Lecture Notes

on
GIS Application Remote Sensing(CE:IV/II)

By
Dr. Niraj K.C.
Assistant Professor
Geomatics Department,
Paschimanchal Campus, Pokhara

Date: 2023
 Father of GIS (Geographic Information System)

❖ Visionary geographer
❖ Conceived and developed the first
GIS for use by the Canada Land
Inventory in the early 1960s.
❖ Tomlinson played a crucial role in
the development and
popularization of GIS technology
(1958-61),
❖ Which involves the use of computer
systems to capture, store, analyze,
and display geospatial data.

[1]
Meaning of GIS

[1]
 Meaning of GIS
❖ GIS is a computer based system in which we ,
• Store: size, medium, data structures
• Retrieve: DBMS, What, Where
• Manipulate: Digitization, Editing, Transformations
• Analysis: Overlay; Proximity; Connectivity
• Output: display
❖ Geographic referenced data, in order to support decision
making for planning and management of
• Land use and Land Cover (LULC)
• Environment natural resources
• Transportation and urban facilities
❖ GIS: A set of tools for collecting, storing, retrieving,
transforming, & displaying data from the real world for
a particular set of purpose.
[1]
 GIS capabilities
❖ Better decision making
• Tool to query, analyze and present data
• Assist in resolving territorial disputes
• Site selection
• Natural resource planning & conservation
❖ Improved communication & organizational integration
• Link datasets & facilities sharing inter-departmental information
• Better record keeping of Geographic information
• Strong framework to maintain organizational records with full transactions with reporting tools.
❖ Higher quality analysis
• Visualize & understand terrain with DTM & 3D modelling
• Analyze socio-economic data, site selection, EIA with better quality.
❖ Better decision making for Environmental problem
• High Accuracy
• Better prediction & analysis with effective time management [1]
 GIS capabilities

Accident and Spot analysis

 GIS capabilities

Land use management practices

 GIS capabilities

Drought Monitoring
 GIS capabilities

Telecom and Network services

 GIS capabilities

Agriculture Management practices

 GIS capabilities

Agriculture Management practices

 GIS capabilities

Land cover change analysis

 GIS capabilities

Finding what is inside the geographic features

 GIS capabilities

Mapping densities in geographical location

 GIS capabilities

Mapping quantities of geographic features: Dot density map

 GIS capabilities

Mapping where Geographical things are

 GIS capabilities

❖ A good GIS system answer the following questions:

• What is at? Location (place name, Zipcode, lat/long)
• Where is at? Condition (Find the location having certain
characteristics)
• Where has changed since ? (How things changes over time)
• Which is the best way? Routing (Find optimal path)
• What spatial pattern exist? Pattern (Describe and compare
the distribution)
• What if ? Modelling (Determine what will happen)

[1]
 Function of GIS

❖ Data capture
• Tools & methods for data
integration into common
format to get compared and
analyzed.
• Data management: Store &
maintain data with effective
data management.
• Spatial analysis: Allows to
interpolate, Buffer & overlay
operation across places.
• Presenting results: Visual
presentation in 2D & 3D image
forms.
[1]
 Component of GIS
❖ Hardware
• Main part of computer
• Needed to support GIS functions along with
peripherals
❖ Software
• Function of tools to store, analyze & display
spatial information
• Key components:
✓ DBMS
✓ Tool for input & manipulate
✓ Function to support query, analyze &
visualization
✓ User friendly GUI (Graphical User Interface)

[1]
 Component of GIS

❖ Data
• Spatial data & Non-Spatial data
❖ People
• Human resources to work including GIS
managers, database administrators,
system analyst & programmers.
• 3 general categories:
✓ Viewers
✓ General users &
✓ GIS specialists
❖ Procedure
• Instruction to carry out GIS work

[1]
 Advantage and Disadvantage

❖ Advantage ❖ Disadvantage
• Improved project efficiency • Excessive damage in case of internal
and cost saving fault
• Analyze impacts of large • Expensive software
engineering projects • Integration of traditional map is
• Helps policy makers to difficult
calculate area, distance, • Data are expensive &
volume etc. ( In a short span • Learning curve on GIS software can
& reduces time & cost) be long.

[1]
❖ Why GIS is unique? ❖ Need of GIS
• Handles spatial information • To overcome the drawbacks of the
• Making connection between traditional cartographic methods.
activities based on spatial • Geospatial data are poorly handled
proximity • Map & statistics are out of date
• Multidisciplinary • No data retrieved
• Integrated technology • No data sharing

❖ Objective
• Maximize the efficiency of planning and decision making
• To supply information in useful formats for logical decision making for planners
• To support research activities
• Removal of unwanted data from database

