AE 152/153/705 Introduction to Aerospace Engineering

Endsem Exam

This exam is for 180 minutes and has 3 questions, for a total of 40 points.

Question 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 points
Explain, using 1-2 sentences each, how the following fly: Balloon, Kite, Airplane, and Rocket.

Solution:
Balloon: Balloon flight can be explained by the principle of hydrostatics. If the average
density of the balloon (material + gas inside) is less than that of the air outside, the net
force due to the static pressure on the balloon surface allows it to overcome gravity and
reach an altitude where this net force balances weight.
Kite: Here, the kite surface (paper sheet) experiences an aerodynamic force due to the
relative wind speed being experienced by the kite. These aerodynamic forces (Lift and
Drag) balance the weight of the kite + string.
Airplane: Similar to the kite surface, airplane wing pushes the relative wind downards
and generates the lift force necessary to overcome weight. Engine thrust balances the
aerodynamic drag.
Rocket: Rocket engine generates thrust by ejecting a high energy jet that is generated
using combustion of propellants. Thrust due to this jet balances the weight of the rocket
and even accelerates it.

Question 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 points
Consider an airplane similar to a commercial jet airliner.
(a) Draw the airplane and label its components. Mention the purpose of the components (5)
using 1-2 sentences each.

Solution: Sketch the airplane, showing wings, fueslage, engines, horizontal tail and
vertical tail. See Fig. 1.

(b) Show the control surfaces on the wing and empennage and mention their purposes. (4)

Solution: Show any four out flaps, ailerons, slats, spoilers, elevators, rudder. See
Fig. 1.

(c) What are the different ’rotation’ motions for an airplane? Mention the names and show (3)
the corresponding axes for each of these motions.

Solution: See Fig. 2No need to mention the control surfaces corresponding to the
rotations.

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Figure 1: Reference figure for an aircraft for Questions 2(a) and 2(b)

Figure 2: Rotating motion of an aircraft — Question 2(c)

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(d) How is an airfoil related to a wing? How does an airfoil/wing generate the lifting force? (4)
For an incompressible lift-generating flow past an airfoil, show how velocity and pres-
sure vary along an airfoil.

Solution: Airfoil is a 2D wing. For a wing the local cross section at a span location is
an airfoil.
Lift force is generated by pushing/turning the air down. The flowfield is such that
the speed of the flow on the upper surface of the airfoil is higher than the freestream
speed, and the lower surface having slower flow speed than the freestream.
From the Bernoulli principle, this corresponds to lower air pressure at the upper
surface than the freestream pressure, and a higher air pressure on the lower sur-
face than the freestream pressure. This pressure difference between the upper and
lower surfaces of the airfoil results in Lift.
The relative speeds (with respect to the freestream) at the top and bottom surfaces
suggest a ’circulation’ associated with lift generation.
See Fig. 3 for example visualisations.

Figure 3: Reference figure for lift generation – Questions 2(d)

(e) How is angle of attack defined? Show how the lift coefficient varies with angle of attack. (4)

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 What is the limiting condition called? What is the physics behind this condition?

Solution: Angle of attack is the relative angle between the chord-line of the airfoil
and the flow velocity direction in the airfoil frame of reference. The limiting condi-
tion is called ”Stall”. Here the flow is unable to overcome the drastic pressure vari-
ation (particularly the sharp raise after the pressure-minimum) on the upper side of
the airfoil. See Fig. 4 for example visualisations.

Figure 4: Reference figure for lift curve and stall – Questions 2(e)

(f) Why does drag coefficient depend on the lift coefficient? What is the other contributing (3)
factor for drag?

Solution: Drag is the effort required for generating lift and sustaining motion.
To generate lift, the airfoil has to turn the flow down and maintain the pressure dif-
ference across the airfoil (vertical direction). Further, there is also the effect of leak-
age of flow past the wing tips that reduces the effectiveness of the lift generating
pressure difference. Since this is the cost of generating lift, it is called the ‘lift-induced
drag’ or ‘induced drag’, Cdi = kCl2 .
Drag is also caused by friction and pressure forces in the flow direction. This drag is
often called ‘parasite drag’, Cdo .
Drag coefficient varies as Cd = Cdo + kCl2 .

