBYCALCULATION,
OBTAINED CALCULATION,THIS THISTABLE
TABLESHOWS
SHOWS
tracting the number for fsw in one atmosphere:
EAN4040AS THE HIGHEST OXYGEN MIX USED IN IN
EAN AS THE HIGHEST OXYGEN MIX USED
CHOOSING YOUR “BEST MIX” RECREATIONALNITROX
NITROXDIVING.
DIVING.
( )
N
PO2 limit RECREATIONAL
D fsw = × 33 fsw / atm - 33 fsw The standard nitrox mixes of 32% and 36% oxygen
Total Gas FO2 known
can as theat “the
be used mix.”
target
best As with
depth. Themaximum operating
filling technician
Pressure Fraction CHOOSING YOUR “BEST MIX”
are sufficient for most recreational oxygen-enriched air
diving. The NAUI EAN32 and EAN36 dive tables, which
can then blend the specific mix for that dive. This from
depth, best mix can be determined from a table, mix isa
Using the first formula, the above example becomes: Thepresented
standardinnitrox mixeschapter,
of 32%haveand 36% oxygen of formula,
known as or
theby“best
usingmix.”
the OCEANxAs withcalculator.
maximum operating
will be the next a tolerance
are sufficient for most recreational oxygen-enriched air depth, best mix can be determined from a table, from a
( )
1.4 atm ±1% and are therefore useable for mixes of 31% to 33%
diving. Theto NAUI EAN32 and EAN36 divebetables,
times which
D fsw =
0.36
- 1 atm × 33 fsw / atm = 95 fsw and 35%
will be
37% oxygen.
presented in the
Yet there
next chapter,
may
have
diver wants to maximize no-required-decompression- a
when a
tolerance BEST MIX BY TABLE
formula, or by using the OCEANx calculator.
O
The basic formula is: ofstop
±1%
diveand
timearefortherefore
a specificuseable
depth.for mixes of 31% to Figure 4-3 presents oxygen percentages (up to 40%
33%and 35% to 37% oxygen.
To do this the diver needs Yettothere may bethe
determine times
highest maximum) that will provide oxygen partial pressures
Pg = Fg × Ptotal USING THE OCEANX TO ESTABLISH MOD when a diver wants to maximize no-required-decom-
fraction or percentage of oxygen (up to EAN40) that can from 1.2 to 1.6 atmospheres at various depths. Except for
BEST MIX BY TABLE
pression-stop
be used at thedive time for aThe
specific depth. contingency purposes, the diver should select a PO2 of
The OCEANx calculator is a wheel-type tool that target depth. filling technician can
Or, since you know the target partial pressure and the To do this the diver needs to determine
then blend the specific mix for that dive. This themix
highest
is 1.4 orFigure 4-3 presents
less. Some oxygen percentages
extra-cautious divers always(up
usetoa PO2
allows the oxygen percentage of the mix to be dialed in
fraction of gas in the mix: fraction or percentage of oxygen (up to EAN40) that 40%maximum) that will provide oxygen partial pressures
D

46 4747
 NAUI Nitrox Diver Chapter 4- Choosing the Best Nitrox Mix

PY
from 1.2 to 1.6 atmospheres at various depths. Except for Enter the known values: When diving with oxygen-enriched air, it is essential that
contingency purposes, the diver should select a PO2 of you know the maximum operating depth for the gas with
1.4 or less. Some extra-cautious divers always use a PO2 FO2 = 1.4 ata / 4 ata = 0.35 which you are diving. The MOD should be determined
of 1.3 as their personal maximum. After selecting the for each cylinder independently at the time the contents

Choosing the Best Nitrox Mix

Choosing the Best Nitrox Mix

PO2, move down the column to the row that shows the EAN35 is the best mix for the dive. The procedure is are analyzed (see Chapter 7). It should be marked clearly
identical in an S.I./metric calculation. on the cylinder contents label, and the cylinder should
planned depth, rounding up if the exact depth is not on The two-step process can be combined into a single
the table. The intersection of column and row shows the be checked before the dive. Best mix allows you to have
formula by replacing the absolute pressure in Step 2 with more control over your diving by using the optimal nitrox

O
best mix oxygen percentage for the dive. its formulaic equivalent from Step 1: blend for your dives, perhaps gaining additional no-re-

CALCULATING BEST MIX

FO2 = PO2 limit ÷
( D fsw
33 fsw / atm
+1
) =
PO2 limit × 33 fsw / atm
D fsw + 33 fsw
quired-decompression dive time in the process.
Planning and executing a nitrox dive requires more
than just knowing the maximum operating depth or the
Calculating best mix is similar to the calculation for nitrox blend you will use. When you dive, you must also
Or, in the example:

C
maximum operating depth in reverse. plan your dive time. In the next chapter we will pres-
First, convert the target depth into the absolute pres- ent dive tables and dive computers as they are used in
1.4 atm × 33 fsw / atm enriched air nitrox diving.
sure. Next, determine the fraction of oxygen in the mixture FO2 = = 0.35
99 fsw + 33 fsw
that will produce the maximum acceptable PO2 at that
absolute pressure. This can be done in two separate steps,
or the two steps can be blended into a single formula.
USING THE OCEANX TO ESTABLISH BEST
Example: What is the best mix for a dive to 30 msw MIX

T
(99 fsw) if the oxygen partial pressure is not to exceed 1.4
The OCEANx calculator can be used to determine your
atmospheres? best mix. Beginning with the O2% window set at 40%;
Using the U.S./Imperial depth (99 fsw): rotate the upper wheel counter-clockwise while
Step 1: Calculate the absolute pressure at 99 fsw. Divide
observing the bottom window area that shows actual

O
the depth by 33 fsw/atm to determine the hydrostatic depth. Turn the wheel until you see your target depth
pressure; then add one atmosphere for the air pressure at
appear next to the value 1.4 (or your chosen maximum
the surface to find the absolute pressure. Use either of the
PO2) in the PO2 column. If the exact target depth does
formulas in Chapter 2: not appear, use the next window that will show the next
Pata = D fsw + 1 atm or Pata = D fsw + 33 fsw greater actual depth adjacent to 1.4. Your best mix for
33 fsw / atm 33 fsw / atm the dive is now displayed in the O % window.
2
N
and enter the known values:
Pata = 99 fsw + 1 atm = 4 ata
33 fsw / atm

Step 2: Find what fraction of oxygen will produce the

target PO2 at 4 bars/atmospheres absolute. The basic for-
mula (the part is a fraction of the whole) is:
O
Pg = Fg × Ptotal

Or, since you know the target partial pressure and the
absolute pressure:
Fg = Pg / Ptotal or FO2 = PO2 limit / Ptotal
FIGURE 4-4: THE OCEANx CALCULATOR SIMPLIFIES NITROX DIVING
D

48 49
 NAUI Nitrox Diver Chapter 4- Choosing the Best Nitrox Mix

Notes

PY
CHAPTER 4: CHOOSING THE BEST NITROX MIX - KNOWLEDGE REVIEW
1. Historically, there are two standard nitrox mixes, _________% oxygen and _________% oxygen,
also called ____________________ and __________________.

Choosing the Best Nitrox Mix

Choosing the Best Nitrox Mix

2. The maximum operating depth (MOD) is

____________________________________________________________________.

O
3. Using the Maximum Operating Depth table, what is the MOD for EAN36 if the PO2 is not to exceed 1.4
ata?_______________________.

4. To calculate the maximum operating depth for any nitrox mixture, begin by finding ______________
____________________________________________________.

C
Then convert this ___________________________ to a depth.

5. Oxygen percentages on the OCEANx calculator can be set from _______% to ______%.

6. The “best mix” is the highest _____________________________ that can be used at the
planned dive depth.

T
7. Using the Oxygen Percentages for Best Mix table, what is the best mix for a 30 msw (100 fsw) dive with
maximum PO2 of 1.4 ata? _____________.

8. To calculate best mix, first convert the target depth into the _________________. Next, determine

O
the fraction of oxygen in the mixture that will produce
_______________________________________________________.
N
O
D

50 51
 NAUI Nitrox Diver Chapter 5 - Dive Tables and Dive Computers

CHAPTER

PY
Dive Tables and Dive Computers

Dive Tables and Dive Computers

O
C
Dive Tables
and Dive

T
Computers O
N
O
D

52 53
 NAUI Nitrox Diver Chapter
Chapter 55 -- Dive
Dive Tables and Dive
Tables and Dive Computers
Computers

PY
LEARNING GOALS dive tables for their own use. Most have also developed
tables for use with oxygen-enriched air.
concept
could enterof equivalent
the dive tables airatdepth.
a depth That that isis,equivalent
because theto tables were presented.
“Expanded” An “Abbreviated”
version presents a fuller set version
of tablescopies
(with
In this chapter, you will learn:
NOAA Nitrox Iofdiver
only 68/79ths the would
absolute be breathing
pressure atonly the68/79ths
actual diveof stage decompression information) modeled on theanU.S.
the NAUI EAN32 Dive Tables with a few changes;
If you want to learn more about decompression air’s partial pressure of nitrogen at any depth, the diver “Expanded” version presents a fuller set of tables (with
• About NAUI EANx Dive Tables and NAUI RGBM depth. (Note that the fraction is applied to the absolute Navy tables format.
theory and dive table development, you can advance could enter the divenottables at adepth.)
depth that is equivalent to stage decompression information) modeled on the U.S.
pressure at depth, just the
Dive Tables and Dive Computers

EANx Dive Tables. When NOAA Nitrox II information was published by

Dive
your knowledge in a NAUI Master Scuba Diver course. only The
68/79ths Navy tables format.
NOAAofNitroxthe absolute
I tablespressure at the actual
like thedive

DiveTables
• What Equivalent Air Depth is and how it is used looked exactly U.S. NOAA in the fourth edition of the NOAA Diving
There are also texts that present advanced decompression depth. (Note that the fraction is applied to the absolute When NOAA Nitrox II information was published by
with Air Dive Tables. Navy tables from which they were derived. Only the num- Manual, an Abbreviated version and an Expanded ver-
theory, and good information can be found on many pressure at depth, not just NOAA in the fourth edition of the NOAA Diving Manual,
of thethetime
depth.)

Tables and
• How to determine and calculate Equivalent Air web sites. In this course, we will consider only the clas- bers changed because credits for the reduced sion of tables were presented for EAN36, similar to the

O
The NOAA Nitrox I tables
nitrogen partial pressures. EAN32 turned looked exactly
out tolikebethe
a very an Abbreviated version and an Expanded version of tables
Depth. sic NAUI Dive Tables and the NAUI RGBM Dive Tables, EAN tables. Although the correspondence is not as
convenient oxygen fraction because in the depthOnly
U.S. Navy tables from which they were derived. rangethe were32presented for EAN36, similar to the EAN32 tables.
• How to use the NAUI RGBM Nitrox Dive Tables. which use the more modern concept of dual-phase mod- striking as it is with NOAA Nitrox I, still for actual depths
numbers changedtobecause of the
(110time credits for theNitrox Although the correspondence is not as striking as it is with

and Dive
• What is the “Rule of Halves” and how to use it eling and the Reduced Gradient Bubble Model developed from the surface 33 meters feet), the NOAA from 21 meters (70 feet) to 33 meters (110 feet), the
reduced nitrogencorresponded
I tables exactly partial pressures.
to the EAN32
U.S. Navy turned out to
air tables NOAA Nitrox I, still for actual depths from 21 meters (70
in all of your diving. by Dr. Bruce Wienke. We also assume that you already NOAA Nitrox II tables corresponded to dives that were
be a very convenient oxygen fraction because in the depth feet) to 33 meters (110 feet), the NOAA Nitrox II tables

Dive Computers
• About using dive computers for EANx diving. know how to use dive tables to plan your dives. If you are for the next shallower depth increment. In other words, two increments 6 meters (20 feet) shallower on the U.S.
range
an EANfrom the surface
diver diving toto a33depth
meters (110meters
of 21 feet), (70
the feet)
NOAA corresponded to dives that were two increments 6 meters

C
out of practice in the use of dive tables and dive table ter- 32tables Navy air tables. For example, an air diver diving to 21
Nitrox I exactly corresponded to the U.S. Navy air (20 feet) shallower on the U.S. Navy air tables. For exam-

Computers
minology, you should go back and review the information had 60 minutes of bottom time, which was the USN no- meters (70 feet) using the U.S. Navy air tables would
tables for the next
decompression shallower
limit for an air depth
diverincrement.
diving to onlyIn other
18 ple, an air diver diving to 21 meters (70 feet) using the
in your basic scuba textbook. have a no-decompression limit of 50 minutes and an
meters (60 feet). An air diver descending to 21 meters (70
words, an EAN32 diver diving to a depth of 21 meters (70 U.S. Navy air tables would have a no-decompression limit
Remember that if you are diving at higher altitudes ending repetitive letter group of “J.” An EAN36 diver
DIVE TABLES (above about 300 meters or 1000 feet), you will have to
feet) had 60 minutes of bottom time,
feet) would have only 50 minutes of bottom time. NOAA
no-decompression limit for an use
air diver
which was
diving
the USN of 50 minutes and an ending repetitive letter group
could descend to 27 meters (90 feet) for that same 50-
An EAN36 diver could descend to 27 meters (90 feet) for
of “J.”

In your entry-level Scuba Diver course, you learned use special altitude dive tables or apply a conversion for Nitrox I divers could, in effect, standard U.S.toNavy
only air
18
minute bottom time and ending letter group. An air
theoretical depth. NAUI RGBM Tables are available that meters
tables to(60 planfeet).
andAnexecute
air diver descending
dives, if they knew to 21howmeters
to (70 that same 50-minute bottom time and ending letter group.
how to use dive tables to plan and execute dives. You feet) would have only 50 minutes of bottom time. NOAA diver
An airdescending to 27 meters
diver descending (90 feet)
to 27 meters (90 would have have
feet) would only
cover three altitude ranges up to a maximum of 3048 adjust for their equivalent air depth. In the fourth edition

T
learned that dive tables are used to monitor and control Nitrox I diversDiving
could,Manual
in effect,(2001),
use standard 30 minutes of no-decompression dive time. If
only 30 minutes of no-decompression dive time. If an air an air
the amount of nitrogen in our bodies in order to mini- meters (10,000 feet) above sea level. of the NOAA two setsU.S.of Navy
EAN32 diver were
were to
to dive
dive 5050minutes
minutesatat2727meters
meters(90(90feet),
feet),hehe
Also, planned required-decompression diving, air
tables were presented. An “Abbreviated” version copiesto
tables to plan and execute dives, if they knew how diver
mize the risk of decompression sickness. This chapter adjust for EANtheir equivalent airwith
depth. In the fourthan edition would face
would face aa required
requireddecompression
decompressionstop stopofof1818minutes
minutesat
will build on that knowledge and acquaint you with using whether breathing air or nitrox, is an advanced skill that the NAUI Dive Tables a few changes;
requires additional training. Recreational divers use oxy-
32
of the NOAA Diving Manual (2001), two sets of EAN32 3atmeters
3 meters
(10(10feet)feet)
andand would
would emerge
emerge as anas“L”
an diver.
“L” diver.
dive tables designed for diving with oxygen-enriched air.