[1]
 Application of GIS in Civil Engineering
❖ Transportation
• Planning:
✓ Involves surveys, reviews of existing
infrastructures
✓ GIS: Integrates, manage , analyze and
visualize the wide range of datasets
• Design:
✓ Data management (GIS) tools to manage
and share data between GIS and CAD
solution
• Maintenance
✓ Detailed understanding of the location of
assets for transport infrastructure
• Information
• Up to date information systems for travelers
• Wide choice of travel option require true
multi-nodal solution [1]
 Application of GIS
❖ Watershed analysis
• Watershed management is
the process of implementing
land use practices and water
management practices
✓ To protect and improve
the quality of water
• GIS map water resources &
link them to a database
• Data
✓ LULC, geology, soils,
hydrography &
topography
• Planners/ Engineers link
their modelling system to a
attribute data.
[1]
 Application of GIS
❖ Flood control
• Determine flood zone
• Estimate the
magnitude of high
flow events, the
probability of low
flow events
• Identify the potential
erosion areas.
• Derive physical
characteristics area,
perimeter, soil data
etc.
• Plot the flood hazard
zoning map.
• Plot the flood shelter
suitability map
[1]
 History of GIS
❖ In 1832, French geographer Charles piquet displayed 48 districts of Paris by halftone gradient
according to the % of death by cholera per 1000 inhabitants.
❖ In 1854, John snow represents the point location of some individual cases of cholera outbreak. His study
of the distribution of cholera led to the source of the disease a contaminated water pump, whose handle
is disconnected, thus terminated the outbreak. He demonstrated that GIS in problem solving tool.
❖ 1855-1960
• Limited development
• Mapping was paper based
• Vehicle routing, development planning, locating point of interest (1950)
❖ 1960-1975
• GIS by Roger Tomlinson (father of GIS)
• Computer technology for spatial analysis
• Data storage & processing
• Data input
• Digital mapping (1971) [1]
 History of GIS
❖ 1975-1990
• GIS software era (ESRI; CARIS)
• Advancement in computer memory & graphics capabilities
• Creation of commercial GIS software
• Spatial data displayed in graphics form (1980)
• Map analysis & modelling (1990)
❖ 1990-2010
• Launch of new Remote Sensing (RS) satellites
• Integration of RS & GIS data
• GIS found it is way into education, business & for government
• More and More application developed
• Data storage & processing
• Data input
• Digital mapping (1971)
• Advancement in IT sector
• Computer were getting more, cheaper, faster & more powerful [1]
 History of GIS

❖ 2010-2018
• Open GIS software QGIS (Developed)
• Satellite database accessible to all (Landsat & more)
• Online GIS
• GIS on mobile
❖ 2018 to now
• GIS being used by everyone
• Location based search facility is available in GOOGLE
• Crime analysis
• Real time mapping
• 2D & 3D mapping
• GIS app is used in phone
• Almost organization in every field use GIS to solve complex problem
• Much more applications.

[1]
 GIS as an information system

❖ GIS is a powerful tool that integrates hardware, software, and data to capture, manage, analyze, and display
spatial or geographic information.
❖ Designed to work with spatial data, allowing users to visualize, interpret, and understand relationships,
patterns, and trends in the context of geography.
❖ Here are key aspects of GIS as an information system:
❑ Data Capture
❑ Data Storage
❑ Data Analysis
❑ Data Display
❑ Data Integration
❑ Data Sharing
❑ Decision Support System
❑ Real-Time Monitoring
❑ Database Management
❑ Remote Sensing Integration
[1]
 GIS and cartography

❖ GIS and cartography are closely related fields that often overlap, but they have distinct roles and functionalities.
❖ GIS is a technology that captures, manages, analyzes, and displays spatial or geographic data. It involves both the
hardware and software tools used to work with spatial information.
❖ Cartography is the art and science of mapmaking. It focuses on the design and production of maps, considering
aspects like symbols, colors, scales, and layout.
❖ GIS is more comprehensive and encompasses a broader range of tasks, including data analysis, database
management, and spatial modeling. It goes beyond map creation to include the manipulation and interpretation
of spatial data.
❖ Cartography is specifically concerned with the creation and design of maps. It emphasizes the visual
representation of geographic information and is often associated with communicating complex spatial
information in a clear and understandable manner.
❖ GIS uses specialized software and tools for data capture, analysis, and visualization. It involves databases, spatial
analysis functions, and often integrates with other technologies like GPS and remote sensing.
❖ Cartographers use graphic design tools and software to create aesthetically pleasing and informative maps. This
may include software for layout design, symbolization, and color selection.
[1]
 GIS and cartography

❖ Data Representation:
❑ GIS: GIS deals with both spatial and attribute data. It can represent data in various forms, including points,
lines, polygons, and raster images. GIS can handle complex spatial relationships and perform analytical
operations.
❑ Cartography: Cartographers focus on visualizing geographic information on maps. They decide on the
appropriate symbols, colors, and map elements to effectively communicate information. Cartography
emphasizes the art of map design.
❖ Dynamic vs. Static:
❑ GIS is dynamic and interactive. Users can explore, analyze, and manipulate spatial data in real-time,
allowing for dynamic queries and spatial operations.
❑ Cartographic products are often static representations, although they can be interactive in digital formats.
The emphasis is on producing a visually appealing and communicative map that conveys information at a
specific point in time.

[1]
 GIS and cartography

❖ Integration:
❑ GIS and Cartography: While they have distinct roles, GIS and cartography often complement each other.
❑ GIS provides the analytical and data management capabilities, while cartography contributes to the
effective communication of spatial information through map design.
❖ Evolution:
❑ The development of GIS is closely tied to advancements in computing and technology, enabling sophisticated
analysis and modeling of spatial data.
❑ Cartography has a longer history, dating back to hand-drawn maps. While traditional cartography remains
important, modern cartographers use digital tools for map production.
❑ In practice, GIS professionals often work closely with cartographers to produce maps that effectively
communicate spatial information while leveraging the analytical capabilities of GIS.
❑ The synergy between GIS and cartography enhances the creation of informative and visually appealing
maps for various applications.

[1]
 GIS and cartography

❖ Data Representation:
❑ GIS: GIS deals with both spatial and attribute data. It can represent data in various forms, including points,
lines, polygons, and raster images. GIS can handle complex spatial relationships and perform analytical
operations.
❑ Cartography: Cartographers focus on visualizing geographic information on maps. They decide on the
appropriate symbols, colors, and map elements to effectively communicate information. Cartography
emphasizes the art of map design.
❖ Dynamic vs. Static:
❑ GIS is dynamic and interactive. Users can explore, analyze, and manipulate spatial data in real-time,
allowing for dynamic queries and spatial operations.
❑ Cartographic products are often static representations, although they can be interactive in digital formats.
The emphasis is on producing a visually appealing and communicative map that conveys information at a
specific point in time.

