Neuroscience and

Behavior
Neurons
• Neurons: cells in the
nervous system that
communicate with one
another to perform
information-processing
tasks
Components of
the Neuron
Cell body (soma)
• Coordinates information-
processing tasks and keeps
the cell alive
• Contains a nucleus, which
houses chromosomes that
contain DNA
Components of
the Neuron
Dendrite
• Receives information from
other neurons and relays it to
the cell body
Axon
• Transmits information to other
neurons, muscles, or glands
• Can be very long
• Covered by a myelin sheath, an
insulating layer of fatty
material.
 Synapse
Components • The synapse is the junction between the dendrites of one
neuron and the axon or cell body of another.
of the Neuron • Notice that neurons do not actually touch one another:
There is a small synaptic space between them across
which information is transmitted.
Components
of the Neuron
Myelin
• Insulating layer of fatty
material
• Helps efficient
transmission of signals
to other cells
• Gaps in myelin sheath
are nodes of Ranvier
Functional
Neuron Types
• Sensory neurons: Receive
information from the
external world and convey
this information to the
brain via the spinal cord
• Motor neurons: Carry
signals from the spinal
cord to the muscles to
produce movement
• Interneurons: Connect
sensory neurons, motor
neurons, or other
interneurons
Structural
Neuron Types
• The Purkinje cell has an
elaborate treelike assemblage
of dendrites.

• Pyramidal cells have a

triangular cell body and a
single, long dendrite with
many smaller dendrites.

• Bipolar cells have only one

dendrite and a single axon.
The Electrochemical Actions of Neurons:
Information Processing
• The electrochemical action of neurons or the communication within and between
neurons proceeds in two stages:
• Conduction: the movement of an electric signal within neurons, from the
dendrites to the cell body, then throughout the axon.
• Transmission: the movement of electric signals from one neuron to another over
the synapse.
The Electrochemical Actions
of Neurons: Information
Processing

• Alan Hodgkin and Andrew Huxley

discovered the resting potential in1939.
• Using the giant squid axon, they found
that the inside of the neuron is
negatively charged compared to the
outside
• Resting potential: the electrical charge
difference between the inside and
outside of a neuron when it is not
sending a signal.
The Action Potential: Sending Signals across the Neuron

• Action potential: Electric signal that is conducted along a neuron’s axon to a

synapse
• Occurred only when the electric shock reached a certain level, or threshold
• The action potential is all or none
• Electric stimulation below the threshold fails to produce an action potential,
whereas electric stimulation at or above the threshold always produces the
action potential.
• Refractory period: the time following an action potential during which a new action
potential cannot be initiated
Resting
potential
• the electrical charge difference
between the inside and outside of a
neuron when it is not sending a signal.
• High concentration of K+ inside
neuron
• Lower concentration of K+ outside
neuron
• Higher concentration of Na+ outside
neuron
• K+ channels in cell membrane open in
resting state
• K+ moves out of neuron, leaving a -70
mv charge
Action potential
initiated
• The electrical charge
reaches a threshold
• K+ channels close
• Na+ channels open
• Na+ flows into the neuron
• + charge inside the neuron
increases
• Charge inside the neuron
is +40 millivolts
Action potential
travels down the
axon
• Intracellular fluid is positively
charged (+40 millivolts)
• Adjacent Na+ channels open
• The action potential travels
down the axon membrane
• K+ channels open
• K+ moves out of the cell
• Intracellular fluid becomes
negative again
• K+ channels close
Na+/K+ Pump
Restores Ion
Balance
• Na+ and K+ channels
close
• Na+ concentration is
higher inside the cell
• K+ concentration is
lower inside the cell
• Na+/K+ pump
restores resting state
charge
Chemical Signaling: Transmission between
Neurons
• Information is passed between neurons through chemicals called neurotransmitters
• Neurotransmitters: Chemicals that transmit information across the synapse to a
receiving neuron’s dendrites
• Receptors: Parts of the cell membrane that receive the neurotransmitter and
initiate or prevent a new electric signal
Chemical Signaling:
Transmission between
Neurons

Synaptic Transmission
(1) The action potential travels down the axon and (2)
stimulates the release of neurotransmitters from
vesicles.

(3) The neurotransmitters are released into the

synapse, where they float to bind with receptor sites
on a dendrite of a postsynaptic neuron, initiating a
new action potential.