O
There are many different dive tables in use today. gen-enriched air to increase the safety margin of no-re- No-Required-Stop Dive Times for Single Dives
They are based on varying models of nitrogen absorp- quired-decompression dives or to extend maximum dive NAUI/NOAA NAUI RGBM NOAA NAUI NAUI RGBM
Depth Depth U.S. Navy NAUI Air NAUI RGBM
tion and elimination. If you were certified as a NAUI time without encountering a mandatory decompression EAN32 EAN32 EAN36 EAN36 EAN36
fsw msw Air Table Table Air Table
Scuba Diver, then you probably used either the NAUI obligation. Table Table Table Table Table
Dive Tables or the NAUI RGBM Dive Tables to plan your 30 9 310 130 150 310 150 unlimited 250 150
N
dives. Or, you might have learned to use the U.S. Navy 40 12 200 130 110 310 150 405 250 150
Tables (on which the NAUI Dive Tables are based), the 50 15 100 80 80 200 115 310 200 150
Canadian Defence and Civil Institute for Environmental ENRICHED AIR NITROX DIVE TABLES 60 18 60 55 55 100 85 100 100 115
Medicine (DCIEM) Tables, or tables developed by Dr. A. So-called “standard dive tables” are designed for 70 21 50 45 40 60 60 100 60 85
A. Bühlmann of Switzerland (which were also designed diving while breathing air. The mathematics and the
80 24 40 35 30 50 47 60 60 60
to accommodate altitude diving). All three of these tables formulas that were used in their development assume the
are endorsed for use by NAUI in NAUI courses. Another 90 27 30 25 25 40 38 50 60 46
diver is breathing a mixture that is 79% nitrogen/inert
100 30 25 22 20 30 30 40 40 35
O
algorithm, which was developed under the auspices of gas and 21% oxygen. When NOAA introduced procedures
the Diving Science and Technology Corporation, is used for diving with an enriched air nitrox mix of 32% oxy- 110 33 20 15 16 25 25 30 30 31
in the PADI Recreational Dive Planner. The British Sub gen/68% nitrogen (NOAA Nitrox I) in 1979, they also 120 36 15 12 13 25 20 PO2 > 1.6 PO2>1.6 PO2>1.6
Aqua Club has its own tables; the British Royal Navy has published a set of derivative nitrox dive tables that took 130 40 10 8 10 20 N/A PO2 > 1.6 PO2>1.6 PO2>1.6
its; Stolt Offshore has its. In fact, many navies and most into account the reduced percentage (and therefore par-
FIGURE 5-1: THIS TABLE COMPARES THE MAXIMUM DIVE TIMES FOR FOR AA SINGLE
SINGLE DIVE
DIVE USING
USING U.S.
U.S. NAVY
NAVY TABLES,
TABLES,NAUI
NAUIDIVE
DIVETABLES,
TABLES,NAUI
NAUIRGBM
RGBM
commercial diving operations have developed proprietary tial pressure) of nitrogen. The tables were based on the
TABLES,
TABLES, AND
AND NOAA
NOAA DIVE
DIVE TABLES.
TABLES.ALL
ALLDIVE
DIVETIMES
TIMESARE
AREININMINUTES.
MINUTES.SHADED
SHADEDAREAS
AREASEXCEED
EXCEED1.4
1.4ATA
ATAPOPO22
D

54 5555
 NAUI Nitrox Diver Chapter 5 - Dive Tables and Dive Computers

PY
Figure 5-1 compares the maximum bottom times for a PO2 of 1.6 ata. Therefore, the NAUI EAN36 Dive depth (EAD). By applying the equivalent air depth for-
for single dives breathing air, NOAA Nitrox I, and NOAA Tables have a maximum depth of 33 meters (110 feet). mula to your diving, you can use any standard air tables
Nitrox II. Clearly, there are considerable advantages to The NAUI Nitrox Dive Tables have a tolerance of ±1%. as long as you also follow oxygen exposure limits.
breathing nitrox. The EAN32 Dive Tables can be used for nitrox blends
Dive Tables and Dive Computers

Dive Tables and Dive Computers

from 31% to 33% oxygen; and the EAN36 Dive Tables, for
blends from 35% to 37% oxygen.
The usual dive table rules and precautions apply EQUIVALENT AIR DEPTH AND STANDARD
NAUI ENRICHED AIR NITROX TABLES when using the NAUI Nitrox Dive Tables. AIR DIVE TABLES

O
NAUI has chosen to use the U.S. Navy Dive Tables as • Treat each dive as a square profile dive, with the
As noted earlier, equivalent air depth (EAD) is deter-
the basis for its standard EAN32 and EAN36 Dive Tables. deepest point reached on the dive being used as
mined by the partial pressure of nitrogen that the diver is
The NAUI RGBM Nitrox tables are a different case: They the depth for the whole dive.
actually breathing. Because nitrox has a lower fraction of
are based on the Reduced Gradient Bubble Model algo- • If the exact depth or time does not appear on
nitrogen than air, the nitrogen partial pressure will also
rithm rather than the U.S. Navy Tables and are also no-cal- the table, round up to the next greater number.
be less than with air for any given depth, and the diver’s

C
culation tables. They will be discussed separately later. • The tables assume an ascent rate of 9 meters
equivalent depth for nitrogen absorption will also be less
The NAUI Nitrox Dive Tables use the same format (30 feet) per minute.
than with air. It is not the actual depth, but the partial
and have the same safety margin factors as the NAUI Air • Planning repetitive dives progressively shallower
pressure of nitrogen in the breathing gas that matters.
Dive Tables. They present all shallow dives as though to a will yield shorter required surface interval times. The theory behind equivalent air depth is that an
depth of 12 meters (40 feet), and they require 24 hours to • The required surface interval between two EAN diver’s exposure to nitrogen for any absolute pres-
fully offgas residual nitrogen. FIGURE 5-2: NAUI EAN32 DIVE TABLES separate dives is 10 minutes; the recommended sure (depth) will be proportionally less than with air as
The NOAA Abbreviated EAN32 tables follow the minimum surface interval is one hour. the fraction of nitrogen in the mix is less than 0.79 (the

T
NAUI EAN32 tables exactly. However, NAUI EAN36 • The tables are designed to be used at sea-level fraction of nitrogen in air). Moreover, the rate at which
tables have certain safety factors not incorporated in the atmospheric pressure, and adjustments must be nitrogen is absorbed by the various tissues is related to
NOAA version of the tables, and they have lesser maxi- made for altitudes above about 300 meters the pressure gradient between the inspired nitrogen par-
mum dive times than the NOAA Nitrox II tables for dives (1000 feet).
to 12, 15, and 21 meters (40, 50, and 70 feet) with corre- • If flying or ascending to altitude after diving,
spondingly lower end-of-dive letter groups. NAUI Nitrox
Dive Tables also place the precautionary safety stop at 5
meters (15 feet); the NOAA Nitrox Tables have the stop at
3 meters (10 feet).
Establishing maximum dive times, finding end-of-
O wait 12 hours after a single dive and 18 hours
after a series of repetitive dives.
While using NAUI’s prepared tables is the easiest way
to plan dives, the three NAUI standard tables–Air, EAN32,
and EAN36 Dive Tables–do not always yield interchange-
N
dive letter groups, determining surface interval credit, able results. Divers using these tables should not move
and planning repetitive dives are accomplished exactly as from one table to a richer oxygen table in any repetitive
with NAUI Air Dive Tables. Table 1: End-of-Dive Letter dive series. The tables actually assume that the diver will
Group; Table 2: Surface Interval Time Table; and Table be using the same gas mixture throughout.
3: Repetitive Dive Time Table each are formatted and You can change from beginning with air to EAN32
used as with the air table. If you need to review the use of or EAN36 and continue to use the air tables. You can
dive tables, you should revisit your basic scuba text. How switch from initial use of EAN32 to EAN36 and continue
O
to use NAUI Dive Tables can also be found on our web FIGURE 5-3: NAUI EAN36 DIVE TABLES to use the EAN32 table. This limitation is not the case
site at www.naui.org/tables.aspx. with the NAUI RGBM Tables with which you can switch-
On the NAUI Nitrox Tables, Table 1 and Table 3 for dives that exceed a PO2 of 1.4 atmospheres is shaded mixtures and tables from dive to dive.
each have some additional information. They show the light green to make the planner aware that these dives In order to effectively and safely switch between
oxygen partial pressure for each depth (a column to the exceed the normal oxygen exposure limit for recreational gasmixes or to use nitrox blends not encompassed by the
left on Table 1 and a top row on Table 3). Information nitrox diving. The maximum depth on both tables is EAN32 and EAN36 tables, you should use equivalent air FIGURE 5-4: NAUI AIR DIVE TABLES
D

56 57
 NAUI Nitrox Diver Chapter 55 -- Dive
Chapter Dive Tables
Tables and Dive Computers

PY
Equivalent Air Depth (in fsw) Equivalent Air Depth (in msw)
Percent O2 26% 27% 28% 29% 30% 31% 32% 33% 34% 35% 36% 37% 38% 39% 40% Percent O2 26% 27% 28% 29% 30% 31% 32% 33% 34% 35% 36% 37% 38% 39% 40%
EAD fsw EAD msw
40 44 46 47 48 49 50 51 53 54 55 57 58 60 61 63 12 13 13 14 14 14 15 15 16 16 16 17 17 18 18 19
Computers

50 55 56 58 59 60 62 63 64 66 67 69 71 72 74 76

Dive
Dive Tables
Dive Computers

15 16 17 17 17 18 18 19 19 20 20 20 21 21 22 22
60 66 67 69 70 71 73 75 76 78 80 81 83 85 87 89 18 19 20 20 21 21 22 22 23 23 24 24 25 25 26 26
70 76 78 80 81 83 84 86 88 90 92 94 96 98 100 99 21 23 23 24 24 25 25 26 26 27 27 28 28 29 30 30

Tablesand
80 87 89 90 92 94 96 98 100 102 104 106 108 105 102 24 26 26 27 27 28 28 29 30 30 31 32 32

O
90 98 100 101 103 105 107 109 112 114 116 113 109 27 29 30 30 31 31 32 33 33 34 35
100 108 110 112 114 117 119 121 123 122 117 30 32 33 33 34 35 35 36 37 37
and Dive

110 119 121 123 126 128 130 132 127 33 36 36 37 37 38 39 39

andDive
120 130 132 134 137 139 137 36 39 39 40 41 41
Tables and

130 141 143 145 148 143 40 43 44 44 45

DiveComputers
MOD/1.4 ata 145 138 132 126 121 116 111 107 102 99 95 91 88 85 82 MOD/1.4 ata 43 41 40 38 36 35 33 36 31 30 28 27 26 25 25

C
DiveTables

MOD/1.6 ata 170 162 155 149 143 137 132 127 122 117 113 109 105 102 99 MOD/1.6 ata 51 49 47 45 43 41 40 38 37 35 34 33 32 31 30

Computers
FIGURE 5-5a:
FIGURE 5-5a: EQUIVALENT
EQUIVALENT AIRAIR DEPTH
DEPTH FOR
FOR VARIOUS
VARIOUS NITROX
NITROX MIXES.
MIXES. AA DIVER
DIVER DIVING
DIVING UP
UP TO
TO THE
THE DEPTH
DEPTH SHOWN
SHOWN IN IN THE
THE CORRECT
CORRECT EANEANxx COLUMN
COLUMN FIGURE 5-5b:
FIGURE 5-5b: EQUIVALENT
EQUIVALENT AIR AIR DEPTH
DEPTH FORFOR VARIOUS
VARIOUS NITROX
NITROX MIXES.
MIXES. AA DIVER
DIVER DIVING
DIVING UPUP TO
TO THE
THE DEPTH
DEPTH SHOWN
SHOWN IN IN THE
THE CORRECT
CORRECT EANEANx COLUMN
COLUMN
WOULD USE THE DEPTH IN THE LEFT-HAND COLUMN OF THE SAME ROW WITH AN AIR DIVE TABLE. SHADED AREAS HAVE xA PO
WOULD USE THE DEPTH IN THE LEFT-HAND COLUMN OF THE SAME ROW WITH AN AIR DIVE TABLE. SHADED AREAS HAVE A PO
WOULD USE THE DEPTH IN THE LEFT-HAND COLUMN OF THE SAME ROW WITH AN AIR DIVE TABLE. SHADED AREAS HAVE A PO22 WOULD USE THE DEPTH IN THE LEFT-HAND COLUMN OF THE SAME ROW WITH AN AIR DIVE TABLE. SHADED AREAS HAVE A PO22
BETWEEN 1.4 ATA AND 1.6 ATA
Dive

BETWEEN 1.4 ATA AND 1.6 ATA ATA BETWEEN 1.4 ATA AND 1.6 ATA
tial pressure and the tension of nitrogen dissolved in the Equivalent air depth is especially useful if you want table Toat the
useupper left and move
the Equivalent to theTable,
Air Depth right toenter
the oxygen
the that Example
your maximum 2: Your actual
dive time divefor
time formeter
a 18 the dive in
(60-foot)
the pressure gradient between the inspired nitrogen par- remember this from your beginning class in which you
tissues. If the inspired nitrogen partial pressure is less, to change blends from one dive to the next, if you are Example
tial pressure and the tension of nitrogen dissolved in the learned about pressure at depth and the volume of air in percentage
table at thethat upper corresponds
left and move to thetonitrox mixtothat
the right theyou
oxy- dive is 551minutes.
is 35 minutes. Two hours later, you re-enter
the pressure gradient is less, and nitrogen moves into the requesting a custom blend based on “best mix,” or if for the water
will be using. Move down that column to the maximum Examplereturn
to to the samedive location. Youthearedive
diving

T
tissues. If the inspired nitrogen partial pressure is less, a flexible container. gen percentage that corresponds to the nitrox mix that 2: Your actual time for in
tissues more slowly. And, according to Henry’s Law the someEquivalent
reason youair finddepth
yourself diving with a mix thatwant
is planned depth of your dive. If your exact maximum with EAN . What is your adjusted maximum dive time
the pressure gradient is less, and nitrogen moves into is especially useful if you you will be using. Move down that column to the maxi- Example 32 1 is 35 minutes. Two hours later, you re-enter
total amount of nitrogen that will dissolve in the tissues not standard EAN32oneordiveEAN36. If you
the tissues more slowly. And, according to Henry’s Law to change blends from to the next,know
if youequiv-
are depth
mum isplannednot on depth
the table, use the
of your dive.next greater
If your depth.
exact maxi- for
thethis
waterrepetitive
to return dive?
to the same location. You are diving
over time is directly proportional to the nitrogen partial
the total amount of nitrogen that will dissolve in the requesting a custom blend based on “best mix,” orwith
alent air depth for your mix, you can use that EAD if for Move to the left along that row to
mum depth is not on the table, use the next greater the column at the far with EAN32. What is exiting
Determine your letter group
your adjusted maximumfor the dive
first time
dive.
pressure. the reason you find yourself diving with a mix that is left. TheMoveequivalent air depth With an EAD of 18 meters (60 feet) for the first dive and
tissues over time is directly proportional to the nitrogen some depth. to the left along thatthatyourowshould use with at
to the column for this repetitive dive?

O
If you find this difficult to conceptualize or under- NAUI standard
partial pressure. not standard EAN32 Air Dive Tables
or EAN . If you(orknow
36plan
any air dive
equivalent air
thedive tables
far left. Theis equivalent
shown in the airleft column.
depth For should
that you example, use a 35-minute
Determine diveyour
time, you emerge
exiting from for
letter group thethe
water
firstasdive.
a
stand, here is a concrete example. If you were breathing a
to conceptualize air depth for your mix, you can use that EAD with By
tables) to plan your dive or to repetitive dives. the for
with32% air oxygen,
dive tables anyisdive between
shown in the26leftmeters
column.and 29For “G”
Withdiver on the NAUI (air)(60Divefeet)Tables.
for theTwofirsthours latera
If you
mixture thatfind this oxygen,
is 36% difficultthen the nitrogen or under-
percentage determining the EAD prior to each dive, you can easily you
an EAD
are a “D”
of 18
diver.
meters
Since you are now diving
dive and
to a depth
stand, NAUI standard Air Dive Tables (or any air dive tables) to meters
example, would use 24
for 32% metersany
oxygen, on dive
an airbetween
table, and any dive
26 meters
would here
be 64%,is aandconcrete example.
the nitrogen If youwould
fraction were breathing
be 0.64. change mixes
35-minute dive time, you emerge from the water as a “G”
aWhen
mixture that with
is 36%thisoxygen, then plan your divetooreither
to planricher or leaner
repetitive oxygen
dives. content
By determining between 86 feet and 98 feet would use
and 29 meters would use 24 meters on an air table, and 80 feet on an air of 24 meters (80 feet)
(air)withDiveEAN 32, your
Twoequivalent
hours laterairyou
you dive mixture, youtheexpose
nitrogen percent-
yourself to fromEADoneprior
dive to
to each
the next.
diver on the NAUI Tables.
age wouldthebenitrogen
64%, andpartialthe nitrogen the dive,You
youcan canfind equivalent
easily change air mixes table
any divefor dive
betweenplanning.
86 feetContingency
and 98 feet depths would forusewhich
80 feet depth
are a “D” diver. Since you are now diving tofeet).
from the EAD table is 21 meters (70 A “Dof
64/79ths pressurefraction
that youwould
wouldbe depth by using a table, by calculating EAD, or with the diver” diving
a depth
to either richer or leaner oxygen content from one dive (80tofeet)
21 meters (70 feet)
, yourhasequivalent
an adjusted max-
N
0.64. Whenifyou
encounter dive with
breathing air.this mixture,youyoucanexpose
Therefore, your-
consider the
on an PO2airis table
between 1.4 and
for dive 1.6 atmospheres
planning. Contingency havedepths
been 24 meters with EAN 32on air depth
self NAUI OCEANx calculator. Let’s begin with
to the next. You can find equivalent air depth by using a using a table. shaded
for which darker.
the PO2 is between 1.4 and 1.6 atmospheres imum dive time of 25 minutes the NAUI Dive Tables.
yourtodepth
64/79ths
to bethe nitrogen
64/79ths partial80%)
(roughly pressure
of thethat you
absolute from the EAD table is 21 meters (70 feet). A “D diver”
would table, by calculating EAD, or with the NAUI OCEANx cal- haveExample
been shaded 1: Ondarker.
the first dive of the day, your
pressureencounter
that you ifwould
breathing air. Therefore,
encounter at your actualyou can
depth diving to 21 meters (70 feet) has an adjusted maximum
consider your depth to be 64/79ths (roughly 80%) of the culator. Let’s begin with using a table. plannedExample
depth 1:is On the first(80
24 meters dive of the
feet), andday,
youryour
cylinder is dive time of 25 minutes on the NAUI Dive Tables.
if you were breathing air. If you were breathing EAN40,
absolute pressure
your nitrogen thatpressure
partial you would wouldencounter at your
be 60/79ths (about planned
filled withdepth
EAN38. is 24What
meters (80 maximum
is your feet), and your cylinder
dive time for
actual depth if you were breathing air. If you were EQUIVALENT AIR DEPTH BY TABLE is filled
the dive?with EAN38. What is your maximum dive time CALCULATING EQUIVALENT AIR DEPTH
three-quarters) of what it would be if you were breathing
breathing
air. You must EANrelate
40, your
yournitrogen
nitrogenpartial pressure
advantage would
to abso-
EQUIVALENT AIR DEPTH BY TABLE
The Equivalent Air Depth Table relates the percent- for the dive?
Enter the equivalent air depth table at the 38%column CALCULATING EQUIVALENT AIR DEPTH
As with MOD and best mix, equivalent air depth can
be 60/79ths (about three-quarters) of what it would be if The Equivalent
in yourAirnitrox
Depthmix Table
to anrelates
actualthe divepercent- Enterdown.
and move the equivalent
Twenty-four airmeters
depth (80tablefeet)
at the
does38%not As with MOD and best mix,or equivalent air depth
can becan
O
lute pressure and then convert that absolute pressure to age of oxygen depth be calculated in discrete steps, the procedure
you were breathing air. You must relate
a depth. If you were to try to relate it immediately to a your nitrogen age of oxygen in your nitrox mix to an
to show an equivalent air depth. The actual dive depthactual dive depth column and move down. Twenty-four
appear on the table, so continue down to the next depth–25 meters (80 feet) be calculated in discrete steps, or the
combined into a single formula. As a step-wise process, procedure can be
advantage
depth, you to absolute
would pressure and
be neglecting the onethenatmosphere
convert thatof air to showusually
is not an equivalent air depth.
a round number The actual
because dive depth
it is relating to ais does not
meters (85appear on the to
feet). Moving table, so continue
the left, downairto depth
the equivalent the combined
you would into a single formula.
first determine the absoluteAs a step-wise
pressure at process,
the
absolute pressure to a depth. If you were
pressure at the surface. You should remember this from to try to relate it not usually a round
round-number number
equivalent air because
depth that it iswill
relating
be used to on
a next depth–25 meters
for this dive is 18 meters (60 (85 feet). Moving to the
Using standard NAUI left, the depth to which you will be diving. Second, apply at
you would first determine the absolute pressure thethe
immediately to a depth, you would be
your beginning class in which you learned about pressureneglecting the one round-number
the dive tables. equivalent air depth that will be used on equivalent
Dive Tables air depth
for air, youforwillthis
finddivethatisyour
18 meters
maximum (60 dive
feet). depth to “credit”
nitrogen which you thatwill
yourbe nitrox
diving.blend
Second,givesapply
you.the
atmosphere
at depth andoftheairvolumepressure of at
airthe
in asurface.
flexibleYou should
container. the dive tables.
To use the Equivalent Air Depth Table, enter the Usingforstandard
time a 18 meter NAUI Dive Tables
(60-foot) dive is for air, you will find
55 minutes. nitrogen “credit”
Finally, convert thatthisyour nitrox blendabsolute
air-equivalent gives you. pressure
D