[1]
 Contributing and allied discipline of GIS

❖ GIS is a multidisciplinary field that collaborates with

various allied disciplines to enhance its capabilities and
applications.
Here are some of the contributing and allied disciplines of
GIS:
❖ Remote Sensing:
❑ Contribution: Remote sensing involves the
acquisition of information about the Earth's surface
using sensors on satellites or aircraft. Remote
sensing data, such as satellite imagery, is often
integrated into GIS for analysis and mapping.
❑ Application: Remote sensing contributes to land
cover mapping, environmental monitoring, disaster
assessment, and other spatial analyses within GIS.

[1]
 Contributing and allied discipline of GIS
❖ Cartography:
❑ Contribution: Cartography is the art and science of mapmaking. It contributes to GIS by providing expertise in map
design, symbolization, and representation of spatial data in a visually effective manner.
❑ Application: Cartographers work closely with GIS professionals to create maps that effectively communicate
complex spatial information.
❖ Surveying and Geodesy:
❑ Contribution: Surveying provides accurate measurements of the Earth's surface, and geodesy deals with the
measurement and representation of the Earth's shape. These disciplines contribute foundational data for GIS.
❑ Application: GIS integrates surveying and geodetic data to ensure accurate spatial referencing and alignment of
geographic data.
❖ Computer Science and Programming:
❑ Contribution: Computer science and programming play a crucial role in the development of GIS software,
algorithms, and tools. Programming languages such as Python are commonly used for GIS scripting and
automation.
❑ Application: GIS professionals use programming skills to customize workflows, develop plugins, and automate
repetitive tasks in GIS applications.

[1]
 Contributing and allied discipline of GIS

❖ Environmental Science:
❑ Contribution: Environmental science provides data and knowledge about natural systems. GIS is used to
analyze and model environmental phenomena, making it a valuable tool for environmental scientists.
❑ Application: GIS is applied in environmental impact assessments, habitat mapping, ecological modeling, and
the analysis of environmental trends.
❖ Geology and Geophysics:
❑ Contribution: Geologists and geophysicists contribute geological and geophysical data, which can be
integrated into GIS for spatial analysis. GIS helps in understanding geological features and subsurface
structures.
❑ Application: GIS is used in geological mapping, mineral exploration, and the analysis of seismic data.
❖ Urban Planning and Architecture:
❑ Contribution: Urban planners and architects use GIS for spatial analysis and decision-making in city
planning. GIS helps in managing urban infrastructure, land use planning, and transportation systems.
❑ Application: GIS is applied in urban modeling, site selection, and the analysis of spatial patterns in urban
environments.
[1]
 Contributing and allied discipline of GIS

❖ Economics and Business:

❑ Contribution: Economics contributes to GIS by providing spatial data related to economic activities, market
trends, and business locations. GIS is used for location-based business analysis.
❑ Application: GIS is applied in site selection for businesses, market analysis, and the visualization of economic
trends on maps.
❖ Public Health:
❑ Contribution: Public health professionals use GIS to analyze and visualize health-related data, such as
disease distribution, healthcare accessibility, and environmental health factors.
❑ Application: GIS is applied in epidemiology, disease mapping, healthcare planning, and emergency response
in public health.

[1]
 Contributing and allied discipline of GIS

❖ Agriculture:
❑ Contribution: Agriculture provides spatial data related to land use, crop types, and environmental
conditions. GIS is used to optimize agricultural practices and analyze spatial patterns in farming.
❑ Application: GIS is applied in precision agriculture, land suitability analysis, and monitoring crop health.
❖ The collaboration between GIS and these allied disciplines enhances the versatility and applicability of spatial
analysis and mapping across a wide range of fields.
❖ Interdisciplinary approaches often lead to innovative solutions and insights in various domains.

[1]
 GIS data feeds

❖ GIS data feeds refer to the continuous and real-time flow of geographic information system (GIS) data from
various sources to a GIS platform or application.
❖ These data feeds provide updated and dynamic spatial information, allowing users to make informed decisions,
conduct analyses, and stay current with changes in the geographic environment.
Here are some common types of GIS data feeds:
❖ Satellite and Aerial Imagery:
❑ Satellite and aerial imagery data feeds provide high-resolution images of the Earth's surface.
❑ These feeds are useful for monitoring changes in land cover, urban development, and natural disasters.
❖ Weather and Environmental Data:
❑ Real-time weather data feeds contribute to GIS by providing information on temperature, precipitation,
wind speed, and other meteorological factors. Environmental data feeds may include information on air
quality, water quality, and soil conditions.

[1]
 GIS data feeds

❖ Traffic and Transportation Data:

❑ GIS applications in traffic and transportation management utilize data feeds that provide real-time information
on traffic conditions, road closures, and incidents.
❑ This helps in optimizing route planning and managing transportation infrastructure.
❖ Sensor Networks:
❑ IoT (Internet of Things) sensor networks contribute data feeds to GIS platforms.
❑ These sensors may include devices for monitoring air and water quality, noise levels, temperature, and other
environmental factors.
❖ Social Media Feeds:
❑ Integration of social media feeds into GIS allows for the analysis of geotagged posts and real-time
information sharing. This can be valuable for emergency response, event planning, and understanding
public sentiment.