The neurotransmitters are cleared out of the synapse

by (4) reuptake into the sending neuron, (5) being
broken down by enzymes in the synapse, or (6)
binding to autoreceptors on the sending neuron.
Chemical
Signaling:
Transmission
between
Neurons
Synaptic Transmission
Chemical Signaling:
Transmission
between Neurons

What happens to neurotransmitters

in the synapse?
• Reuptake—Neurotransmitters
are absorbed back into the
presynaptic neuron
• Enzyme Deactivation
(Disassembly)—
Neurotransmitters are broken
down by enzymes in the synapse
• Autoreceptors—
Neurotransmitters bind to
autoreceptor sites on the
presynaptic neuron
Chemical
Signaling:
Transmission
between
Neurons
What happens to the
neurotransmitters
in the synapse?
Types and • Each of neurotransmitters affects thought,
Functions of feeling, and behavior in different ways.
• Acetylcholine
Neurotransmitters
Types and • Each of neurotransmitters affects thought,
feeling, and behavior in different ways.
Functions of • Acetylcholine
Neurotransmitters • Dopamine
 • Each of neurotransmitters affects thought,
Types and feeling, and behavior in different ways.
Functions of • Acetylcholine
• Dopamine
Neurotransmitters • Glutamate
 • Each of neurotransmitters affects thought,
feeling, and behavior in different ways.
Types and • Acetylcholine
Functions of • Dopamine
Neurotransmitters • Glutamate
• GABA
 • Each of neurotransmitters affects thought,
feeling, and behavior in different ways.
Types and • Acetylcholine
Functions of • Dopamine
• Glutamate
Neurotransmitters • GABA
• Norepinephrine
 • Each of neurotransmitters affects thought,
feeling, and behavior in different ways.
Types and • Acetylcholine
• Dopamine
Functions of • Glutamate
Neurotransmitters • GABA
• Norepinephrine
• Serotonin
 • Each of neurotransmitters affects thought,
feeling, and behavior in different ways.
• Acetylcholine
Types and • Dopamine
Functions of • Glutamate
• GABA
Neurotransmitters • Norepinephrine
• Serotonin
• Endorphins
The Human
Nervous System
• Nervous system: an
interacting network of
neurons that conveys
electrochemical
information throughout
the body.
Divisions of the Nervous System

• Central nervous system (CNS)

• composed of the brain and spinal cord
• receives sensory information from the external world, processes and
coordinates this information, and sends commands to the skeletal and
muscular systems for action
Divisions of the Nervous
System

• Central nervous system (CNS)