5858 5959
 NAUI Nitrox Diver Chapter 5 - Dive Tables and Dive Computers

PY
to an equivalent air depth. or in U.S. equivalents Reduced Gradient Bubble Model (RGBM)
tables provide dive-planning information for altitudes

( )
Example: What is the equivalent air depth for a diver (D fsw + 33 fsw) × FN2 Dive Table - EAN 32 up to 610 meters (2000 feet). Additional sets of tables are
diving with EAN32 to a depth of 24 meters (80 feet)? EAD fsw = - 33 fsw Sea Level to 2,000 ft / 610 m available for diving at altitudes between 610 and 1829
0.79
Step 1: Find the absolute pressure at 24 meters (80 Using the above example:
DIVE ONE DIVE TWO DIVE THREE meters(2000 and 6000 feet) and for 1829 to 3048 meters
Dive Tables and Dive Computers

MAX DEPTHS MDT MAX DEPTHS MDT MAX DEPTHS MDT

Dive Tables and Dive Computers

( )
feet) using the formula from Chapter 2: (24msw + 10msw) × 0.68
fsw
120
msw
36
minutes
20
fsw
80
msw
24
minutes
47
fsw
40
msw
12
minutes
150
(6000 to 10,000 feet).
EADmsw = - 10msw = 19 + msw 110 33 25 75 23 47 40 12 150 To use the NAUI RGBM tables, you must follow cer-
Pbar = D msw + 1 bar or Pbar = D bar + 10 msw 0.79 100 30 30 70 21 60 40 12 150
10msw / bar 10msw / bar 90 27 38 65 20 60 40 12 150 tain specific rules, but planning dives with the tables is
or in U.S. equivalents 80 24 47 60 18 85 40 12 150
simplicity itself.

O
70 21 60 55 17 85 40 12 150

( )
Pbar = 24 msw + 1 bar = 3.4 bars (80fsw + 33fsw) × 0.68 60 18 85 50 15 115 40 12 150

1 msw / bar EADfsw = - 33fsw = 64 + fsw

50
40
15
12
115
150
45
40
14
12
115
150
40
40
12
12
150
150
0.79 This table is designed for scuba dives employing EAN 32. The important RGBM table rules are:
In Imperial/U.S. measure: Since, the nitrogen fraction is “one minus the oxy- Read the instructions on the back and seek proper training before using
this table or EAN 32. Even strict compliance with this table will not
• A minimum surface interval of one hour is
gen fraction,” you can even add even another twist into guarantee avoidance of decompression sickness. required between each dive.
Pata = D fsw + 1 atm or Pata = D fsw + 33 fsw the formula by substituting (1 - FO2) for FN2, and the • If the actual dive depth is not listed, select the
33 fsw / atm 33 fsw / atm

C
formula becomes: next greater depth.
Copyright © 2001 NAUI Worldwide. All rights reserved. #35514

FIGURE 5-7: NAUI RGBM SEA LEVEL NITROX DIVE TABLE - EAN32 • The depth of each repetitive dive must be no

( )
Pata = 80 fsw + 1 atm = 3.42 ata (Dmsw + 10msw) ( × 1 - FO2 )
33 fsw / atm EADmsw = - 10msw greater than the depth shown on the row
0.79 Reduced Gradient Bubble Model (RGBM)
immediately to the right of the previous dive’s
Dive Table - EAN 36
Step 2: Apply your nitrogen “credit.” Since you are or in the U.S. formula Sea Level to 2,000 ft / 610 m depth; of course, it may be shallower than this
diving with EAN32, the nitrogen fraction of your mix is maximum repetitive-dive depth.
( (Dfsw + 33fsw) × ( 1 - FO2 )
)
DIVE ONE DIVE TWO DIVE THREE
0.68 (= 1.0 - 0.32). Your air-equivalent absolute pres- EADfsw = - 33fsw MAX DEPTHS MDT MAX DEPTHS MDT MAX DEPTHS MDT
• As the tables are designed, there can be no shal
0.79 fsw msw minutes fsw msw minutes fsw msw minutes

T
sure is set by the ratio between the fraction of nitrogen in 110 33 31 80 23 60 50 15 150 low dive followed by a deeper dive.
100 30 35 75 21 60 50 15 150
your mix and the fraction of nitrogen in air, or:
Step 3: Convert 2.93 bars (ata) to an equivalent air depth:
USING THE OCEANX TO ESTABLISH 90
80
27
24
46
60
70
65
20
18
85
85
50
50
15
15
150
150
• The maximum ascent rate is 9 meters (30 feet)
per minute.
Pata (air equiv.) = 0.68 × 3.4 ata = 2.93 bars
0.79
EQUIVALENT AIR DEPTH 70
60
21
18
85
115
60
55
17
15
115
115
50
50
15
15
150
150 • All dives require a 3-minute safety stop at 5
To find equivalent air depth with the OCEANx calcula- 50 15 150 50 14 150 50 15 150
meters (± 1 meter)/15 feet (± 3 feet).

O
This table is designed for scuba dives employing EAN 36.
tor, simply dial-in the oxygen percentage into the upper Read the instructions on the back and seek proper training before using • On the sea level to 610 meters (2000 feet) tables,
window. The long window immediately below shows the this table or EAN 36. Even strict compliance with this table will not
no more than three repetitive dives within a
guarantee avoidance of decompression sickness.

D msw = (P bar - 1 bar) × 10 msw / bar 12-hour period. In actual practice, the “third
Copyright © 2001 NAUI Worldwide. All rights reserved. #35517
dive” may be a series of repetitive dives not
D msw = (2.93 bar - 1 bar) × 10 msw / bar = 19.3 msw exceeding the total maximum dive time of 150
FIGURE 5-8: NAUI RGBM SEA LEVEL NITROX DIVE TABLE - EAN36
N
minutes.
or in Imperial/U.S. measure: maximum actual depth to be used with each equivalent The flying after diving rule is to wait at least 12
air depth, which is printed immediately to the right. hours after a single dive within the prior 18-hour period,
D fsw = (Pata −1atm) × 33 fsw / atm 15 hours after two dives, and 18 hours after three dives.
Example: A diver using EAN32 is planning a dive to 24
D fsw = (2.93 ata −1atm) × 33 fsw / atm = 64 + fsw. meters (80 feet). The maximum dive time for this first dive

You would use 21 meters (70 feet) on your air dive tables.
USING THE NAUI RGBM NITROX DIVE TABLES is 47 minutes. Moving horizontally to the right on the same
O
NAUI RGBM Dive Tables are “No-Calculation” tables row: after a one-hour surface interval, the diver can dive to
and do not require use of letter groups, a surface interval a maximum depth of 18 meters (60 feet) with a maximum
The equivalent air depth can also be determined using a
single formula: credit table, or residual nitrogen times, thus making repeti- dive time of 85 minutes. Following another one-hour surface
tive dive planning extremely easy and straightforward. interval, the diver can dive to a maximum depth of 12 meters
EAD msw =
( (D msw + 10 msw) × FN2
0.79 ) - 10 msw FIGURE 5-6: THE OCEANx CALCULATOR ALSO SIMPLIFIES FINDING
EQUIVALENT AIR DEPTH DURING DIVE PLANNING
NAUI RGBM Dive Tables have been prepared for
EAN32 and EAN36 as well as for air diving. The sea-level
(40 feet) for a dive time up to 150 minutes or make a series
of dives to 40 fsw for up to a total of 150 minutes.
D

60 61
 NAUI Nitrox Diver Chapter 5 - Dive Tables and Dive Computers

PY
When using the NAUI RGBM Tables, you may also Halves is based on RGBM theory and provides an extra time, they also show dive time remaining and usually
switch tables from leaner to richer oxygen fractions from margin of safety for divers by further controlling both the maximum depth thus far in the dive. They monitor
dive one to dive two (or dive two to dive three) by simply dissolved-phase and free-phase nitrogen in the body. It ascent rate and will sound an alarm or flash in the dis-
following the maximum depth constraints as you move can be used with any dive deeper than 12 meters (40 feet) play if a diver is ascending too fast. Additional bells and
Dive Tables and Dive Computers

Dive Tables and Dive Computers

between the appropriate dive tables, since depth (pres- and with any dive tables or dive computer. whistles may include temperature, scrolling of maximum
sure) is the only controlling factor. For example, it is To use the Rule of Halves, when ending any no-de- dive times for the next dive or actual pre-dive planning
possible to use air and the NAUI RGBM Air Table on Dive compression dive in excess of 12 meters (40 feet), halve software for repetitive dives, and dive recall display of not
One, then switch to EAN36 and use the RGBM EAN36 the distance from the dive’s deepest depth to the surface. just a few but many previous dives and surface intervals.

O
Table on Dive Two. Ascend to that depth and make a two to three minute stop Many computers will allow you to download your dives to
Comparing this dive series to one derived from the (with two and one-half minutes being optimum). Then a logbook program on a computer. (General experience
standard NAUI EAN32 Dive Tables: On the first dive to continue your ascent to the 3-6 meter (10-20 feet) safety using computers prompts the warning: Keep a backup!)
24 meters (80 feet), the diver would have a maximum stop for one minute before surfacing. In addition, with a nitrox-capable computer you can
dive time of 50 minutes and emerge from the dive as a For example, following a dive to 30 msw (100 fsw), set the oxygen percentage of your breathing gas on each

C
“J” diver. One hour later, the diver would be an “H” diver you would perform a two and a half minute stop at about dive. The computer then calculates nitrogen absorption
and, if planning an 18 meter (60 foot) dive, would have 15 msw (50 fsw) and then ascend to 5 msw (15 fsw) for a for your dive based on the oxygen level that you have
an adjusted maximum dive time of only 34 minutes. In one minute stop before surfacing. “dialed in.” Nitrox computers will also track single-dive
order to attain an adjusted maximum time equivalent and 24-hour oxygen exposure limits. If you use a nitrox
to the RGBM diver’s 85 minutes, the surface interval computer, read the manufacturer’s instructions carefully.
between the first and the second dive would have to be at Some computers will revert to a default value of air or to an
least 5 hours 41 minutes. Sometimes simpler is better. DIVE COMPUTERS AND NITROX extremely conservative value if you do not dive with them

T
Dive computers perform real-time dive calculations. within a certain time of setting the mixture. Also, different
Generally, their algorithms are quite conservative. But, manufacturers use different gas absorption models, and
because they sample the diver’s depth and dive time every dive computer brands and models vary from less to more
THE RULE OF HALVES few seconds and recalculate nitrogen absorption over a conservative–in addition to variations in their display and
In 2003, NAUI introduced the “Rule of Halves” into range of theoretical tissue compartments, divers enjoy download features. As with acquiring any diving equip-
its recommended diving procedures. The NAUI Rule of

O
extended dive times when using a dive computer. In
effect, the diver receives “credit” for the shallow portions
of the dive, which is not possible with the “square-pro-
file” assumptions of dive tables. The first dive computers
were designed only for air diving, but with the growing
ment, you should establish your own personal needs and
look into the range of computers available before buying.
As a nitrox diver, you have two basic options. With
a nitrox-capable computer, you can set the computer
to exactly model the theoretical nitrogen loading and
N
popularity of enriched air nitrox diving, every manufac- off-gassing for your dives. On the other hand, many divers
turer now produces a line of nitrox computers, and many opt for an air computer, which will present an automatic
also produce trimix-capable dive computers for technical safety margin when diving with nitrox. Another option is
diving. to acquire an enriched air nitrox computer and leave it set
Currently, several manufacturers have incorporated at 21% oxygen unless you want to use the advantages of
the NAUI RGBM algorithms as well as the NAUI Rule of nitrox on given dives.
Halves into their dive computers. You now have enough information to use oxygen-en-
O
More and more divers are buying and using dive riched air for safe diving and dive planning. In the final
computers, especially as prices are decreasing with chapters of this book, you will learn precautions that must be
increased production and after recovery of initial exercised when handling oxygen at high partial pressures,
research and development costs. Many dive centers now how diving equipment is cleaned and serviced for exposure
include computers in their rental equipment inventory. to oxygen, how nitrox is prepared, and your responsibility for
FIGURE 5-9: EXAMPLES OF NITROX DIVE COMPUTERS Dive computers display not only current depth and dive gas analysis and other unique aspects of nitrox use.
D

62 63
 NAUI Nitrox Diver Chapter 5 - Dive Tables and Dive Computers

Notes

PY
CHAPTER 5: DIVE TABLES AND DIVE COMPUTERS - KNOWLEDGE REVIEW
1. NAUI has chosen to use the ____________________________ as the basis for its standard
EAN32 and EAN36 Dive Tables. The NAUI RGBM Nitrox tables are based on the __________________
Dive Tables and Dive Computers

___________________________.

Dive Tables and Dive Computers

2. The NAUI Nitrox Dive Tables have a tolerance of ____________________________.

O
3. The required surface interval between two separate dives is ________________; the recommended
minimum surface interval is _________________.

4. The NAUI Nitrox Dive Tables are designed to be used at sea-level atmospheric pressure, and adjustments
must be made for altitudes above about _____________________________.

C
5. If flying or ascending to altitude after diving, wait __________ hours after a single dive and
_________ hours after a series of repetitive dive series.

6. Divers using NAUI Air or Nitrox Dive Tables should not move from one table to a
__________________ in any repetitive dive series. This limitation is not the case with the NAUI RGBM
Tables with which you can ___________________________________.

T
7. Equivalent air depth (EAD) is determined by the ___________________________________.

8. Using the Equivalent Air Depth table, what is the equivalent air depth for a diver descending to 33 msw

O
(100 fsw) while breathing EAN35? ______________________.