[1]
 GIS data feeds

❖ Mobile Data and GPS Tracking:

❑ Mobile data feeds, often derived from GPS tracking on smartphones and other devices, provide real-time
location information.
❑ This data is valuable for applications such as fleet management, location-based services, and geospatial
analytics.
❖ Utility and Infrastructure Data:
❑ GIS data feeds from utility companies provide information on the location and status of infrastructure
elements such as power lines, water pipes, and telecommunication networks.
❑ This is critical for infrastructure management and maintenance.
❖ Social and Economic Data:
❑ GIS platforms can be enriched with real-time social and economic data feeds, including demographic
information, economic indicators, and business data.
❑ This supports spatial analysis in areas such as market research and urban planning.

[1]
 GIS data feeds

❖ Mobile Data and GPS Tracking:

❑ Mobile data feeds, often derived from GPS tracking on smartphones and other devices, provide real-time
location information.
❑ This data is valuable for applications such as fleet management, location-based services, and geospatial
analytics.
❖ Utility and Infrastructure Data:
❑ GIS data feeds from utility companies provide information on the location and status of infrastructure
elements such as power lines, water pipes, and telecommunication networks.
❑ This is critical for infrastructure management and maintenance.
❖ Social and Economic Data:
❑ GIS platforms can be enriched with real-time social and economic data feeds, including demographic
information, economic indicators, and business data.
❑ This supports spatial analysis in areas such as market research and urban planning.

[1]
 GIS data feeds

❖ Emergency Services Data:

❑ During emergencies, real-time data feeds play a crucial role.
❑ This includes feeds from emergency services, such as fire department updates, police reports, and disaster
response information.
❖ Land Use and Zoning Information:
❑ Real-time updates on land use and zoning regulations contribute to GIS data feeds.
❑ This information is important for urban planning, development projects, and regulatory compliance.
❖ Spatial Analytics and IoT Platforms:
❑ Some GIS platforms integrate with spatial analytics and IoT platforms that offer a wide range of real-time
data feeds.
❑ These platforms enable the integration of data from diverse sources for comprehensive spatial analysis.
❑ These GIS data feeds contribute to a more dynamic and responsive GIS environment, allowing users to access
up-to-date information for better decision-making and analysis.
❑ The integration of real-time data feeds enhances the utility of GIS across various sectors, from
environmental monitoring to smart city initiatives.
[1]
 Precision and Error in GIS

❖ In GIS , precision and accuracy are crucial concepts that describe the reliability and correctness of spatial data.
❖ It's important to note that precision and accuracy are distinct but related concepts, and errors can impact both.
❖ Precision:
❑ Precision refers to the level of detail or exactness in a measurement.
❑ In GIS, it describes the ability of a measurement or representation to be consistently reproduced.
❑ Example: A highly precise measurement would be one where repeated measurements of the same feature
yield very similar results, even if those results are not necessarily close to the true value.
❖ Accuracy:
❑ Accuracy, on the other hand, refers to the closeness of a measurement or representation to the true value.
❑ It measures how well the data reflects the real-world situation it represents.
❑ Example: If a GIS map accurately represents the actual locations of features on the Earth's surface, it is
considered accurate.

[1]
 Precision and Error in GIS

❖ Errors in GIS:
❑ Systematic Errors: These are consistent errors that affect all measurements in a similar way. For example, a
GPS receiver consistently providing locations that are 5 meters to the east of the true locations is a
systematic error.
❑ Random Errors: These errors are unpredictable and can vary in magnitude and direction. They may result
from factors such as equipment limitations, atmospheric conditions, or human error.
❖ Sources of Error in GIS:
❑ Data Acquisition: Errors can occur during the collection of spatial data, especially when using GPS, remote
sensing, or surveying techniques.
❑ Data Transformation: Converting data between different coordinate systems, projections, or scales can
introduce errors.
❑ Data Editing and Processing: Errors may be introduced during data manipulation, editing, or processing
steps within GIS software.
❑ Data Storage: Precision can be affected by the storage format and resolution of spatial data.

[1]
 Precision and Error in GIS

❖ Measuring Precision and Accuracy:

❑ Field Verification: Ground truthing or field verification involves physically checking the accuracy of GIS data
by comparing it to real-world conditions.
❑ Statistical Analysis: Various statistical measures, such as root mean square error (RMSE) or standard
deviation, can be used to quantify the accuracy of GIS data.
❑ Quality Control Procedures: Implementing quality control procedures during data collection, processing,
and analysis can help minimize errors.
❖ Implications of Precision and Accuracy in GIS:
❑ Decision-Making: Precision and accuracy directly impact the reliability of GIS data for decision-making
processes. Inaccurate or imprecise data can lead to flawed analyses and decisions.
❑ Legal and Regulatory Compliance: In some applications, such as land surveying or environmental
monitoring, GIS data must meet certain precision and accuracy standards to comply with legal or regulatory
requirements.

[1]
 Precision and Error in GIS

❖ Improving Precision and Accuracy:

❑ Use High-Quality Data Sources: Utilize accurate and high-resolution data sources for GIS projects.
❑ Calibration and Maintenance: Regularly calibrate and maintain data acquisition devices, such as GPS
receivers.
❑ Validation and Verification: Implement validation and verification processes to ensure the accuracy of GIS
data.
❑ Documentation: Document the sources, methods, and limitations of GIS data to provide transparency and
enable users to assess its precision and accuracy.
❖ In summary, precision and accuracy are fundamental considerations in GIS, and understanding and addressing
errors are crucial for maintaining the reliability of spatial data.
❖ Regular quality control measures, proper documentation, and adherence to best practices contribute to
improving precision and accuracy in GIS applications.