Question 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 points

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Let us revisit our business jet from Quiz 3, Embraer Legacy 500. It has a wing area of 44.85 m2 ,
and is powered by two Honeywell HTF7000 turbofan engines with a cruise thrust of 8.5 kN
each. The maximum thrust that these engines can produce is 32 kN each.
Assume the airplane drag polar to be CD = 0.03 + 0.05CL2 . The aircraft cruises at 11 km
altitude, where T = 216.65 K and p = 22, 632 P a.
For the below questions, consider an aircraft weight of 16, 000 kg.
(a) Draw the schematic of a turbofan engine of the type used for civilian commercial jet (5)
transport airplanes. Label the components and mention the function of each of the com-
ponents.

Solution: Civilian long distance transport airplanes use high bypass ratio turbofan
engines.
Inlet/Diffuser slows down the flow ahead of the fan. The fan is powered by the low
pressure turbine and pressurizes the bypass flow (and core flow) for generating thrust.
The pressurized bypass flow accelerates in the bypass nozzle to generate thrust.
The core flow gets pressurized by the low pressure and high pressure compressors,
before entering the combustor. Fuel is injected and reaction happens in the com-
bustor. The hot gas expands through the turbine, which extracts sufficient power to
run the compressor and fan. The gas leaving the turbine expands further in the core
nozzle to generate jet thrust.
Fig. 5 shows a schematic. Mentioning nacelle, and separately talking about low pres-
sure and high pressure compressor and turbine stages is optional.

Figure 5: Schematic of a high bypass turbofan engine - Questions 3(a)

(b) Find the optimum lift coefficient (CLopt ) for maximising the lift-to-drag ratio. What is the (2)
corresponding lift-to-drag ratio?

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 Solution: CD = CDo + kCL2 , where CDo = 0.03 and k = 0.05. Peak L/D happens at
CDo = kCL2 −→ CLopt = 0.775 leading to CDopt = 0.06 and L/D = 12.9.

(c) If we want steady-level flight at CLopt at sea level, find the velocity it would be necessary (2)
to fly at. How much thrust is required to maintain a steady flight?

Solution: For steady-level flight at CL = CLopt = 0.775, ρ = ρsl = 1.225,

√
1 2 2W
ρV SCL = W =⇒ V = = 85.9 m/s
2 ρSCL

Thrust must balance drag.

1 1 ( )
T = ρV 2 SCD = ρV 2 S CDo + kCL2 = 12.16 kN
2 2
But this velocity is very low. So, it is not convenient for long distance travel. So, we
don’t use it.
Max. thrust is 32 kN per engine, i.e., 64 kN in total, which is much higher than the
required thrust.

(d) If we want steady-level flight at M = 0.8 at sea level, calculate the required lift coeffi- (2)
cient and verify whether the engines can provide the necessary thrust.
√
Solution: At sealevel, speed of sound is cs = γRg T = 340.3 m/s. At M = 0.8,
flight speed is V = M cs = 272.2 m/s.

1 2 2W
ρV SCL = W =⇒ CL = = 0.077
2 ρSV 2
CD
CD = 0.03 + 0.05CL2 = 0.0303 =⇒ T = W = 61.68 kN
CL
Max. thrust is 32 kN per engine, i.e., 64 kN in total, which is a little higher than the
required thrust. So, engines an sustain M = 0.8 at sealevel.
But engines are not designed to run for more than a few minutes at the peak thrust
condition (high thermal load on turbine blades). So, this condition is not used for
cruise.

(e) If we want steady-level flight at M = 0.8 at 11 km altitude, calculate the required lift (2)
coefficient and verify whether the engines can provide the necessary thrust.

Solution: At 11 km altitude, for the given

√ pressure and temperature, ρ = p/Rg T =
0.364 kg/m3 . Speed of sound is cs = γRg T = 295 m/s. At M = 0.8, flight speed is
V = M cs = 236 m/s.

1 2 2W
ρV SCL = W =⇒ CL = = 0.345
2 ρSV 2
CD
CD = 0.03 + 0.05CL2 = 0.036 =⇒ T = W = 16.35 kN
CL

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Cruise thrust is given as 8.5 kN per engine, i.e., 17 kN in total, which is a little higher
than the required thrust. So, engines an sustain cruise at M = 0.8 at 11km altitude.