9. To calculate equivalent air depth, first determine _________________________ at the depth

to which you will be diving. Second, apply __________________________. Finally, convert this
____________________________ to an equivalent air depth.
N
10. The sea-level NAUI RGBM Dive Tables provide dive-planning information for altitudes up to
_______________________.

11. If using the NAUI RGBM Dive Tables, a minimum surface interval of _____________________ is
required between each dive.

12. When following the “Rule of Halves,” make a one-minute safety stop at _____________________
O
_______________________. Then complete the last two minutes of your safety stop at _________
_____________________.

13. Dive computers give the diver “credit” for __________________________, which is not possible
with the __________________________________________________.
D

64 65
 NAUI Nitrox Diver Chapter 6- Oxygen Precautions and Preparing Nitrox

CHAPTER

PY

Oxygen Precautions and Preparing Nitrox

Oxygen Precautions and Preparing Nitrox

O
C
Oxygen
Precautions

T
and Preparing
Nitrox
O
N
O
D

66 67
 NAUI Nitrox Diver Chapter 6- Oxygen Precautions and Preparing Nitrox

PY
LEARNING GOALS OXYGEN HANDLING cooled, as by dowsing it with water, it will go out. If a
carbon dioxide fire extinguisher is used to remove the
must be used in order to minimize the risk of fire or
destruction by the oxygen. Oxygen clean means that any
In this chapter, you will learn: As you learned in an earlier chapter, oxygen sup- oxygen around the fire, the fire goes out. potentially flammable contaminants have been removed.

Oxygen Precautions and Preparing Nitrox

Oxygen Precautions and Preparing Nitrox

• Precautions that must be taken when around ports combustion and combines readily–sometimes But, as the fraction and partial pressure of oxygen Oxygen compatible means that the materials used in
oxygen. aggressively or violently–with almost anything that is not increase, many materials that do not burn under normal the various parts in the system are not flammable or
• What the fire triangle is and how it applies to already oxidized. Slower oxidation can destroy a material conditions will burn if ignited. Also, any fuels will ignite readily oxidizable in the presence of high-pressure or
over time–solid iron turns into rust. Or, oxidation can be more easily. Materials that are of little concern in air may pure oxygen. This special oxygen cleaning can be com-
nitrox use.
rapid enough to produce extreme heat and visible light, become quite flammable in an oxygen-rich environ- plex, involving an initial cleaning using solvents that

O
• What oxygen cleaning is and what scuba equip which we call burning or fire or combustion. Sometimes
ment must be oxygen cleaned for nitrox use. ment and even more so in a high-pressure oxygen-rich remove all hydrocarbons and then the use of special oxy-
this combustion can be so violently rapid that it is an gen-compatible lubricants, o-rings, seats, seals, flexible
• About the “40% Rule.” environment. Petroleum-based products and other
explosion. There are other elements and materials that tubing, etc. as the system is reassembled. Even though
hydrocarbons are of special concern because they ignite
• How cylinders and valves are prepared for are reactive enough to combine aggressively, produce certain materials may not be flammable in the presence
extremely easily in a pure oxygen environment. Other
nitrox use and how they are marked as nitrox extreme heat, and “burn,” but they are not so commonly of high-pressure oxygen, more durable materials that do
materials, although they may not become flammable, will
cylinders. found. Oxygen, on the other hand, is ever-present, and

C
oxidize and degrade much more rapidly in the presence not so rapidly degrade will be substituted. “Formal oxy-
• Five methods that are used to make nitrox and in enriched air nitrox it is present in higher than normal gen cleaning,” which is required in many industrial and
of hyperbaric oxygen. When high pressures of oxygen are
which are most common. amounts. governmental (e.g., NASA) applications, requires adher-
In the Earth’s atmosphere, with its oxygen fraction going to be present, extra care must be taken to prevent
the fire triangle from occurring. ence to very strict procedures as well as careful docu-
of 0.21 ata, and at normal temperatures, materials do mentation. After cleaning, future contamination must be
As a recreational nitrox diver, you are not likely to be not spontaneously ignite and burn. A source of ignition
around pure oxygen or even mixtures that are extremely carefully avoided, or the whole oxygen cleaning process
(heat) is required to initiate burning. After a material will have to be repeated. Even skin oil from a finger can
rich in oxygen. Safe handling of pure oxygen will be the (fuel) is ignited, then the fire itself provides the heat to
EQUIPMENT CONSIDERATIONS contaminate formally oxygen-cleaned equipment and

T
responsibility of the blending technician who fills your sustain burning. necessitate re-cleaning.
cylinder. Nevertheless, if you are to dive intelligently with The ways that nitrox is prepared will be discussed Care must also be taken to avoid sources of ignition,
oxygen-enriched air, you should have some knowledge of later, but the most common mixing method involves the third side of the fire triangle. A sudden increase in
the hazards of oxygen and the precautions that must be introduction of pure oxygen at pressure. All equipment system pressure could elevate the temperature in the

O
taken when working with or around it. systems that will be so exposed must be specially pre- system sufficiently to cause ignition of any contaminants.
Why, for instance, must your cylinder be a dedicated pared in order to withstand the oxygen. Hydrocarbons Valves should be opened slowly to prevent a sudden
He
l
Fue

enriched air nitrox cylinder, but your regulator does not at and petroleum-based products must be avoided. This increase in pressure with an accompanying rapid tem-
have to be a special nitrox regulator? Why does the fill includes not only petroleum-based compressor lubri- perature rise. Even a static spark from a rug or opening
cants but also the silicone lubricants normally used in a Velcro® closure could cause ignition in a pure oxygen
station take so long to deliver your requested nitrox blend
scuba air systems. Neoprene, silicone “rubber,” plastic environment.
N
when, if it were an air fill, your fully-charged cylinder
and metal shavings, even finely divided particulate mat-
would be ready in a relatively short time? Why is the ter all become potential fuels for a fire in an oxygen-rich
upper limit for recreational nitrox set at 40% oxygen? environment, especially one at high pressure. A spectac-
Actually, you may have occasion to use pure oxy- Oxygen ular laboratory demonstration is to burn steel wool in a THE 40% RULE
gen at some time in your diving career. As you advance high-oxygen environment.
your diving skills and knowledge, an adjunct to a rescue FIGURE 6-1: THE FIRE TRIANGLE When is oxygen cleaning necessary? As a recre-
ational nitrox diver, you will dive with an ordinary,
course or a leadership course may be certification as an Firefighters use the concept of the “fire triangle.”
O
well-maintained regulator, but your cylinder will have
oxygen provider. This will qualify you to provide oxygen In order for a fire to occur or continue, three things must been cleaned for designated service as a nitrox cylinder,
first aid to persons suffering diving maladies such as be present: fuel, oxygen, and heat. If any one of these is OXYGEN CLEANING and it will be clearly marked as an enriched-air nitrox
decompression sickness or arterial gas embolism. An absent, a fire will not start. If any of the three is removed, All equipment to be used with pure oxygen must be cylinder.
important part of that course will be the safety measures the fire will be extinguished. When a fire has consumed cleaned for oxygen service. The equipment itself must be The general rule of thumb is that any equipment
to be taken when around pure oxygen. all available fuel, burning ceases. If the fire is sufficiently “oxygen clean,” and “oxygen compatible” parts that is to be used with pure oxygen or an oxygen level
D

68 69
 NAUI Nitrox Diver Chapter 6- Oxygen Precautions and Preparing Nitrox

PY
that is above 40% (and at a pressure above 200 psi) quantity of pure oxygen into an empty cylinder, which is such as “Nitrox” or “Enriched Air Nitrox” is printed in
must be cleaned for oxygen service and have only oxy- then topped off to service pressure with specially cleaned yellow on the green band.
gen-compatible parts. air. Every time your nitrox cylinder is filled in this man- Cylinders must be prepared for designated nitrox

Oxygen Precautions and Preparing Nitrox

Oxygen Precautions and Preparing Nitrox

This so-called “40% rule” has gained acceptance ner, it is subjected to pure oxygen at high pressure. So, service because most of the time pure oxygen will be
over time although there are no published test results to your cylinder must be “dedicated” to nitrox use. This used in preparing a nitrox fill. Although there are sev-
show that 40% is the absolute limit above which oxygen means that it will be cleaned before it is used as a nitrox eral ways to blend nitrox, some of which do not require
cleaning is unequivocally necessary. No definitive indus- cylinder. To prepare a nitrox cylinder, the interior of using pure oxygen, all will use extra-clean air that
try-wide standards exist for handling gas mixes inter- the cylinder is first washed with a solvent to remove all meets a standard of greatly reduced hydrocarbon con-

O
mediate between air and 100% oxygen. The U.S. Navy hydrocarbons and particulates. All traces of the solvent tent. So, preparing a cylinder and designating it as “for
handles gas mixes up to 40% oxygen the same as air. The are then flushed out. The cylinder valve, through which nitrox service” is valid, even for those blending methods
U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration has the oxygen must pass, is disassembled, thoroughly that remove nitrogen rather than adding oxygen. When
set a 40% break-point above which special cleaning is cleaned, and then reassembled using oxygen-compatible the cylinder is hydrostatically tested, it will have to be
required. NAUI and the recreational diving industry as lubricants, o-rings, seats, and seals. After being cleaned re-cleaned before being returned to nitrox service.

C
a whole have accepted the 40% rule, and EAN40 is the for use with oxygen-enriched air, the cylinder will be
accepted upper-limit fraction of oxygen in recreational labeled to clearly identify it as a nitrox cylinder.
nitrox diving. Forty percent seems to be a valid limit in The original “standard” identification for an
the sense that at or below this level oxygen compatibility
problems have not occurred. Above 40% one is in a gray
enriched air nitrox cylinder is a yellow cylinder with the
top painted green down to ten centimeters (four inches)
HOW NITROX IS MADE
area for which there is seemingly no firm data. Flash below the shoulder of the cylinder and with an identifying Most nitrox blending involves adding pure oxygen
combustion has occurred above 40% oxygen, so it is EANx label stenciled onto the cylinder. (If the cylinder to air. Other methods are available that remove nitrogen
better to err on the side of safety. Technical divers using from air. One “de-nitrogenation” technique has become

T
has been more formally cleaned for service with higher
higher oxygen fractions, such as in a decompression gas than 40% oxygen mixtures, it will be labeled as such.) more widespread in the past several years. As the popu- FIGURE 6-3: FILLING A NITROX CYLINDER
mix, use scuba equipment that is specially serviced and Many cylinders that are put into nitrox service are larity of nitrox has grown, many resort locations where fill normally begins with the cylinder emptied of any
is fully oxygen clean and oxygen compatible for these not yellow but some other color, so the more common oxygen is not readily available or is very expensive are previous mix, but it could start with adding oxygen and
special applications. standard identification labeling is a “nitrox” decal label using nitrogen removal techniques to make nitrox. then air to whatever remained in the cylinder from the

O
that encircles the cylinder just below the shoulder. The There are three nitrox preparation methods that add previous use.
label has a green band four inches wide that is bordered oxygen to air (partial-pressure mixing, continuous-flow Calculations for partial-pressure blending are sim-
above and below with a narrow yellow band. An identifier mixing, and mixing by weight) and two methods that ple. Using Dalton’s Law of partial pressures, a measured
EQUIPMENT PREPARATION remove nitrogen (pressure swing absorption and mem-
brane separation).
amount of pure oxygen (oxygen fraction equals 1.00)
So what about your own regulator and your cylin- plus a measured amount of air (oxygen fraction equals
N
der? Your regulator will not encounter an oxygen level 0.21) produces a full cylinder of nitrox at whatever oxygen
above 40%, so the rule applies. Normal maintenance fraction is desired. If the cylinder does not begin at empty,
service is sufficient for your regulator. Of course, as with it is just a matter of blending three gas mixtures instead
all of your equipment, you should take care of your reg- PARTIAL-PRESSURE MIXING of two. Small adjustments may have to be made because
ulator, rinsing it after dives, keeping it clean, avoiding Partial-pressure mixing systems are the eas- Dalton’s Law calculations are “ideal gas” calculations, and
extreme heat, and having it serviced regularly. The same iest to set up, requiring only a source of high-pressure the blending technician is mixing “real” gases. In practice,
general cautionary statement is true of all scuba equip- oxygen and a source of clean, high-pressure air. The air the blending technician will consult a table (rather than
performing the calculation for each fill) to determine what
O
ment that will be used with nitrox up to EAN40–sub- used for nitrox blending must meet the higher standard
mersible pressure gauges, BC inflators, BCs, etc. For all of purity with a lower hydrocarbon level than ordinary pressure of oxygen should be added to the empty cylinder
scuba gear, cleaner is better, and the prudent diver takes scuba air. In partial-pressure mixing, the blending that will then be topped off with air.
good care of his or her life support equipment. technician first puts a measured amount (pressure) of Because high-pressure oxygen is being introduced
Your cylinder is a different matter. The most com- FIGURE 6-2: NITROX CYLINDERS ARE SPECIALLY CLEANED AND oxygen into the cylinder and then fills the cylinder to its into the nitrox cylinder, the cylinder and its valve must be
mon way to prepare nitrox is to introduce an initial MARKED FOR EANX SERVICE service pressure with air. For simplicity, blending a nitrox oxygen clean and oxygen compatible. The cylinder will be
D

70 71
 NAUI Nitrox Diver Chapter 6- Oxygen Precautions and Preparing Nitrox

PY
flow at the low-pressure intake is fine-tuned, either
manually or by an automatic feedback control, until the Adsorption Bed Purge Gas
desired blend is attained. The high-pressure nitrox is "A" (Nitrogen)

Oxygen Precautions and Preparing Nitrox

Oxygen Precautions and Preparing Nitrox

routed to a bank of storage cylinders from which it will

be drawn to fill individual scuba cylinders. In commer-
cial diving, the mix may be delivered directly to the diver
through a hose attached to the helmet or band-mask.
The oxygen is well homogenized with the air before Low-Pressure

O
Compressor
being drawn into the compressor and some oxygen Nitrox
injection systems advertise that the blend is so thoroughly Adsorption Bed or 95% Oxygen
mixed before entering the compressor that the compres- "B" (For Blending)
sor does not have to be hydrocarbon-free. Whether this
is true or not, the nitrox will be used to fill a nitrox-ded- FIGURE 6-5: PRESSURE SWING ABSORPTION SYSTEM

C
icated cylinder, so the compressor should not introduce selectively adsorbs a thin layer of nitrogen onto its surface alternately. As one bed is removing atmospheric nitrogen,
any hydrocarbons that might contaminate the cylinder, from the air that passes over or through it. (Technically, the other is depressurizing and releasing the nitrogen
which at a later time may be filled by partial-pressure that it adsorbed on the previous swing. Oxygen up to
the process should be called pressure swing adsorption
blending. Continuous-flow mixing is used when larger 95% purity can be made using this system. (The balance
[with a “d”] because nitrogen only adheres to the surface
quantities of a given nitrox blend are needed. Although is argon, which is about one percent of the incoming
of the sieve material and is not sucked up by it.) The
the method could be used to fill individual scuba cylin- air and is not adsorbed by the molecular sieve.) The gas
adhering nitrogen can be easily removed, so the materi-
ders, it would be inefficient and wasteful of oxygen. emerges at low pressure and if nitrox rather than oxygen
FIGURE 6-4: AN EXAMPLE OF A CONTINUOUS FLOW BLENDING UNIT al can be reused repeatedly. The amount of nitrogen that

T
will be extracted from the air is largely a function of the is the end product, it must be compressed to fill scuba
filled slowly to minimize temperature increases as the oxy- cylinders. Usually, a PSA system feeds directly into a con-
pressure of the air as it is delivered to the system. This
gen and then the air are compressed into it. After filling the tinuous-flow system to make oxygen enriched air.
pressure is only about three to six atmospheres. Two beds
cylinder, the mix will be allowed to cool, the nitrox blend PRE-MIX of the nitrogen adsorbing molecular sieve operate in par-
will be analyzed, and the proportions adjusted as necessary.