[1]
 Automated cartography and GIS

❖ Automated cartography and GIS are closely linked fields that leverage technology to streamline and enhance the
process of mapmaking and spatial analysis.
Here's an overview of automated cartography within the context of GIS:
❖ Automated Cartography:
❑ Definition: Automated cartography, also known as computer or digital cartography, involves the use of
computers and software to automate the production of maps. It encompasses the creation, manipulation,
and analysis of spatial data to generate cartographic outputs.
❑ Advantages: Automated cartography improves efficiency, consistency, and precision in map production. It
allows for the creation of maps with large datasets, rapid updates, and customization based on user needs.
❖ Integration with GIS:
❑ Data Integration: Automated cartography is closely integrated with GIS, which provides the spatial data
needed for mapping. GIS databases contain various layers of geographic information, and automated
cartography tools use this data to generate maps.
❑ Dynamic Mapping: GIS enables dynamic mapping, where changes in the underlying spatial data can be
reflected automatically in the maps. This is particularly useful for real-time data updates and analysis.
[1]
 Automated cartography and GIS

❖ Key Components of Automated Cartography in GIS:

❑ GIS Software: GIS platforms, such as ArcGIS, QGIS, or other specialized GIS software, often include automated
cartography tools. These tools allow users to design, customize, and automate the production of maps.
❑ Map Design Rules: Automated cartography uses predefined rules and styles for map design. These rules
guide the placement of map elements, symbols, colors, and labels based on the attributes of the spatial data.
❖ Automated Map Production Processes:
❑ Symbolization: Automated cartography involves the automated selection and placement of symbols and
icons on maps. This includes the representation of point, line, and polygon features with appropriate
symbols.
❑ Labeling: Automated labeling tools determine the optimal placement of labels for features on a map. This
includes avoiding overlaps and ensuring labels are readable and informative.
❑ Scale Dependency: Automated cartography considers scale dependencies, adjusting the level of detail and
visibility of map features based on the map's scale.

[1]
 Automated cartography and GIS
❖ Thematic Mapping and Analysis:
❑ Thematic Mapping: Automated cartography facilitates the creation of thematic maps that represent spatial
patterns and trends. This can include choropleth maps, heat maps, and other thematic representations.
❑ Spatial Analysis: GIS provides spatial analysis tools that, when combined with automated cartography, allow
for the exploration of spatial relationships, patterns, and trends directly on the map.
❖ Web Mapping and Dynamic Cartography:
❑ Web GIS: The integration of automated cartography with web mapping technologies allows for the creation
of interactive and dynamic maps accessible over the internet. Users can interact with and explore maps in
real-time.
❑ Dynamic Cartography: Changes in the underlying GIS data can trigger automatic updates to maps, ensuring
that users are working with the most current spatial information.
❖ Customization and User Interaction:
❑ User-Defined Parameters: Automated cartography tools within GIS often allow users to customize map
elements, styles, and layouts based on their preferences.
❑ Interactive Design: Users can interactively explore different map design options, adjusting parameters and
settings to achieve the desired visual representation. [1]
 Automated cartography and GIS

❖ Applications:
❑ Automated cartography in GIS finds applications in a variety of fields, including urban planning,
environmental monitoring, transportation, public health, and more.
❑ The ability to generate maps quickly and efficiently supports decision-making processes in diverse
industries.
❖ In summary, automated cartography and GIS work together to enable the efficient creation and dynamic
updating of maps.
❖ This integration enhances the utility of GIS by providing users with powerful tools for visualizing and analyzing
spatial data.
❖ Automated cartography within GIS contributes to the production of maps that are not only accurate but also
tailored to specific user requirements.

[1]
 Map projections and Coordinate system in GIS

❖ MAP projections and coordinate systems are fundamental concepts in GIS (Geographic Information System) that
play a crucial role in accurately representing and analyzing spatial data.
Let's explore each of these concepts:
❖ Map Projections:
▪ A map projection is a systematic transformation of the Earth's spherical or three-dimensional surface onto a
flat, two-dimensional surface.
▪ Since the Earth is not flat, a map projection is necessary to represent its curved surface on a flat map.
❖ Purpose:
▪ Map projections are used to create maps that preserve certain properties, such as distance, area, shape, or
direction.
▪ However, no map projection can preserve all these properties simultaneously; there are always distortions.

[1]
 Map projections and Coordinate system in GIS

❖ Common Types of Map projection:

▪ Cylindrical Projection: Maps
projected onto a cylinder.
Examples include the
Mercator projection.
▪ Conic Projection: Maps
projected onto a cone.
Examples include the Lambert
Conformal Conic projection.
▪ Azimuthal (Planar)
Projection: Maps projected
onto a plane tangent to the
Earth's surface. Examples
include the Stereographic
projection.
[1]
 Map projections and Coordinate system in GIS

❖ Choosing a Map Projection:

▪ The choice of a map projection depends on the purpose of the map and the area it covers. Different
projections are suitable for different types of maps, such as world maps, regional maps, or maps focused on
specific characteristics like area or distance.
▪ A well chosen map projection takes care that scale distortions remain within certain limits and that map
properties match to the purpose of the map.
▪ Cylindrical projections are typically used to map the world in its entirety : areas near the equator are shown
well.
▪ Conical projections are often used to map the different continents : mid-latitudes regions are shown well.
▪ While the polar azimuthal projections may be used to map the polar areas.
▪ Transverse and oblique aspects of many projections can be used for most parts of the world, though they are
usually more difficult to construct.