• composed of the brain and
spinal cord
• receives sensory information
from the external world,
processes and coordinates
this information, and sends
commands to the skeletal and
muscular systems for action
• Spinal reflexes: Simple
pathways in the nervous
system that rapidly generate
muscle contractions
Divisions of the Nervous System
• Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
• connects the central nervous system to the body’s organs and muscles.
Divisions of the Nervous System
• Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
• connects the central nervous system to the body’s organs and muscles.
• Somatic nervous system: Conveys information into and out of the CNS
Divisions of the Nervous System
• Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
• connects the central nervous system to the body’s organs and muscles.
• Somatic nervous system: Conveys information into and out of the CNS
• Autonomic nervous systems (ANS): Carries involuntary and automatic
commands that control blood vessels, body organs, and glands
Divisions of the Nervous System
• Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
• connects the central nervous system to the body’s organs and muscles.
• Somatic nervous system: Conveys information into and out of the CNS
• Autonomic nervous systems (ANS): Carries involuntary and automatic
commands that control blood vessels, body organs, and glands
• Sympathetic nervous system: Prepares the body for action in
threatening situations
Divisions of the Nervous System
• Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
• connects the central nervous system to the body’s organs and muscles.
• Somatic nervous system: Conveys information into and out of the CNS
• Autonomic nervous systems (ANS): Carries involuntary and automatic
commands that control blood vessels, body organs, and glands
• Sympathetic nervous system: Prepares the body for action in
threatening situations
• Parasympathetic nervous system: Helps the body return to a normal
resting state
Sympathetic and
Parasympathetic
Systems
Structure
of the Brain
• The brain can be three
parts, moving from the
bottom to the top, from
simpler functions to the
more complex: the
hindbrain, the midbrain,
and the forebrain.
Structure of the
Brain
Hindbrain
• area of the brain that coordinates
information coming into and out of
the spinal cord
• controls the most basic functions of
life: respiration, alertness, and
motor skills
• include: the medulla, the reticular
formation, the cerebellum, and the
pons
Structure of the
Brain
Hindbrain
• the medulla: coordinates heart rate,
circulation, and respiration
Structure of the
Brain
Hindbrain
• the medulla: coordinates heart rate,
circulation, and respiration
• the reticular formation: regulates
sleep, wakefulness, and levels of
arousal
Structure of the
Brain
Hindbrain
• the medulla: coordinates heart rate,
circulation, and respiration
• the reticular formation: regulates
sleep, wakefulness, and levels of
arousal
• the cerebellum: controls fine motor
skills
Structure of the
Brain
Hindbrain
• the medulla: coordinates heart rate,
circulation, and respiration
• the reticular formation: regulates sleep,
wakefulness, and levels of arousal
• the cerebellum: controls fine motor
skills
• the pons: relays information from the
cerebellum to the rest of the brain
Structure of the
Brain
Midbrain
• Important for orientation and
movement
Structure of the
Brain
Midbrain
• Important for orientation and
movement
• The tectum orients an organism in
the environment.
Structure of the
Brain
Midbrain
• Important for orientation and
movement
• The tectum orients an organism in
the environment.
• The tegmentum is involved in
movement and arousal.
Structure
of the
Brain
Forebrain
Structure of the
Brain
Forebrain
• the highest level of the brain
• controls complex cognitive,
emotional, sensory, and motor
functions
Structure of the
Brain
Forebrain
• the highest level of the brain
• controls complex cognitive, emotional,
sensory, and motor functions
• The cerebral cortex is the outermost
layer of the brain
• The subcortical structures are areas of
the forebrain housed under the cerebral
cortex near the center of the brain
Subcortical Structures
Thalamus
• Relays and filters information from the senses and transmits the information to the
cerebral cortex
• Receives inputs from all the major senses except smell.
Subcortical Structures
Thalamus
• Relays and filters information from the senses and transmits the information to the
cerebral cortex
• Receives inputs from all the major senses except smell
Hypothalamus
• Regulates body temperature, hunger, thirst, and sexual behavior
• Part of the Limbic System
Subcortical Structures
Pituitary gland
• Master gland the body’s hormone-producing system
• Releases hormones that direct the functions of many other glands in the body
Subcortical Structures
Pituitary gland
• Master gland the body’s hormone-producing system
• Releases hormones that direct the functions of many other glands in the body
Basal ganglia
• Receive input from the cerebral cortex and send outputs to the motor centers in the
brain stem
• Directs intentional movements
Subcortical Structures
Limbic system
• Group of forebrain structures involved in motivation, emotion, learning, and memory
• Includes the hypothalamus, the hippocampus, and the amygdala
Subcortical Structures
Limbic system
• Group of forebrain structures involved in motivation, emotion, learning, and memory
• Includes the hypothalamus, the hippocampus, and the amygdala
• Hippocampus: Critical for creating new memories and integrating them into a
network of knowledge stored in other areas
Subcortical Structures
Limbic system
• Group of forebrain structures involved in motivation, emotion, learning, and memory
• Includes the hypothalamus, the hippocampus, and the amygdala
• Hippocampus: Critical for creating new memories and integrating them into a
network of knowledge stored in other areas
• Amygdala: Responsible for emotional processes and the formation of emotional
memories
Cerebral Cortex
• The highest level of the brain
• Gyri and sulci
Cerebral Cortex
• The highest level of the brain
• Gyri and sulci
• Left and right hemispheres
• Contralateral control
• Commissures
• Corpus callosum
• Thick band of nerve fibers that
connects large areas of the
cerebral cortex on each side of
the brain and supports
communication of information
across the hemispheres
Cerebral Cortex:
Organization Within
Hemispheres
Cerebral Cortex:
Organization Within
Hemispheres

• Occipital lobe: Processes

visual information
Cerebral Cortex:
Organization Within
Hemispheres

• Occipital lobe: Processes

visual information
• Parietal lobe: Processes
information about touch
Somatosensory
and Motor
Cortices
• Somatosensory cortex:
Represents skin areas on
contralateral surface of body.
Somatosensory
and Motor
Cortices
• Somatosensory cortex:
Represents skin areas on
contralateral surface of body.

• Homunculus: Is rendering
of the body in which each
part is shown in proportion to
show much of the
somatosensory cortex is
devoted to it.
Cerebral Cortex:
Organization Within
Hemispheres

• Occipital lobe: Processes

visual information
• Parietal lobe: Processes
information about touch
• Temporal lobe: Responsible
for hearing and language
Cerebral Cortex:
Organization Within
Hemispheres

• Occipital lobe: Processes

visual information
• Parietal lobe: Processes
information about touch
• Temporal lobe: Responsible
for hearing and language
• Frontal lobe: Specialized
areas for movement,
abstract thinking, planning,
memory, and judgment
Mirror Neurons
• Found in the frontal and parietal
lobes
• Activated when an organism engages
in a behavior or observes another
engage in that behavior
Brain Plasticity
• Sensory cortices can adapt to change.
• Functions that were assigned to certain areas of the brain may be capable of being
reassigned to other areas of the brain to accommodate changing input from the
environment.
Brain Plasticity
• Sensory cortices can adapt to change.
• Functions that were assigned to certain areas of the brain may be capable of being
reassigned to other areas of the brain to accommodate changing input from the
environment.
• Phantom limb syndrome: Following limb amputation, some patients continue to
feel sensations where the missing limb would be
• stimulating other parts of the body may activate sensations in the missing limb, due to
compensation of cortical area in the somatosensory cortex