O
Ordering one’s gas from a commercial gas supplier allel. The incoming, filtered air passes over each in turn,
Partial-pressure blending is popular in dive centers is the simplest and most straightforward way to obtain
both because it is easy and relatively inexpensive to set up
and because it lends itself to preparing small quantities of a
quality nitrox. The gas supplier will usually mix oxygen Pressure/Flow
Control Valve
MEMBRANE SEPARATION
and nitrogen rather than oxygen and air. They will also Membrane separation is also a nitrogen remov-
variety of different blends. Each cylinder’s fill is unique. With blend the gases by weight rather than by partial pressure al process. Instead of a molecular sieve that adsorbs
partial-pressure blending, the diver can request any nitrox in order to prevent any errors that ideal gas calculations
N
nitrogen, membrane separation uses a semi-permeable
blend for a single cylinder or several different mixes in sever- might introduce. A commercial supplier will deliver very “membrane” that allows oxygen to flow through it more
al cylinders, and the dive center can easily supply the need. accurately mixed nitrox with the oxygen and nitrogen readily than nitrogen. Filtered, clean air is introduced

GRADE E AIR

GRADE E AIR

GRADE E AIR
fractions exactly as ordered. It is also the most expensive under moderate pressure (12 to 18 atmospheres) and
way to obtain nitrox, and the mix accuracy available is flows through the membrane. A valve on the output side
not of real necessity in nitrox diving. controls the flow-rate of gas across the membrane–the
CONTINUOUS-FLOW MIXING EANx
( TO COMPRESSOR) higher the flow rate, the higher the oxygen fraction of the
This is the method that was first used by NOAA. The product gas. The oxygen content can be precisely con-
O

continuous-flow method injects a measured flow of DNX trolled, and preset controls from the manufacturer limit
pure oxygen into the air before it reaches the intake of PRESSURE SWING ABSORPTION MEMBRANE the maximum to 40% oxygen. The product nitrox is then
the compressor. The oxygen-air mixture is then com- This method removes nitrogen from air rather than MODULE compressed for use in scuba cylinders.
PURGE GAS
pressed. As the high-pressure nitrox exits the compressor, adding oxygen to it. Pressure swing absorption (NITROGEN) The membrane separation system requires only sim-
the oxygen fraction is analyzed online, and the oxygen (PSA) uses a material called a molecular sieve that ple routine maintenance. If the air entering the system
FIGURE 6-6: MEMBRANE SEPARATION UNIT
D

72 73
 NAUI Nitrox Diver Chapter 6- Oxygen Precautions and Preparing Nitrox

PY
is properly filtered and the unit properly maintained, the
CHAPTER 6: OXYGEN PRECAUTIONS AND PREPARING NITROX - KNOWLEDGE REVIEW
membrane is long-lived. The system is light-weight and
portable. For these reasons, as well as the fact that it does 1. In order for a fire to occur or continue, three things must be present:

Oxygen Precautions and Preparing Nitrox

Oxygen Precautions and Preparing Nitrox

not require handling pure oxygen, either as a source or ____________________,

a product, membrane separation for delivering nitrox is ____________________, and
popular in remote locations, on live-aboard dive boats, ____________________.
and in other places where oxygen is not readily obtained
or is very expensive. 2. All equipment to be used with pure oxygen must be “_____________,” and “_______________”

O
parts must be used in order to minimize the risk of fire or destruction by the oxygen.

3. Oxygen compatible means that the materials used in the various parts in the system are not
YOUR RESPONSIBILITY _____________________________________________________ in the presence of
As a nitrox diver, you are responsible not only for _____________________________________________.

C
your dive planning and execution but also for your
equipment. You should keep your gear well maintained, 4. The general rule of thumb is that any equipment that is to be used with pure oxygen or an oxygen level that is
be careful in its use, and keep it clean. Your cylinder will above ___________________ must be cleaned for oxygen service and have only oxygen-compatible parts.
be a dedicated nitrox cylinder, and although sometimes it
may be filled with air (EAN21 as some call it), you should 5. After being cleaned for use with oxygen-enriched air, the cylinder will be
obtain your air only from a fill station with a compressor ______________________________________________________.
that supplies nitrox-compatible grade air. Another air

T
source could possibly deliver air that would contaminate 6. The common identification labeling for a nitrox cylinder is ______________________________
your cylinder for future partial-pressure blending. __ ________________________ with a printed identifier such as “Nitrox” or “Enriched Air Nitrox.”
Your responsibility for your breathing gas does not
end with keeping your equipment clean and obtaining
7. Cylinders must be prepared for designated nitrox service because most of the time
your oxygen-enriched air from someone whom you trust.
A unique feature of nitrox diving is that the end-user
is responsible for the correctness of what he or she will
breathe. You are responsible for your cylinder’s contents
being what you asked for. A final step before you take the
cylinder away with you is verifying the contents. The next
O _________________________________________________________.

8. In partial-pressure mixing, the blending technician first _______________________________

and then ______________________________________________________________.
N
chapter will discuss this last step–analyzing your gas and 9. The continuous-flow method injects a measured ______________________ into the air
correctly labeling your cylinder. __________________ it reaches the intake of the compressor.

10. Pressure swing absorption (PSA) uses a material called ____________________ that ________
_____________________________________ from the air that passes over or through it.

11. Membrane separation uses a ________________________ that allows ___________ to flow

O
through it more readily than ____________________.
D

74 75
 NAUI Nitrox Diver Chapter 6- Oxygen Precautions and Preparing Nitrox

Notes

PY

Oxygen Precautions and Preparing Nitrox

Oxygen Precautions and Preparing Nitrox

O
C
T
O
N
O
D

76 77
 NAUI Nitrox Diver Chapter 7- Knowing What You Breathe

CHAPTER

PY

Knowing What You Breathe

Knowing What You Breathe

O
C
Knowing
What You

T
Breathe O
N
O
D

78 79
 NAUI Nitrox Diver Chapter 7- Knowing What You Breathe

PY
LEARNING GOALS
In this chapter you will learn:
• About oxygen analyzers and why analysis

Knowing What You Breathe

Knowing What You Breathe

is necessary.
• How to analyze your nitrox mixture.
• How your cylinder should be labeled after it is
filled.

O
• Why a fill station logbook is kept and how to
enter your fill information in the log.

As an enriched air nitrox diver, you must know how

to analyze the oxygen content of the gas that you will be

C
breathing. In a very few situations, such as a dive desti-
nation in which a contract fill station routinely supplies
EAN32 to many dive operators, you may not be tasked
with analyzing your own gas, but in most cases–and
especially if you have requested a custom blend–analyz-
ing the gas that you will breathe is an essential and crit-
ical part of preparing to dive.
FIGURE 7-1: OXYGEN ANALYZER FIGURE 7-2: GAS SAMPLING FLOW-RATE RESTRICTOR FIGURE 7-3: ELECTROCHEMICAL OXYGEN SENSOR

T
The blending technician will fill your cylinder, and
his or her analysis of the blend is part of the filling pro- comes in contact with an electrode. A small electric cur- would be tolerable as long as the planned depth of the dive Many analyzer manufacturers supply a specially designed
cedure. But, performing or verifying a final gas analysis rent is generated by the oxygen ions, which is proportion- does not exceed the maximum operating depth of the mix. flow restrictor or flow-rate regulator that attaches directly
and recording the pertinent information in a fill log and al to the amount of oxygen in the sample. The analyzer to a low-pressure inflator hose fitting on a regulator first
on the cylinder is the responsibility of you, the end-user. measures the resulting current and displays a read-out stage. The flow restrictor is either self-setting or will have
You will use an oxygen analyzer to perform this proce-
dure, so you should know how to use one as well as have
some acquaintance with how they work.

O
in percent oxygen. Electrochemical analyzers have the
advantage of being rugged and portable. They are also
relatively less expensive than other types.
An essential operation in using any analyzer is cali-
brating it. Analyzers may exhibit some instability or drift
ANALYZING YOUR GAS
When you pick up your cylinder of nitrox, the facility
will ask you to analyze your mix and record your analysis
in the fill station log. The facility that filled your cylinder
a meter that allows its valve opening to be set to an appro-
priate flow rate. The downstream side of the flow restrictor
attaches to the oxygen sensor of the analyzer.
Accurate oxygen analysis also depends on accurate
calibration of the analyzer. Before analyzing the gas in
N
as they age, and so they should be calibrated before each your oxygen-enriched air cylinder, you must calibrate it
will have an oxygen analyzer available for this purpose.
OXYGEN ANALYZERS use. In scientific use, calibration often includes zeroing
the analyzer to a known inert gas that has no oxygen You will also record the mix information on the cylinder
using a known source. This is usually a scuba cylinder
that is filled with air. Attach the flow restrictor/regulator
There are many styles of oxygen analyzers available, content. For nitrox use, an analyzer is normally calibrat- itself or verify what has already been recorded on the cyl- to the air supply and the oxygen analyzer to the down-
ranging from large units to small analyzers designed ed using standard air. That is, with the analyzer exposed inder by the blending technician. stream side of the flow restrictor. Turn on the analyzer
for use in the field. Most of the analyzers used for nitrox to air, it is set to read 20.9% or 21.0%. Accurate analysis depends not only on the reliability and the air supply. If the flow restrictor is not preset,
diving have a digital readout, but analog readouts are Although an analyzer should read in tenths of a percent, of the oxygen analyzer but also on the flow rate of the gas adjust the flow rate to about one to two liters per minute.
also available. Ideally, an analyzer should display oxygen it is generally accepted that a mix need be only ±1% of the through the oxygen sensor. If the flow rate is too high, the Allow the air to flow to the analyzer for a minute until
O

content to an accuracy of one-tenth of one percent. That target value. NAUI EAN32 and EAN36 Dive Tables have a analyzer will detect an excess amount of oxygen, and the you are sure that the analyzer has stabilized. Then, set
is, the analyzer would display 31.7% rather than just 32%. tolerance of ±1% in their use. If the mix is off more than displayed oxygen percentage will be too high. If the flow rate the analyzer’s readout to 20.9% or 21.0%.
The sensor commonly used in nitrox analysis is 1% and tables are to be used, the blending technician should is too low, the displayed oxygen percentage may also be too Once the analyzer is calibrated, you can analyze the mix
electrochemical. In this type of sensor, the oxygen in the adjust the mix in the cylinder. A nitrox dive computer can low. The acceptable flow rate is about one liter per minute in your enriched air nitrox cylinder. Without disturbing the
gas diffuses through a membrane where it is ionized as it be set to the actual percentage of the mix, so a greater error and should be between one-half and two liters per minute. analyzer’s setting, shut down the air-supply cylinder, allow
D

80 81
 NAUI Nitrox Diver Chapter 7- Knowing What You Breathe

PY
the analyzer system to depressurize or depressurize it man-
CHAPTER 7: KNOWING WHAT YOU BREATHE - KNOWLEDGE REVIEW
ually, remove the setup from the air cylinder, and reattach it
1. Performing or verifying a final gas analysis and recording the pertinent information in a fill log and on the
to your nitrox cylinder. Then, turn on the valve of the nitrox
cylinder is the responsibility of ___________________________.
cylinder. You may need to be expeditious with this switch, as

Knowing What You Breathe

Knowing What You Breathe

most analyzers will turn themselves off after a certain time

of no use. Check the flow rate if it is adjustable and set it to 2. An oxygen analyzer should display oxygen content to an accuracy of ________________________.
the same as it was for your air analysis. Allow a minute for
3. The sensor commonly used in nitrox analysis is __________________________.

O
the reading to stabilize and then take a reading of the oxygen
fraction or percentage of your mix. Record this information
on your cylinder contents label. 4. An essential operation in using any analyzer is _________________________.

5. Accurate analysis depends not only on the reliability of the oxygen analyzer but also on ____________
_______________________________________.

C
CYLINDER LABELING 6. During gas analysis, the flow rate should be between ___________and _________ liters per minute.
Every oxygen-enriched air cylinder must be properly
labeled with its contents and other necessary information. 7. The data on the cylinder contents label should include:
The label should be prepared immediately after the con- ________________________________,
tents are analyzed in order to avoid forgetful errors. The ________________________________,
cylinder label may be a commercially prepared decal or FIGURE 7-4: NAUI EANX CYLINDER CONTENTS LABEL ________________________________,

T
tag that can be written on with a waterproof marker and ________________________________, and
tion, the cylinder’s serial number, the cylinder pressure, the
subsequently erased or wiped off with alcohol and reused. ________________________________,
oxygen percentage of the mix, and the maximum operating
Or, a label can be made using an indelible marker on
depth. You will also sign the logbook entry.
tape that will be removed before the next refill. The data 8. The cylinder log verifies that you either ____________________________ or watched as a
The cylinder log is used to keep track of all nitrox
on the cylinder label should include: fill date, oxygen

O
cylinders that leave the facility. It also verifies, by your blending technician analyzed them for you, and that ___________________________________.
percentage, maximum operating depth, cylinder pres-
signature, that you either analyzed the contents or
sure, and the name of the analyzer/end-user. An evolving
watched as a blending technician analyzed them for you,
practice is to add a second label mounted vertically on
and that you knew the particulars of the fill and its limits
the cylinder body and marked with maximum operating
when you received the cylinder.
depth in numbers three inches high (for example, using
And so, at last, you have it all together, and you are
N
house-number decals). This MOD label is positioned so
ready to enjoy the world of nitrox diving. Armed with
that it is unobstructed and can be easily read by a dive your cylinder of enriched air nitrox–perhaps blended
partner who is swimming next to the user. to your personal specifications, your knowledge of the
risks, limits, and advantages of the gods’ ambrosia/devil’s
gas that you are about to use, an appropriate dive plan,
and a compatible dive partner, you head off to the dive
FILLING OUT THE LOGBOOK site. There you and your partner assemble and don your
O

Once you have analyzed your cylinder and labeled it, equipment, rehearse and review your dive plan (includ-
you will be asked to complete a permanent Fill Station Log ing a review of your MOD), mutually check each other’s
and sign-off that you have received the cylinder. This log- gear, and begin your dive. And, once you make your
book is kept by the facility that filled your cylinder. In the descent, it really is “just like breathing air.”
logbook, you will enter your name, the date, your certifica- Safe diving.
D

82 83
 NAUI Nitrox Diver Glossary

Notes

PY
Glossary Arterial Gas Embolism (AGE): The obstruction
of arterial blood flow by an air bubble or bubbles.
Blockage of a vessel in the brain usually results in
A paralysis and other neurological deficits. AGE is

Glossary
Knowing What You Breathe

Absolute Pressure: (See also ata.) The pressure normally caused by a lung overexpansion injury that
referenced to zero pressure. Absolute pressure is the allows air bubbles to escape into the circulation.
total pressure from all sources. In diving, it is equal to
water (hydrostatic) pressure plus air (atmospheric) ata: The abbreviation for atmospheres absolute; the total

O
pressure. pressure expressed in multiples of one atmosphere.
Actual Dive Time (ADT): The total time spent Atmosphere: The gaseous envelope surrounding the
underwater from the beginning of descent until the earth (or any celestial body). Also, the unit of pres-
return to the surface at the end of the dive. The pre- sure equal to the pressure of the air at sea level. One
cautionary safety stop need not be included in the atmosphere is equal to 1.01325 bars, 760 millimeters

C
dive time. of mercury (mmHg), or 14.696 pounds per square
inch (psi).
Adjusted Maximum Dive Time (AMDT): The
Maximum Dive Time for a specific depth minus the
Residual Nitrogen Time for the repetitive dive letter
group and that depth.
B
Air Embolism: See Arterial Gas Embolism.

T
Bar: The metric/S.I. unit of pressure equal to one million
Air: The mixture of gases that surrounds the earth–the dynes per square centimeter or about 750 mmHg. One
earth’s atmosphere. Air consists of approximately 21% atmosphere of pressure is equal to 1.01325 bars.
oxygen and 78% nitrogen, the balance being trace
gases including argon, carbon dioxide, and others. Bends: See Decompression sickness.

OAlgorithm: The formulas or procedures for solving a

problem in a certain number of steps. In diving, algo-
rithm usually refers to a particular set of formulas
used to establish decompression status, as in a dive
computer, or to devise decompression and dive tables.
Best Mix: The gas mix chosen for optimal balance of
nitrogen and oxygen content for a given nitrox dive.
The best mix provides the lowest concentration of
nitrogen that, at the same time, will keep the diver
within the permissible oxygen partial pressure limit.
N
Ambient Pressure: The total surrounding pressure. Bottom Time: The dive time from the moment of
See absolute pressure. descent to the beginning of direct ascent to the sur-
face or to the precautionary safety stop. See also
Analysis, Gas: The measurement of separate compo- Actual Dive Time.
nent gases in a gas mixture. In recreational nitrox
diving, analysis is for oxygen content only. Boyle’s Law: The statement of the relationship between
the volume and density of a gas and its pressure.
O
Argon: A colorless, odorless, inert gaseous element that Boyle’s law states: “At constant temperature, the vol-
constitutes about one percent of the air. ume of a gas varies inversely with absolute pressure,
while the density of a gas varies directly with absolute
pressure.”
D

84 85
 NAUI Nitrox Diver Glossary

PY
C Medicine, Canada (now Defence Research and
Development Canada, Toronto). Since 1939, the
EANx: A way to express the oxygen content of a specific
enriched air nitrox mix. The “x” is replaced with the
ideal gas will behave with changes in pressure, tem-
perature, and volume.
CNS: Central nervous system DCIEM/DRDC has conducted research in all areas of oxygen percentage of the mix. EAN32 would be a
human protection and performance in extreme envi- nitrox mixture that is 32% oxygen. Gas Percentage: The quantity of a single gas in a mixture
Glossary

of gases expressed in relation to 100 representing the

Glossary
CNS Oxygen Toxicity: The toxic effects on the central ronments. It is best known in general scuba diving for
nervous system of breathing high-pressure oxygen. development of the DCIEM dive tables. Enriched Air Nitrox (EAN, Oxygen Enriched whole mixture. Gas percentages must be converted to gas
CNS oxygen toxicity results from relatively short Air): Any nitrogen-oxygen mixture containing more fractions in mathematical calculations. For example, a
exposures to high partial pressures of oxygen and DCS: See Decompression sickness. than 21% oxygen. mix that is 32% oxygen has an oxygen fraction of 0.32.