[1]
 Map projections and Coordinate system in GIS

❖ Coordinate Systems:
▪ A coordinate system is a framework used to define the positions of points in space.
▪ In GIS, a coordinate system consists of a reference surface, a set of coordinates, and rules for specifying how
the coordinates relate to locations on the Earth's surface.
❖ Components:
❑ Datum: A datum defines the reference surface of the Earth. It includes a reference ellipsoid or spheroid and a
specific point on the Earth's surface (origin).
❑ Coordinate Units: Coordinates are expressed in units of measurement, such as meters or feet.
❑ Coordinate System Type: The coordinate system type, such as geographic (latitude and longitude) or
projected (x and y), determines how the coordinates are represented.

[1]
 Map projections and Coordinate system in GIS

❖ Geographic Coordinate System (GCS):

▪ Coordinates: Typically expressed in latitude and longitude.
▪ Units: Degrees, minutes, and seconds.
▪ Use: Suitable for global representation and navigation.
❖ Projected Coordinate System (PCS):
❖ Coordinates: Expressed in x and y units (e.g., meters, feet).
❖ Use: Suitable for regional or local mapping, where distances and areas need to be accurately measured.

[1]
 Map projections and Coordinate system in GIS

❖ Coordinate System Transformation:

▪ GIS often involves working
with data in different
coordinate systems.
▪ Transformations are applied
to convert coordinates from
one system to another,
ensuring accurate overlay and
analysis.
▪ GPS uses a specific coordinate
system (usually WGS 84) to
provide accurate location
information using satellite-
based positioning.

[1]
 Map projections and Coordinate system in GIS

❖ Datum Transformation:
▪ Datum transformations are necessary when
working with data that uses different datums.
▪ Commonly used datums include WGS 84, NAD
83, and others.
▪ Understanding and correctly applying map
projections and coordinate systems are essential
for accurate spatial analysis, mapping, and data
integration within GIS.
▪ Proper consideration of the Earth's curvature,
distortions introduced by map projections, and
▪ the appropriate choice of coordinate systems
contribute to the reliability and precision of GIS
applications.

[1]
 GIS map and their characteristics

❖ GIS maps are visual representations of geographic information that allow users to analyze, interpret, and
understand spatial relationships and patterns. Maps in GIS exhibit certain characteristics that influence their
design and usage.
Here are some key characteristics of GIS maps:
❖ Selection:
▪ Selection refers to the process of choosing which geographic features or data will be represented on the map.
▪ The selection of features depends on the objectives of the map and the specific information that needs to be
communicated.
❖ Abstraction:
▪ Abstraction involves simplifying the complex reality of the Earth's surface to make it understandable and
manageable on a map.
▪ Effective abstraction helps in emphasizing essential features while removing unnecessary details, making
the map clearer and more user-friendly.

[1]
 GIS map and their characteristics
❖ Scale:
▪ Scale is the relationship between distances on the map and corresponding distances on the Earth's surface.
It can be represented as a ratio (e.g., 1:10,000) or a verbal scale (e.g., 1 inch represents 1 mile).
▪ Scale influences the level of detail visible on the map. Different scales are used for various purposes, such as
large-scale maps for detailed views and small-scale maps for broader overviews.
❖ Generalization:
▪ Generalization involves the process of simplifying or smoothing geographic features to create a more generalized
representation on the map.
▪ Generalization is necessary to reduce clutter, maintain clarity, and focus on the most important features,
especially when dealing with large datasets.
❖ Symbolization:
▪ Symbolization involves the use of symbols, colors, and graphical elements to represent different geographic
features and convey specific information on the map.
▪ Effective symbolization enhances the visual communication of spatial patterns and attributes, making it
easier for users to interpret the map.
[1]
 GIS map and their characteristics

❖ Map Layout and Design:

▪ Map layout and design refer to the arrangement of map elements, including the title, legend, scale bar, north
arrow, and other components.
▪ A well-designed layout enhances the map's usability and readability, guiding users in interpreting the
information presented.
❖ Topological Relationships:
▪ Topological relationships describe the spatial connections and arrangements between geographic features.
▪ Maintaining accurate topological relationships is crucial for GIS maps, especially when analyzing spatial
interactions and connectivity.
❖ Map Accuracy:
▪ Map accuracy refers to how closely the map represents the true locations and attributes of geographic
features.
▪ Ensuring map accuracy is essential for reliable decision-making and analysis. It involves using precise
coordinate systems, accurate data sources, and appropriate map projections.

[1]
 GIS map and their characteristics

❖ Temporal Aspect:
▪ The temporal aspect considers changes in geographic features over time. Temporal data may include
historical information, time series data, or real-time updates.
▪ Understanding temporal changes is vital in dynamic environments and for tracking trends and patterns
over time.
❖ Interactivity:
▪ Interactivity allows users to interact with the map, explore data, and perform analyses. It includes features
such as zooming, panning, and querying.
▪ Interactive maps provide users with the ability to customize their experience, focus on specific areas of
interest, and gain deeper insights.
❖ Data Source and Quality:
▪ Maps in GIS are based on underlying spatial data. The quality of the data source influences the reliability
and credibility of the map.
▪ High-quality, up-to-date data sources contribute to accurate and trustworthy GIS maps.

[1]
 GIS map and their characteristics
❖ GIS maps are powerful
tools for spatial analysis
and decision-making, and
understanding these
characteristics is essential
for creating maps that
effectively communicate
geographic information.
❖ The design and use of GIS
maps should align with
the goals and
requirements of the
intended audience and
application.