O
may present as a range of signs and symptoms, up to Decompression: The reduction of pressure or the Equivalent Air Depth (EAD): The depth at which air Gas Tension: The equivalent of partial pressure for a
epileptic-like convulsions. release from compression. As used in diving, decom- would have the same nitrogen partial pressure as the dissolved gas.
Contingency Maximum Operating Depth: The pression means a controlled reduction of pressure or oxygen enriched air that is being used for the dive. For
ascent in the water. example, a diver using a nitrox mix containing 32% Gauge Pressure: The pressure indicated by a gauge
depth range for a specific gas mixture that gives an oxy-
oxygen at 24 msw (80 fsw) is exposed to an inert gas that ignores atmospheric pressure. Depth gauges,
gen partial pressure exceeding 1.4 ata and up to 1.6 ata. Decompression Sickness (DCS, Bends): The

C
level equivalent to 20 msw (64 fsw) if breathing air. which show hydrostatic pressure in msw or fsw, are
Continuous-flow Mixing: A method of blending disorder marked by neurological deficits, pain, and examples of gauge pressure read-out.
enriched air nitrox in which oxygen is mixed with air sometimes death caused by release of nitrogen gas
at the intake of the compressor. The blend is monitored bubbles in various tissues of the body. DCS results
from a too-rapid decrease in ambient pressure after
using in-line oxygen analysis, and the oxygen flow and
content are adjusted to achieve the desired mix. being in a pressurized environment.
F H
Dedicated Cylinder: A scuba cylinder prepared for use Fire Triangle: The three components needed to start a
Convulsion: The involuntary, abnormal contraction or Henry’s Law: The statement of the relationship of the

T
with a specific gas. A dedicated nitrox cylinder will have fire and keep it burning: oxygen, fuel, and a source of
series of contractions of the muscles. Convulsions are pressure of a gas on a liquid to the solubility of the
been properly cleaned (including the cylinder valve) ignition.
the terminal sign of CNS oxygen toxicity. gas in the liquid. Henry’s law states: “The amount of
and then reassembled using oxygen-compatible parts. 40% Rule: The rule that allows scuba and other breath- gas that will dissolve in a liquid at a given tempera-
Cylinder Markings: Markings used on scuba cylinders ture is directly proportional to the partial pressure of
Dive Computer: An electronic instrument that mon- ing gas equipment to be used without special oxygen
are of several types. Legally required markings for

O
itors time and depth and uses a mathematical algo- cleaning if it will be used with oxygen enriched mix- that gas on the liquid.”
working pressure, hydrostatic testing, etc. are stamped
rithm to calculate and display dive time, depth, and tures that do not exceed 40% oxygen content.
into the metal on the shoulder of the cylinder. To Hypoxia: A deficiency in the amount of oxygen reaching
designate nitrox cylinders, the standard marking is a decompression information. the tissues of the body and the condition brought on
fsw: Depth (or pressure) measured in feet of seawater.
green band on a yellow cylinder or green band with a Dive Profile: Also called dive schedule. An abbreviated The pressure exerted by one fsw is approximately by that deficiency.
yellow border. Nitrox cylinders are also labeled with statement giving the depth and duration of a dive. It equal to 1/33 of a standard atmosphere.
N
specific information about each fill. is expressed as depth/time (for example, 21 meters/40
minutes or 70 feet/40 minutes).
I
Dive Schedule: An abbreviated statement giving the G
D depth and duration of the dive. See Dive profile. Ideal Gas Laws: The description of the relationship of
temperature, pressure, and volume of a theoretical
Gas Analysis: The measurement of separate component
Dalton’s Law: The statement of the relationship of gases in a gas mixture. In recreational nitrox diving, “ideal” gas, that is, one with molecules of negligible
the pressure exerted by each gas in a mixture to the analysis is for oxygen content only. size moving randomly and colliding with completely
O

total pressure. Dalton’s law states: “The total pressure E elastic collisions. The behavior of a real gas more
exerted by a mixture of gases is equal to the sum of Gas Fraction: The quantity of a single gas in a mixture closely approximates that of an ideal gas when it is at
the pressures exerted by each of the gases if it alone EAD: See Equivalent air depth. of gases expressed as a decimal fraction of the whole. relatively low pressure and high temperature.
were present and occupied the volume.” Gas fractions are used in mathematical calculations.
EAN: Enriched air nitrox. Any nitrogen-oxygen mixture Inert Gas Narcosis: A semi-stuporous condition
DClEM: Defence and Civil Institute of Environmental containing more than 21% oxygen. Gas Laws: The physical statements that predict how an caused by the elevated partial pressure of inert gases
D

86 87
 NAUI Nitrox Diver Glossary

PY
(commonly nitrogen) in the breathing gases at depth. Nitrogen: the colorless, odorless, tasteless gas that Offgassing: The diffusion of dissolved gasses from the Oxygen Service: Denotes equipment that has been spe-
The condition is alleviated by ascending to a shal- makes up approximately 78% of the air. Nitrogen is tissues and their elimination from the body as ambi- cially cleaned and prepared for use with oxygen.
lower depth or by changing the components of the metabolically inert and is responsible for narcosis and ent pressure is reduced.
breathing mixture, as in trimix. decompression sickness in diving. Oxygen Toxicity: Short or long term deleterious phys-
Glossary

iological effects of exposure to elevated partial pres-

Glossary
Oxygen: An element that is found free as a colorless,
Ingassing: The diffusion of additional dissolved gasses Nitrox (EAN, Enriched Air Nitrox, Oxygen- odorless tasteless gas comprising 21% of air. Oxygen sures of oxygen.
into the tissues as ambient pressure increases. Enriched Air): A term generally used for a mix- combines readily with most elements and is a con-
ture of oxygen and air or oxygen and nitrogen with stituent in many organic compounds and minerals.

O
an oxygen percentage greater than 21%. The term has Almost half of the composition of the earth’s outer
also been used in habitat diving for nitrogen-oxygen crust is oxygen in various mineral compounds. In P
M mixtures with an oxygen content less than 21%. respiration, the oxygen we breathe is metabolized in
Partial Pressure: The portion of the total gas pres-
Maximum Dive Time (MDT): Also called the our bodies to sustain life.
No-decompression Dive: A dive that does not sure exerted by a single gas in a mixture of gases. See
no-decompression time or no-decompression limit require a decompression stop during ascent. The Dalton’s law.
Oxygen Clean: Refers to the cleanliness and absence of

C
(NDL). The length of time that may be spent at a
term “no-required-decompression dive” is also used contaminants in equipment that has been prepared
given depth without being required to make a man- Partial Pressure Mixing: The mixing method by
to remind divers that all dives involve decompres- for oxygen service. Common contaminants include
datory decompression stop during ascent to the sur- which gases are serially combined using proportions
sion, even though decompression stops may not be those that can serve as a source of combustion such of each gas to determine the composition of the
face.
required. as petroleum-based lubricants, soot, dust, metal par- resulting mixture. Each gas is added to the containing
Maximum Operating Depth (MOD): The maxi- ticles, etc. cylinder so that its partial pressure gives it the desired
mum depth to which a particular gas mixture can be No-stop Dive: Another term for no-decompression
dive. Oxygen Cleaning: The process by which equipment fraction of the resulting mix.
used without exceeding the oxygen partial pressure

T
limit. In normal diving the maximum PO2 is 1.4 ata. is prepared for oxygen service. “Formal” oxygen PO2: Partial pressure of oxygen.
NOAA: The National Oceanic and Atmospheric cleaning follows very strict cleaning, handling, and
MDT: See Maximum Dive Time Administration, a U.S. government agency created in documentation procedures. “Informal” oxygen clean- Pressure: Force acting on a unit of area. See also
1970 within the Department of Commerce. NOAA is ing uses the same cleaning techniques but is not as Absolute pressure and Gauge pressure.
Membrane Separation: The process of separating a science-based agency that has the responsibility to

O
rigorous regarding handling and documentation. Pressure, Atmospheric: The measure of the weight
gases by forcing a gas mixture through a differentially predict changes in the oceanic and atmospheric envi-
permeable membrane that allows some gases to pass ronments and living marine resources. Oxygen Compatible: Refers to lubricants or compo- of the surrounding “column” of air. One atmosphere
more readily than others. nents that are designed for use in high-oxygen envi- is equal to 1.01325 bars, 14.7 pounds per square inch
NOAA Nitrox I and NOAA Nitrox II: Two standard ronments. Materials that are not oxygen compatible (psi), 33 fsw, or 760 millimeters of mercury (mmHg).
MOD: See Maximum Operating Depth. mixes of enriched air nitrox that were first used by the may be subject to ignition or rapid degradation in a Pressure Gradient: The difference in pressure
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration in
N
msw: Meters of seawater. The pressure exerted by one high-oxygen environment. between two separate locations. Used in diving to
msw equals 1/10 bar. research diving. NOAA Nitrox I and NOAA Nitrox II
are EAN32 and EAN36, respectively. Oxygen-Enriched Air (EAN, Nitrox, Enriched Air describe the driving force on a gas that causes it to
Nitrox): Air to which oxygen has been added) or move in or out of a body tissue.
from which nitrogen has been removed) to produce a Pressure Swing Absorption: A method of separating
N mixture with an oxygen percentage above 21%. gases in a mixture using the adsorption properties of
O a porous material, usually a “molecular sieve” over
Narcosis: See Nitrogen narcosis and Inert gas narcosis. Oxygen Exposure Limit: The maximum time that
which the gas mixture is passed. In nitrox blending
O
OCEANx Calculator: A NAUI product that allows a the diver can be exposed to a certain partial pressure
Nitrogen Narcosis: A semi-stuporous condition caused by pressure swing absorption, the adsorbing material
diver to easily determine oxygen exposure limits and of oxygen. NOAA has published a table of single-dive
by the elevated partial pressure of nitrogen in the removes nitrogen from the air flowing over it.
to perform equivalent air depth conversions for oxy- oxygen exposure limits and 24-hour oxygen exposure
breathing mixture at depth. The condition is alleviated gen-enriched air mixtures. limits for a PO2 range of 0.6 ata to 1.6 ata.
by ascending to a shallower depth or by diluting the
nitrogen in the breathing mixture, as in trimix.
D

88 89
 NAUI Nitrox Diver Tables
Tables and
and Charts
Charts
Tables and Charts

PY
Absolute Pressure at Depth
R Solubility: The amount of one substance that will dis-
solve in another substance under specified conditions.
Absolute Pressure at Depth
Depth Depth Pressure
Depth Depth Pressure
See also Henry’s Law. (fsw) (msw) (ata)
Reduced Gradient Bubble Model (RGBM): A (fsw) (msw) (ata)
0 0 1
set of decompression algorithms and diving tables Solute: A dissolved substance. 0 0 1
Glossary

Tables
10 3 1.3
based on a dual-phase model of tissue ingassing and 10 3 1.3

Tables
20 6 1.6

Tablesand
offgassing–that is, based not only on gases dissolved Solvent: The liquid substance that dissolves another 20 6 1.6
in one’s tissues but also on the ever-present gaseous substance. 30 9 1.9
30 9 1.9

and Charts
40 12 1.2

O
micronuclei or “bubble seeds” in our bodies.
Square Profile Dive: A dive that involves descending 40 12 1.2

andCharts
50 15 2.5
Repetitive Dive: Any dive following a previous dive to one particular depth, staying there for the entire 50 15 2.5
60 18 2.8

Charts
before complete offgassing of nitrogen. According to dive time and then ascending directly to the surface, 60 18 2.8
the NAUI Dive Tables, any dive within 24 hours of a with the exception of safety and decompression stops. 70 21 3.1
70 21 3.1
previous dive is a repetitive dive. All dives are treated as square profile dives when 80 24 3.4
80 24 3.4
using dive tables. 90 27 3.7

C
Residual Nitrogen: The nitrogen remaining in the 90 27 3.7
100 30 4.0
body because of a previous dive or dives. Surface Interval: The time spent on the surface 100 30 4.0
110 34 4.4
between dives. A surface interval must be at least 10 110 34 4.4
Residual Nitrogen Time (RNT): The amount of minutes to qualify the next descent as a repetitive 120 37 4.7
time a diver must consider as already having been 120 37 4.7
dive. NAUI recommends that the surface interval be a 130 40 5.0
spent at depth for a planned repetitive dive. The time 130 40 5.0
minimum of one hour. 140 43 5.3
is based on the residual nitrogen remaining in the 140 43 5.3
150 46 5.6
diver’s body from the previous dive. 150 46 5.6

T
THIS TABLE CAN BE USED TO CONVERT EITHER
THIS
THIS TABLE CAN
CAN BE USED
USED TO
TOCONVERT
CONVERT EITHERFROM DEPTH TO
Rule of Halves: A modification to the safety stop pro- FROMTABLE
DEPTH TOBEABSOLUTE PRESSUREEITHER
OR ABSOLUTE PRESSURE TO
cedure to further reduce bubble formation. By the T FROM DEPTH
ABSOLUTE TO ABSOLUTE
PRESSURE
EQUIVALENT DEPTH. OR PRESSURE
ABSOLUTE OR ABSOLUTE
PRESSURE PRESSUREDEPTH.
TO EQUIVALENT TO
EQUIVALENT DEPTH.
Rule of Halves, the ascending diver stops for two to Technical Diving: A mode of diving using advanced Oxygen Partial Pressure (in atmospheres absolute) at Depth

O
three minutes (with two and one-half minutes being techniques, equipment, and training. “Technical Oxygen Partial Pressure (in atmospheres absolute) at Depth
optimum) at a depth that is one half the deepest FO Air 0.24 0.26 0.28 0.30 0.32 0.34 0.36 0.38 0.40
dives” include planned decompression dives, deep FO22 Air 0.24 0.26 0.28 0.30 0.32 0.34 0.36 0.38 0.40
depth of the dive, followed by a one-minute stop at a dives where both nitrogen and oxygen in the breath- Depth Depth
Depth
(fsw) Depth
(msw)
depth of 3-6 msw (10-20 fsw) before surfacing. ing gas are diluted with helium (trimix), dives in (fsw) (msw)
40 12 0.46 0.53 0.58 0.62 0.66 0.71 0.75 0.80 0.84 0.88
which the diver changes gas mixes during the dive, 40 12 0.46 0.53 0.58 0.62 0.66 0.71 0.75 0.80 0.84 0.88
dives that use an oxygen percentage greater than 50 15 0.53 0.60 0.65 0.70 0.75 0.80 0.86 0.91 0.96 1.01
N
50 15 0.53 0.60 0.65 0.70 0.75 0.80 0.86 0.91 0.96 1.01
40%, or dives into overhead environments such as
S caves or wrecks. The term is also applied to diving
60
60
18
18
0.59
0.59
0.68
0.68
0.73
0.73
0.79
0.79
0.85
0.85
0.90
0.90
0.96
0.96
1.01
1.01
1.07
1.07
1.13
1.13
70 21 0.66 0.75 0.81 0.87 0.94 1.00 1.06 1.12 1.19 1.25
with a rebreather. 70 21 0.66 0.75 0.81 0.87 0.94 1.00 1.06 1.12 1.19 1.25
Safety Stop: A precautionary delay in ascent from a 80 24 0.72 0.82 0.89 0.96 1.03 1.10 1.16 1.23 1.30 1.37
no-stop dive. The safety stop is taken at approximate- 80 24 0.72 0.82 0.89 0.96 1.03 1.10 1.16 1.23 1.30 1.37
Total Nitrogen Time (TNT): The sum of residual 90 27 0.78 0.89 0.97 1.04 1.12 1.19 1.27 1.34 1.42 1.49
ly 5 msw (15 fsw) for three to five minutes at the end nitrogen time from previous dives and the dive time 90 27 0.78 0.89 0.97 1.04 1.12 1.19 1.27 1.34 1.42 1.49
of the dive. 100 30 0.85 0.97 1.05 1.13 1.21 1.29 1.37 1.45 1.53 1.61
for the present dive. 100 30 0.85 0.97 1.05 1.13 1.21 1.29 1.37 1.45 1.53 1.61
110 33 0.91 1.04 1.13 1.21 1.30 1.39 1.47 1.56 1.64 1.73
O

Saturation: In diving, the presence of the most dis- Trimix: A breathing mixture of three gases: oxygen, 110 33 0.91 1.04 1.13 1.21 1.30 1.39 1.47 1.56 1.64 1.73
solved gas possible in the body tissues of the diver for 120 36 0.97 1.11 1.21 1.30 1.39 1.48 1.58 1.66 1.76 1.85
helium, and nitrogen. 120 36 0.97 1.11 1.21 1.30 1.39 1.48 1.58 1.66 1.76 1.85
the existent depth/pressure. 130 40 1.19 1.28 1.38 1.48 1.58 1.68 1.77 1.88 1.98
130 40 1.19 1.28 1.38 1.48 1.58 1.68 1.77 1.88 1.98
SIT: Surface interval time: See Surface Interval. OXYGEN PARTIAL
OXYGEN PARTIAL PRESSURE
PRESSUREATATDEPTH
DEPTHFORFORVARIOUS
VARIOUSNITROX
NITROXBLENDS–MODERATE
BLENDS–MODERATE SHADINGINDICATES
INDICATES AN OXYGEN PARTIAL
OXYGEN PARTIAL PRESSURE AT DEPTH FOR VARIOUS NITROX BLENDS–MODERATESHADING
SHADING INDICATESANANOXYGEN
OXYGENPARTIAL
PARTIALPRESSURE BETWEEN 1.4
PRESSURE
AND BETWEEN
1.6 ATA. 1.4 ANDINDICATES
DARK SHADING 1.6 ATA. DARK SHADING
OXYGEN INDICATES
PARTIAL PRESSUREOXYGEN PARTIAL
IN EXCESS PRESSURE
OF 1.6 ATA. ININEXCESS
EXCESS OF 1.6 ATA.
PRESSURE BETWEEN 1.4 AND 1.6 ATA. DARK SHADING INDICATES OXYGEN PARTIAL PRESSURE OF 1.6 ATA.
D

90 919191
 Tables and Charts
NAUI Nitrox Diver Tables and Charts
NAUI Nitrox Diver

PY
Maximum Operating Depth (in fsw) for Various Nitrox Mixes
NOAA Oxygen Exposure Limits Oxygen Percentages for Best Mix Maximum Operating Depth (in fsw) for Various Nitrox Mixes
Percent O 21% 22% 24% 26% 28% 30% 32% 34% 36% 38% 40%
Percent O22 21% 22% 24% 26% 28% 30% 32% 34% 36% 38% 40%
Maximum Maximum PO2 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 PO
PO2 PO22

Tables
Charts

Tables
Single Dive 24-Hour

Tablesandand
(atm) Limit (minutes) Limit (minutes) fsw msw 1.0 ata 124 117 104 93 84 77 70 64 58 53 49
1.0 ata 124 117 104 93 84 77 70 64 58 53 49
Charts

40 12 40% 40% 40% 40% 40% 1.1 ata 139 132 118 106 96 88 80 73 67 62 57
1.60 45 150 1.1 ata 139 132 118 106 96 88 80 73 67 62 57

andCharts
Tablesandand

O
45 14 40% 40% 40% 40% 40% 1.2 ata 155 147 132 119 108 99 90 83 77 71 66
1.2 ata 155 147 132 119 108 99 90 83 77 71 66
1.55 83 165

Charts
1.3 ata 171 162 145 132 120 110 101 93 86 79 74

Charts
50 15 40% 40% 40% 40% 40%
1.3 ata 171 162 145 132 120 110 101 93 86 79 74
Tables

1.50 120 180 55 17 40% 40% 40% 40% 40% 1.4 ata 187 177 159 144 132 121 111 102 95 88 82
1.4 ata 187 177 159 144 132 121 111 102 95 88 82
60 18 40% 40% 40% 40% 40% 1.5 ata 202 192 173 157 143 132 121 112 104 97 90
1.45 135 180 1.5 ata 202 192 173 157 143 132 121 112 104 97 90

C
65 20 40% 40% 40% 40% 40% 1.6 ata 218 207 187 170 155 143 132 122 113 105 99
1.40 150 180 1.6 ata 218 207 187 170 155 143 132 122 113 105 99
70 21 40% 40% 40% 40% 40%
TABLESHOWS
TABLE SHOWSMAXIMUM
MAXIMUMOPERATING
OPERATINGDEPTH
DEPTHFOR
FORBREATHING
BREATHINGGASES
GASESFROM
FROMAIRAIRTOTOEAN40.
EAN40FOR . FOR INTERMEDIATE
INTERMEDIATE OXYGEN
OXYGEN FRACTIONS,
FRACTIONS, USE
USEUSE THE
THE THE NEXT
NEXTNEXT
1.35 165 195 75 23 37% 40% 40% 40% 40%
TABLE SHOWS
RICHERMIX. MAXIMUM
MIX.FRACTIONAL OPERATING
FRACTIONALDEPTHS DEPTH
DEPTHSHAVE FOR BREATHING
HAVE BEENROUNDED
ROUNDEDDOWN GASES FROM
DOWNTOTOTHETHE NEXT AIR TO EAN
SHALLOWER . FOR INTERMEDIATE OXYGEN FRACTIONS,
40 WHOLE NUMBER. DEPTHS GREATER THAN 130 FSW ARE
RICHER
RICHER HAVEBEEN TO THENEXT SHALLOWER WHOLE NUMBER. DEPTHS GREATER THANTHAN
130 130
FSWFSWARE ARE
SHADEDMIX.
DARK.FRACTIONAL
MODS FOR DEPTHS BEEN ROUNDED
THE RECOMMENDED MAXIMUMDOWN
EXPOSURE OFNEXT
1.4 ATASHALLOWER
ARE LIGHTLYWHOLE NUMBER.
SHADED. DEPTHS GREATER
1.30 180 210 80 24 35% 38% 40% 40% 40% SHADED
SHADED DARK.
DARK.MODS
MODSFOR
FORTHE
THERECOMMENDED
RECOMMENDEDMAXIMUM
MAXIMUMEXPOSURE
EXPOSUREOFOF1.41.4ATAATAAREARELIGHTLY
LIGHTLYSHADED.
SHADED.

1.25 195 225 85 26 34% 36% 39% 40% 40%

T
90 27 32% 35% 38% 40% 40%
1.20 210 240
95 29 31% 34% 36% 39% 40%
1.10 240 270 Maximum Operating Depth (in msw) for Various Nitrox Mixes
100 30 30% 32% 35% 37% 40%
Maximum Operating Depth (in msw) for Various Nitrox Mixes
1.00

0.90

0.80
300

360

450
300

360

450
105

110

115

120
32

33

35

36 O 29%

28%

27%

26%
31%

30%

29%

28%
33%

32%

31%

30%
36%

35%

33%

32%
38%

37%

36%

35%
Percent O
Percent O22
PO
PO22
1.0 ata
1.0 ata
1.1 ata
21%
21%

38
38
42
22%
22%

35
35
40
24%
24%

31
31
36
26%
26%
28%
28%

28
28
32
30%
30%

26
26
29
32%
32%
34%
34%

23
23
26
36%
36%

21
21
24
19
19
22
17
17
20
38%
38%

16
16
18
40%
40%

15
15
17
N
1.1 ata 42 40 36 32 29 26 24 22 20 18 17
0.70 570 570 1.2 ata 47 44 40 36 33 30 27 25 23 21 20
125 38 25% 27% 29% 31% 33%
1.2 ata 47 44 40 36 33 30 27 25 23 21 20
0.60 720 720 130 40 24% 26% 28% 30% 32% 1.3 ata 52 49 44 40 36 33 30 28 26 24 22
1.3 ata 52 49 44 40 36 33 30 28 26 24 22
NOAA OXYGEN EXPOSURE TIME LIMITS. THE TABLE GIVES THE LIM- BY SELECTING THE PLANNED MAXIMUM DEPTH AND THE MAXI- 1.4 ata 57 54 48 43 40 36 33 31 28 26 25
1.4 ata 57 54 48 43 40 36 33 31 28 26 25
ITS FOROXYGEN
NOAA A SINGLE DIVE EXPOSURE
EXPOSURE TO VARIOUS
TIME LIMITS. PO2 GIVES
THE TABLE LEVELSTHEANDLIM-
FOR MUM OXYGEN PARTIAL PRESSURE (USUALLY 1.4 ATA), THE BEST 1.5 ata 61 58 52 47 43 40 36 34 31 29 27
BY SELECTING THE PLANNED MAXIMUM DEPTH AND THE MAXI-
EXPOSURE DURING ANY 24-HOUR PERIOD. (NOAA DIVING MANUAL,
ITS FOR A SINGLE DIVE EXPOSURE TO VARIOUS PO2 LEVELS AND FOR OXYGEN PERCENTAGE FOR THE NITROX MIX IS EASILY ESTAB- 1.5 ata 61 58 52 47 43 40 36 34 31 29 27
MUM OXYGEN PARTIAL PRESSURE (USUALLY 1.4 ATA), THE BEST 1.6 ata 66 63 57 51 47 43 40 37 34 32 30
O
4TH EDITION,DURING
EXPOSURE 2001).ANY
OXYGEN PARTIAL
24-HOUR PRESSURES
PERIOD. BETWEEN
(NOAA DIVING 1.4 ATA
MANUAL, LISHED.
OXYGENALTHOUGH PERCENTAGES
PERCENTAGE HIGHER THAN
FOR THE NITROX MIX IS40% ARE ESTAB-
EASILY 1.6 ata 66 63 57 51 47 43 40 37 34 32 30
AND
4TH 1.6 ATA ARE
EDITION, SHADED.
2001). OXYGEN PARTIAL PRESSURES BETWEEN 1.4 ATA OBTAINED BY CALCULATION,
LISHED. ALTHOUGH THIS TABLE
PERCENTAGES SHOWS
HIGHER THANEAN40
40%ASARETHE TABLE
TABLESHOWS
SHOWSMAXIMUM
MAXIMUMOPERATING
OPERATINGDEPTH
DEPTHFORFORBREATHING
BREATHINGGASES
GASESFROM
FROMAIRAIRTO TO
EAN40.
EAN40FOR. FOR
INTERMEDIATE OXYGEN
INTERMEDIATE FRACTIONS,
OXYGEN USE USE
FRACTIONS, THE NEXT
THE NEXT
AND 1.6 ATA ARE SHADED. HIGHEST OXYGEN MIX USED IN RECREATIONAL NITROX
OBTAINED BY CALCULATION, THIS TABLE SHOWS EAN DIVING.AS THE
40 TABLE
RICHER SHOWS
MIX. MAXIMUM
FRACTIONAL OPERATING
DEPTHS HAVEDEPTH
BEEN FOR BREATHING
ROUNDED DOWN GASES
TO THE FROM
NEXT AIR TO
SHALLOWER
RICHER MIX. FRACTIONAL DEPTHS HAVE BEEN ROUNDED DOWN TO THE NEXT SHALLOWER EAN .
WHOLEFOR INTERMEDIATE
NUMBER. DEPTHSOXYGEN FRACTIONS,
GREATER THAN 40
40 WHOLE NUMBER. DEPTHS GREATER THAN 40 MSW USE
MSW THE
ARE NEXT
ARE
HIGHEST OXYGEN MIX USED IN RECREATIONAL NITROX DIVING. RICHER
SHADED MIX.
DARK.FRACTIONAL
MODS FOR DEPTHS
THE HAVE BEEN
RECOMMENDED ROUNDED
MAXIMUM DOWN TO
EXPOSURE THE
OF NEXT
1.4 ATA SHALLOWER
ARE LIGHTLY WHOLE
SHADED.NUMBER. DEPTHS GREATER THAN 40 MSW ARE
SHADED DARK. MODS FOR THE RECOMMENDED MAXIMUM EXPOSURE OF 1.4 ATA ARE LIGHTLY SHADED.
SHADED DARK. MODS FOR THE RECOMMENDED MAXIMUM EXPOSURE OF 1.4 ATA ARE LIGHTLY SHADED.
D

93
9292 9393
 NAUI
NAUI Nitrox
Nitrox Diver
Diver Formulas
NAUI Nitrox Diver

PY
Equivalent Air Depth (in fsw)
Equivalent Air Depth (in fsw)
Mathematical Formulas Calculating Maximum Operating Depth
Percent O2 26% 27% 28% 29% 30% 31% 32% 33% 34% 35% 36% 37% 38% 39% 40% In two steps:
Percent O
EAD fsw 2
26% 27% 28% 29% 30% 31% 32% 33% 34% 35% 36% 37% 38% 39% 40% Used in Nitrox Diving Calculations Pata = PO2 limit / FO2
EAD fsw
40 44 46 47 48 49 50 51 53 54 55 57 58 60 61 63
U.S./Imperial Calculations
Charts

Formulas
Charts

40 44 46 47 48 49 50 51 53 54 55 57 58 60 61 63
50 55 56 58 59 60 62 63 64 66 67 69 71 72 74 76 followed by:
andCharts

50 55 56 58 59 60 62 63 64 66 67 69 71 72 74 76
60 66 67 69 70 71 73 75 76 78 80 81 83 85 87 89
60 66 67 69 70 71 73 75 76 78 80 81 83 85 87 89 D fsw = (Pata −1atm) × 33 fsw / atm
70 76 78 80 81 83 84 86 88 90 92 94 96 98 100 99
70 76 78 80 81 83 84 86 88 90 92 94 96 98 100 99 Boyle’s Law Or, in one step:
and

O
80 87 89 90 92 94 96 98 100 102 104 106 108 105 102
Tablesand

( )
80 87 89 90 92 94 96 98 100 102 104 106 108 105 102
90 98 100 101 103 105 107 109 112 114 116 113 109 P1V1 = P2V2 PO2 limit
90 98 100 101 103 105 107 109 112 114 116 113 109 D fsw = - 1 atm × 33 fsw / atm
Tables

100 108 110 112 114 117 119 121 123 122 117 FO2
Tables

100 108 110 112 114 117 119 121 123 122 117
110 119 121 123 126 128 130 132 127
110
120
120
119
130
130
121
132
132
123
134
134
126
137
137
128
139
139
130
137
137
132 127
Dalton’s Law
130 141 143 145 148 143
130 141 143 145 148 143

C
MOD/1.4 ata
MOD/1.4 ata
145
145
138
138
132
132
126
126
121
121
116
116
111
111
107
107
102
102
99
99
95
95
91
91
88
88
85
85
82
82
Partial Calculating Best Mix
MOD/1.6 ata 170 162 155 149 143 137 132 127 122 117 113 109 105 102 99 Pressure
MOD/1.6 ata 170 162 155 149 143 137 132 127 122 117 113 109 105 102 99 In two steps:
EQUIVALENT
EQUIVALENT AIR
AIRDEPTH
DEPTHFOR
FORVARIOUS
VARIOUSNITROX
NITROXMIXES.
MIXES.A ADIVER
DIVERDIVING
DIVINGUPUPTOTOTHETHEDEPTH SHOWN
DEPTH SHOWNIN THE CORRECT
IN THE EANxEAN
CORRECT COLUMN WOULD USE THE
EQUIVALENT AIR DEPTH FOR VARIOUS NITROX MIXES. A DIVER DIVING UP TO THE DEPTH SHOWN IN THE CORRECT EAN x COLUMN
COLUMN
WOULD
WOULD
USE THE
USE THE Total Gas Pata = D fsw + 1 atm
DEPTH IN THE LEFT-HAND COLUMN OF THE SAME ROW WITH AN AIR DIVE TABLE. SHADED AREAS HAVE A PO BETWEEN 1.4
x ATA
DEPTH IN THE LEFT-HAND COLUMN OF THE SAME ROW WITH AN AIR DIVE TABLE. SHADED AREAS HAVE A 2PO2 BETWEEN 1.4 ATA AND 1.6 ATA.AND 1.6 ATA. Pressure Fraction 33 fsw / atm
DEPTH IN THE LEFT-HAND COLUMN OF THE SAME ROW WITH AN AIR DIVE TABLE. SHADED AREAS HAVE A PO2 BETWEEN 1.4 ATA AND 1.6 ATA.
followed by:
FO2 = PO2 limit / Pata

T
Or, as formulas:
Or, in one step:

Equivalent Air Depth (in msw)

Pg =Fg × Ptotal

Fg =Pg / Ptotal
FO2 = PO2 limit ÷
( D fsw
33 fsw / atm
+1
) =
PO2 limit × 33 fsw / atm
D fsw + 33 fsw