[1]
 Georeferencing
❖ Georeferencing is the process of assigning geographic coordinates (such as latitude and longitude) to a location-based dataset, such as a
map or aerial image.
❖ This is done to enable the spatial data to be placed in the correct geographic location on the Earth's surface. Georeferencing is essential
for integrating different types of spatial data, performing spatial analysis, and creating accurate maps.
❖ Here's a basic overview of how georeferencing works:
Select Control Points: Control points are identifiable features that appear in both the dataset you want to georeferenced and a reference
dataset with known coordinates (such as a georeferenced map or satellite image). These points are used to establish a relationship between
the dataset and the real-world coordinates.
▪ Identify Corresponding Points: For each control point, identify its location in both the dataset and the reference data. This involves selecting the same
feature in both datasets, such as a road intersection or a distinctive landmark.
▪ Enter Coordinates: Record the known coordinates of each control point from the reference dataset and the corresponding coordinates in the dataset you
want to georeference.
▪ Apply Transformation: Use the control points to calculate a transformation that can be applied to the entire dataset. This transformation corrects for
distortions and aligns the dataset with the real-world coordinates.
▪ Review and Adjust: After applying the transformation, review the georeferenced dataset to ensure that features are correctly positioned. Some
adjustments may be necessary to improve accuracy.
▪ Save Georeferenced Data: Once satisfied with the alignment, save the georeferenced dataset in a format that retains the spatial information, such as a
GeoTIFF or shapefile.
❖ Georeferencing is commonly used in GIS (Geographic Information Systems) applications, remote sensing, cartography, and various fields where spatial accuracy
is crucial. It allows disparate datasets to be integrated and analyzed together, providing valuable insights for decision-making and research.

[1]
 Geocoding
❖ Geocoding is the process of converting addresses or place names into geographic coordinates, typically expressed as latitude and
longitude. This allows locations to be pinpointed on a map or used in geographic information systems (GIS) for spatial analysis.
Geocoding is widely used in applications such as mapping services, location-based services, and geographic information systems.
Here's a basic overview of how geocoding works:
▪ Data Input: The input to geocoding is usually a set of addresses or place names. This could be a single address or a batch of
addresses.
▪ Matching: Geocoding software or services compare the input addresses to a database of known locations. This database may
contain information from street maps, postal services, or other authoritative sources.
▪ Coordinate Assignment: When a match is found, the geocoding process assigns geographic coordinates (latitude and longitude) to
the corresponding address. The accuracy of geocoding depends on the quality and completeness of the reference data.
▪ Output: The output of the geocoding process is a set of coordinates for each input address. This information can then be used to
visualize the locations on a map, analyze spatial patterns, or integrate with other geographic data.
❖ There are different types of geocoding, including:
▪ Forward Geocoding: Converts addresses or place names into geographic coordinates.
▪ Reverse Geocoding: Converts geographic coordinates into a human-readable address or place name.
❖ Geocoding services are often provided by mapping and location-based service providers, such as Google Maps API, OpenCage Geocoding,
and Mapbox Geocoding. These services typically offer both forward and reverse geocoding capabilities. It's important to note that the
accuracy of geocoding can vary depending on the quality of the reference data and the algorithms used by the geocoding service.
Additionally, privacy considerations should be taken into account when working with location data, as it may involve sensitive
[1]
information about individuals or businesses.
Resampling

[1]
Resampling types

[1]
Resampling types

[1]
Resampling types

[1]
Resampling types

[1]
GIS Data model

[1]
GIS file formats

[1]
Vector Data Model

[1]
Vector Data Model

[1]
Vector Data Model

[1]
Vector Data Model

[1]
Vector Data Model

[1]
Vector Data Model

[1]
Vector Data Model

[1]
Vector Data Model

[1]
Vector Data Model

[1]
Vector Data Model

[1]
Vector Data Model

[1]
Vector Data Model

[1]
Vector Data Model

[1]
Vector Data Model

[1]
Vector Data Model

[1]
Vector Data Model

[1]
Vector Data Model

[1]
Vector Data Model

[1]
Vector Data Model

[1]
Vector Data Model

[1]
Vector Data Model

[1]
Vector Data Model

[1]
Raster Data Model

[1]
Raster Data Model

[1]
Raster Data Model

[1]
Raster Data Model

[1]
Raster Data Model

[1]
Raster Data Model

[1]
Raster Data Model

[1]
Raster Data Model

[1]
Raster Data Model

[1]
Raster Data Model

[1]
Raster Data Model

[1]
Raster Data Model

[1]
Raster Data Model

[1]
 Continous Raster Data example

Remote Sensing data DEM

[1]
 Continous Raster Data example

Interpolated Point Data DEM

[1]
 Discrete Raster Data example

LULC map Soil Map

[1]
 Discrete Raster Data example

Flooded Map Soil Map

[1]
Vector Vs Raster data model

[1]
 ESRI GIS Development
Arc/Info (coverage model) 100,000 licenses
Versions 1-7 from 1980 – 1999 1,000,000 users as of 2001

Arc Macro Language (AML)

ArcGIS (geodatabase model)

Version 8.0, 8.1 from 2000 –
Visual Basic for Applications

ArcView (shapefile model)

Versions 1-3 from 1994 – 1999
Avenue scripting language
 Data Models

• A geographic data model

is a structure for Geographic coordinates
organizing geospatial data
so that it can be easily
stored and retrieved.