O
Equivalent
Percent O Air Depth
26% 27%
(in28%
msw)29% 30% 31% 32% 33% 34% 35% 36% 37% 38% 39% 40%
2
Percent O 26% 27% 28% 29% 30% 31% 32% 33% 34% 35% 36% 37% 38% 39% 40% Ptotal =Pg / Fg
EAD msw 2
EAD msw
12 13 13 14 14 14 15 15 16 16 16 17 17 18 18 19
12
15
13
16
13
17
14
17
14
17
14
18
15
18
15
19
16
19
16
20
16
20
17
20
17
21
18
21
18
22
19
22 Calculating Equivalent Air Depth
15
18
16
19
17
20
17
20
17
21
18
21
18
22
19
22
19
23
20
23
20
24
20
24
21
25
21
25
22
26
22
26 Converting Depth to Absolute Pressure
18 19 20 20 21 21 22 22 23 23 24 24 25 25 26 26 In two steps:
N
21 23 23 24 24 25 25 26 26 27 27 28 28 29 30 30 Pata = D fsw + 1 atm
21 23 23 24 24 25 25 26 26 27 27 28 28 29 30 30 33 fsw / atm D fsw
24 26 26 27 27 28 28 29 30 30 31 32 32 Pata = + 1 atm
24 26 26 27 27 28 28 29 30 30 31 32 32 33 fsw / atm
27 29 30 30 31 31 32 33 33 34 35 or
27 29 30 30 31 31 32 33 33 34 35
30 32 33 33 34 35 35 36 37 37 D fsw + 33 fsw followed by:
30 32 33 33 34 35 35 36 37 37 Pata =
33 36 36 37 37 38 39 39 33 fsw / atm
33 36 36 37 37 38 39 39 D fsw = (Pata −1atm) × 33 fsw / atm
36 39 39 40 41 41
36 39 39 40 41 41
40 43 44 44 45
40
MOD/1.4 ata
43
43
44
41
44
40
45
38 36 35 33 36 31 30 28 27 26 25 25
Converting Absolute Pressure to Depth Or, in one step:
O

( )
MOD/1.4 ata 43 41 40 38 36 35 33 36 31 30 28 27 26 25 25 (D fsw + 33 fsw) × FN2
MOD/1.6 ata 51 49 47 45 43 41 40 38 37 35 34 33 32 31 30 D fsw = (Pata - 1 atm) × 33 fsw / atm
MOD/1.6 ata 51 49 47 45 43 41 40 38 37 35 34 33 32 31 30 EAD fsw = - 33 fsw
0.79
EQUIVALENT AIR DEPTH
EQUIVALENT AIR DEPTH FOR
FORVARIOUS
VARIOUSNITROX
NITROXMIXES.
MIXES.AADIVER
DIVERDIVING
DIVINGUPUPTOTOTHETHEDEPTH
DEPTHSHOWN
SHOWN IN THE
IN THE CORRECT
CORRECT EANxEAN x COLUMN WOULD
USE USE
THE THE or
EQUIVALENT
DEPTH IN THEAIRLEFT-HAND
DEPTH FOR VARIOUS
COLUMN OF NITROX MIXES.
THE SAME ROWAWITH
DIVERANDIVING
AIR DIVEUP TABLE.
TO THESHADED
DEPTH SHOWN IN THE
AREAS HAVE A CORRECT EANCOLUMN
PO2 BETWEEN COLUMN
x 1.4
WOULD
WOULD
ATA AND USE
1.6 ATA. THE
DEPTH IN THE
THE LEFT-HAND
LEFT-HAND COLUMN
COLUMNOFOFTHE
THESAME
SAMEROW
ROWWITH
WITHANANAIRAIRDIVE
DIVETABLE.
TABLE.SHADED
SHADEDAREAS
AREASHAVE
HAVEA POA 2POBETWEEN
BETWEEN1.41.4
ATAATA
ANDAND
1.61.6
ATA.ATA. D fsw = (Pata × 33 fsw / atm) - 33 fsw
2
D

9494
94 95
 NAUI Nitrox Diver Dive Tables

PY
Mathematical Formulas Calculating Maximum Operating Depth
Used in Nitrox Diving Calculations In two steps:
P bar = PO2 limit / FO2
Metric/S.I. Calculations
Formulas

Dive Tables
followed by:
D msw = (Pbarabsolute −1bar) × 10 msw / bar
Boyle’s Law

O
Or, in one step:
P1V1 = P2V2

Dalton’s Law
D msw =
( PO2 limit
FO2
- 1 bar
) × 10 msw / bar

C
Partial
Pressure
Calculating Best Mix
In two steps:
Total Gas
Pbar = D msw + 1 bar
Pressure Fraction 10 msw / bar
followed by:

T
FO2 = PO2 limit / P bar
Or, as formulas:
Pg =Fg × Ptotal Or, in one step:
Fg =Pg / Ptotal FO2 = PO2limit ÷
(
10 msw / bar )
D msw +1 = PO2 limit × 10 msw / bar
D msw + 10 msw
Ptotal =Pg / Fg

Converting Depth to Absolute Pressure

D msw O
Calculating Equivalent Air Depth
In two steps:
N
Pbarabsolute = + 1 bar
10msw / bar
Or Pbarabsolute = D msw + 1 bar
NAUI AIR DIVE TABLES
10msw / bar

Pbarabsolute = D msw + 10 msw followed by:

10 msw / bar
D msw = (Pbarabsolute - 1 bar) × 10 msw / bar
Converting Absolute Pressure to Depth Or, in one step:
O

( )
D msw = (Pbarabsolute - 1 bar) × 10 msw / bar (D msw + 10 msw) × FN2
or EAD msw = - 10 msw
0.79

D msw = (Pbarabsolute × 10 msw / bar) - 10 msw

D

96 97
 NAUI Nitrox Diver Dive Tables

PY
Dive Tables

Dive Tables
O
C
T
O
N
NAUI EAN32 DIVE TABLES NAUI EAN36 DIVE TABLES
O
D

98 99
 NAUI Nitrox Diver INDEX

PY
Reduced Gradient Bubble Model (RGBM)
INDEX Convulsions.................................................... 5, 18, 36-38
Cyanosis......................................................................... 36
Dive Table - EAN 32 Cylinder labeling........................................................... 82
Sea Level to 2,000 ft / 610 m A
Dive Tables

INDEX
DIVE ONE DIVE TWO DIVE THREE Absolute pressure........................................ 19, 22, 23, 24
MAX DEPTHS
fsw msw
MDT
minutes
MAX DEPTHS
fsw msw
MDT
minutes
MAX DEPTHS
fsw msw
MDT
minutes
Altitude .............................................................. 54, 57, 61 D
120 36 20 80 24 47 40 12 150 Analyzing your gas........................................................ 81 Dalton’s law................................................................... 21
110 33 25 75 23 47 40 12 150 Argon ....................................................................... 16, 17 DCS.....................................(See decompression sickness)

O
100 30 30 70 21 60 40 12 150
90 27 38 65 20 60 40 12 150
Arterial gas embolism ................................................... 68 Decompression sickness........................................... 32-35
80 24 47 60 18 85 40 12 150 Arterial system ............................................................... 36 Deep diving ................................................. 10, 18, 36, 38
70 21 60 55 17 85 40 12 150
60 18 85 50 15 115 40 12 150
ata.................................................................................. 23 Defective memory...........................................................36
50 15 115 45 14 115 40 12 150 Atmosphere ................................................... 4, 16, 19-23 Dehydration................................................................... 35
40 12 150 40 12 150 40 12 150
This table is designed for scuba dives employing EAN 32.
Density ........................................................................... 19

C
Dive computers.............................................................. 62
Read the instructions on the back and seek proper training before using
this table or EAN 32. Even strict compliance with this table will not
B Dive tables................................................................ 57-61
guarantee avoidance of decompression sickness. Bar.................................................................................. 19 Dizziness.................................................................. 36, 37
Behnke, A.H. .................................................................... 6 Dyspnea ......................................................................... 37
Copyright © 2001 NAUI Worldwide. All rights reserved. #35514 Bert, Paul......................................................................... 5
Bottom mix.................................................................... 36
NAUI RGBM SEA LEVEL NITROX DIVE TABLE - EAN32 Bottom time............................................................... 8, 55 E
Boyle’s Law.............................................................. 18, 19

T
EANx ............................................................................ 4, 6
Brain.............................................................................. 36 Ears................................................................................ 37
Reduced Gradient Bubble Model (RGBM)
Burning ................................................................... 18, 68 Enriched air nitrox ..................................................... 4, 6
Dive Table - EAN 36
Sea Level to 2,000 ft / 610 m Equipment considerations............................................ 69
Equipment preparation................................................. 70
C

O
DIVE ONE DIVE TWO DIVE THREE
MAX DEPTHS MDT MAX DEPTHS MDT MAX DEPTHS MDT
Equivalent air depth (EAD).......................................... 57
fsw msw minutes fsw msw minutes fsw msw minutes Calculating equivalent air depth.................................. 59 Equivalent air depth by table ....................................... 58
110 33 31 80 23 60 50 15 150 Calculating partial pressures........................................ 24
100 30 35 75 21 60 50 15 150 Calibration............................................................... 80, 81
90
80
27
24
46
60
70
65
20
18
85
85
50
50
15
15
150
150
Carbon dioxide ............................................ 16, 18, 33-38 F
N
Caves.............................................................................. 10 Fatigue......................................................... 10, 33, 34, 36
70 21 85 60 17 115 50 15 150
60 18 115 55 15 115 50 15 150
Central nervous system toxicity........................ 36, 37, 39 Fire triangle................................................................... 68
50 15 150 50 14 150 50 15 150 Circulatory system..................................................... 5, 36 Flammable .................................................................... 69
This table is designed for scuba dives employing EAN 36. CNS oxygen toxicity .......................................... 36, 37, 39 Flash combustion.......................................................... 70
Read the instructions on the back and seek proper training before using Combustion............................................................. 68, 70 Flexible tubing .............................................................. 69
this table or EAN 36. Even strict compliance with this table will not Component gas..................................... 11, 16, 21, 22, 25 Flying after diving......................................................... 57
guarantee avoidance of decompression sickness. Composition of air ........................................................ 16 formal oxygen cleaning................................................ 69
Continuous-flow mixing .............................................. 72 40% rule................................................................... 69, 70
O

Copyright © 2001 NAUI Worldwide. All rights reserved. #35517 ConVENTID ................................................................... 37 Fuel.......................................................................... 68, 69
Converting between depth and
NAUI RGBM SEA LEVEL NITROX DIVE TABLE - EAN36 pressure by formula ..................................................... 23
The tables presented in this appendix are available on plastic slates with instructions for their use Converting between depth and
printed on the reverse side. RGBM tables are also available for sea level air diving and for air and pressure with a table .................................................... 24
D

enriched air diving at altitude.

100 101
 NAUI Nitrox Diver INDEX

PY
G M O T
Galerne, Andre................................................................. 6 Managing oxygen exposure.......................................... 38 OCEANx calculator.......................... 26, 45, 46-48, 58, 60 Temperature ....................... 16, 18, 19, 20, 63, 68, 69, 71
Gas................................................................ 70-74, 80, 81 Martini’s Law................................................................. 17 Oxygen ................................................................ 4, 16, 17 Tissues................................... 5, 18, 22, 33, 34, 36, 57, 58
INDEX

INDEX
Gas fraction............................................................. 23, 24 Maximum operating depth (MOD)........................ 10, 44 O-rings..................................................................... 69, 70 Toxic............................................................ 17, 18, 21, 35
Gas laws................................................................... 18, 20 Membrane separation.............................................. 71-74 Oxidation....................................................................... 68 Trimix ............................................. 10, 11, 18, 25, 33, 38
Gas tension........................................................ 20, 21, 33 Menduno, Michael .......................................................... 8 Oxygen analyzers .......................................................... 80 Twitching................................................................. 37, 38
Metabolism........................................................ 17, 32, 36 Oxygen clean............................................................ 69-71

O
Methane ........................................................................ 17 Oxygen cleaning............................................................ 69
H Misconceptions about nitrox ........................................ 10 Oxygen compatible.................................................. 69-70 U
Haldane, John Scott......................................................... 5 Mixing by weight........................................................... 71 Oxygen-compatible lubricants ............................... 69, 70 Units of measurement................................................... 19
Hamilton, R.W. (Bill) ..................................................... 8 Myths about nitrox.................................................... 7, 10 Oxygen enriched air.................. 4, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11, 17, 32, U.S. Navy Diving Manual .................................. 4, 6
Heat ....................................................... 17, 18, 36, 68, 70 35, 36, 44, 47, 48, 54, 56, 68, 70, 73, 74 U.S. Navy Tables................................................ 54, 55, 56
Partial-pressure mixing................................................ 71

C
Helium.................................................. 6,10,16,17, 18, 33
Hemoglobin................................................................... 36 N Petroleum-based products ............................................ 69
Henry’s Law....................................................... 20, 33, 58 Narcosis ................................................ 5, 6, 7, 11, 17, 32 Physical fitness.............................................................. 35 V
Homeostasis................................................................... 32 Narked ..................................................................... 32, 33 Precautions........................................ 8, 35, 44, 63, 68-77 Visual disturbances ................................................. 36, 37
How nitrox is made....................................................... 71 National Oceanographic and Pre-mix.......................................................................... 72 Volume......................................................... 16, 18-21, 58
Hydrostatic......................................................... 23, 48, 71 Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) ............................ 4 Pressure ......................................................................... 16
Hypoxia.............................................................. 35, 36, 38 NAUI EANx Dive Tables................................................. 54 Pressure swing absorption................................ 71, 72, 73
NAUI Master Scuba Diver............................ 20, 32, 33, 54 PSA..................................(see pressure swing absorption) W

T
NAUI RGBM EANx Dive Tables..................................... 54 Pulmonary toxicity........................................................ 36
Wells, J. Morgan ...................................................... 4, 6, 7
I NAUI RGBM Tables........................... 9, 54, 55, 57, 61, 62
Wienke, Bruce................................................................ 54
NAUI Scuba Diver.......................................................... 54
Identification................................................................. 70
Impaired mental performance............................... 32, 36
Nausea..................................................................... 37, 38 R Wrecks............................................................................ 10

O
Neon .................................................................. 16, 17, 18 Red blood cells .............................................................. 36
Irritability ...................................................................... 37 Niggles ........................................................................... 34 Respiration .........................................................17, 18, 36
Nitrogen........................................................................... 4 Responsibility.................................. 10, 11, 63, 68, 74, 80
Nitrous oxide ................................................................. 17
K Nitrox............................................................................... 4
Risk................... 10, 17, 20, 22, 33, 34, 37, 38, 44, 54, 69
Rule of halves................................................................ 62
Krypton .......................................................................... 17 Nitrox dive tables .......................................... 6, 35, 44, 54
N
Rusting .......................................................................... 36
Nitrox-capable computer.............................................. 63 Rutkowski, Dick .......................................................... 4, 7
NOAA........................... (see National Oceanographic and
L Atmospheric Administration)
Lambertsen, Christian..................................................... 6 NOAA Diving Manual ........................ 4, 6, 7, 37, 55
NOAA Nitrox I.......................... 6, 7, 11, 44, 54, 55, 56
S
Lanphier, Ed.................................................................... 6 Seals......................................................................... 69, 70
Lipid............................................................................... 33 NOAA Nitrox II................................... 7, 11, 44, 55, 56
NOAA Oxygen Exposure Limits................................ 38 Seats......................................................................... 69, 70
Liquid ................................................................ 16, 20, 21
O

Nohl, Max Gene............................................................... 6 Solid................................................................... 16, 20, 68

logbook.................................................................... 63, 82 Solubility of gases.......................................................... 20
Lungs................................................. 5, 19, 20, 33, 34, 36 Standard air tables.................................................. 35, 57
Sulfur dioxide................................................................ 17
Surface interval .......... 4, 9, 21, 33, 39, 56, 57, 61, 62, 63
D

102 103
TEXTBOOKS THAT TAKE DIVER EDUCATION
EDUCATION SERIOUSLY…
SERIOUSLY…
new navigation features
features
foliosfolios tab system
tab system headings
headings
PagePage numbers
numbers are are
colorcolor coded
coded Chaptertitles
Chapter titlesare
arecolor
colorcoded
codedand
and tab- Clearheadings
Clear headingson onevery
everypage
pageimprove
andand
easyeasy to see,
to see, making
making navi-
navigation ulated, making
tabulated, makingthethecourse
coursematerial
material improve
access to access
specifictosubjects.
specific subjects.
gation quick and simple.
simple. easilyaccessible.
easily accessible.

PY
O
C
T
O

new learning features

N

learning goals
learning full color design
full icon-based notation
icon-based
Clearlearning
Clear learninggoals
goalsare
areoutlined
outlined The entire
The entirebook
bookisisfilled
filledwith
with full Key points
Key pointsare
arenoted
notedbybyhighlighted
highlighted
for each
for each section.
section and then reviewed colorcolor
full photos, illustrations,
photos, and
illustrations, text. Notations
text. Notationsare
arecategorized
categorizedbyby
at the conclusion of each section. information graphics—all
and information graphics—all type and
type and reinforced
reinforced with
withicons.
icons.
designed toto reinforce
designed reinforcethe thereader’s
reader’s
Take
Takenote
noteofofthis
thisinformation–it
information–it
O

Learning
Learninggoals
goalsset
set learningexperience.
learning experience. forms
formsthe
thebasis
basisfor
forthe
thefinal
finalexam.
exam.
for
for each
eachsection.
section.
Information
Informationthat
thatwill
willhelp
helpyou
you
Each chapter
Each chapter isis color
colorcoded
coded totovisu- complete
completethe
theworkbook.
knowedge review at
visually
ally organize
organize the information.
the information. the end of the chapter.
D

Item #12500
Item #12500
Useyour
Use your
smartphone
smartphone
toscan
to scanme!
me!