Tabular attributes
 File-based Data Models
Geographic coordinates and attributes
are stored in separate but linked files

Arc
Info
• Coverages • Shapefiles
• Developed for • Developed for ArcView
workstation Arc/Info ~ ~ 1993
1980 • Simpler structure in
• Complex structure, public domain
proprietary format • Attributes in dBase
• Attributes in Info tables (.dbf) tables
 Storing Data

Coverages Shapefiles

Texas
Texas

Counties
Counties.shp
Counties.shx
Counties.dbf
Evap
Evap.shp
Evap.shx
Evap.dbf
Info
 Storing Data
• Feature datasets
• Stored as Arc/Info coverages or ArcView shapefiles.
• Coverages are stored partially in their own folder and
partially in the common INFO folder. Shapefiles are
stored in three to five files (with extensions .shp, .shx,
.dbf, .sbx and .sbn).
• ArcView recognizes coverages. Arc/Info does not
recognize shapefiles.
• Coverages store common boundaries between polygons
only once, to avoid redundancy. Shapefiles store all the
geometry of each polygon regardless redundancy.
• Coverage features are single lines or single polygons.
Shapefiles allow features to have multiple, disconnected,
intersecting and overlapping components.
 Geodatabase model
• Stores geographic coordinates as one
attribute in a relational database table
• Uses MS Access for “Personal
Geodatabase” (single user)
• Uses Oracle, Sybase, Ingress or other
commercial relational databases for
“Enterprise Geodatabases” (many
simultaneous users)
GIS in an Institutional Setting
ArcGIS Geodatabase
Workspace

Geodatabase

Feature Dataset

Feature Class

Geometric
Network

Relationship

Object Class
 Feature Class
• A feature class is a
collection of
geographic objects
in tabular format
that have the same
behavior and the
same attributes.
 Object Class
• An object class is a collection of
objects in tabular format that have
the same behavior and the same
attributes.
 Relationship

• A relationship is an association or link between

two objects in a database.
• A relationship can exist between spatial objects
(features in feature classes), non-spatial objects
(objects in object classes), or between spatial
and non-spatial objects.
 Relationship
Relationship between non-spatial objects

Water
Quality
Data

Water
Quality
Parameters
 Relationship
Relationship between spatial and non-spatial objects

Water quality data

(non-spatial)

Measurement station
(spatial)
 Relationship
Relationship between spatial objects

Rivers that lie within

California

Two spatial objects:

rivers and California
Geodatabase and Feature Dataset
A geodatabase is a relational database that
stores geographic information.

A feature dataset is a collection of feature

classes that share the same spatial
reference frame.
Geodatabase and Feature Dataset

• Why geodatabases?
To establish and store relationships based on
tabular information.

• Why feature datasets?

To establish and store relationships based on
geographic information.
 Network

• A network is a set of edges

(lines) and junctions (points)
that are topologically
connected to each other.
• Each edge knows which
junctions are at its endpoints
• Each junction knows which
edges it connects to
 Arc Map

View
and
edit
data
Analyze data
(Geoprocessing)

Create maps
 Arc Catalog
Graphical
previews

View data
(like Windows Explorer)

Tables

Metadata
Arc Toolbox

Map Projections
Our focus
 Levels of ArcGIS
• ArcView – View data and do edits on shape files and simple personal
geodatabases
• ArcEditor – do more complex edits on enterprise geodatabases
• ArcInfo – the full system, with access to workstation ArcInfo (i.e.
ArcInfo version 7) as well
 Licenses and Keycodes

License manager keeps track of number of simultaneous

users and limits them to allowable number
ArcGIS Extensions
 Spatial Analyst

• Analysis of land
surface terrain as
a grid
• Key means of
defining drainage
areas and
connectivity to
stream network

Drainage network for Montgomery, AL

 Grid Datasets

• Cellular-based data structure composed of square

cells of equal size arranged in rows and columns.

• The grid cell size and extension (number of rows and

columns), as well as the value at each cell have to be
stored as part of the grid definition.

Number of columns
Number of columns

Cell size
 Grid Datasets

• Grid datasets
 Geostatistical Analyst

• Interpolation
of points to a
grid using
statistical
correlation
Siberia Alaska
• Produces a
standard error
of estimate of
each map
location
Biomass in the Arctic Ocean
 Image Datasets

• Image datasets
 Image Datasets
• Supported image formats:
• ARC Digitized Raster Graphics (ADRG)
• Windows bitmap images (BMP) [.bmp]
• Multiband (BSQ, BIL and BIP) and single band images [.bsq,
.bil and .bip]
• ERDAS [.lan and .gis]
• ESRI Grid datasets
• IMAGINE [.img]
• IMPELL Bitmaps [.rlc]
• Image catalogs
• JPEG [.jpg]
• MrSID [.sid]
• National Image Transfer Format (NITF)
• Sun rasterfiles [.rs, .ras and .sun]
• Tag Image File Format (TIFF) [.tiff, .tif and .tff]
• TIFF/LZW
 3-D Analyst

• Analysis of land
surface terrain
as triangulated
irregular
network (TIN)
• Visualization in
3-D using Arc
Scene

Stream channel of Pecan Bayou, TX

 TIN Datasets

• TIN datasets

Points and breaklines

from which a TIN is
constructed.
Watershed Delineation
Purpose of Watershed Delineation
Steps for Watershed Delineation
Elevation Raster Data
Fill
Flow Direction
Basin
Raster to polygon
Flow Accumulation
Raster Calculation
Raster to polyline
Contour
• By following the polyline of a particular
contour, you can identify which locations have
the same value. Contours are also a useful
surface representation, because they allow
you to simultaneously visualize flat and steep
areas (distance between contours) and ridges
and valleys (converging and diverging
polylines).
• The example below shows an input elevation
dataset and the output contour dataset. The
areas where the contours are closer together
indicate the steeper locations. They
correspond with the areas of higher elevation
(in white on the input elevation dataset).
Contour
• Contours are lines that connect locations of equal value in a raster dataset that represents
continuous phenomena such as elevation, temperature, precipitation, pollution, or
atmospheric pressure.
• The line features connect cells of a constant value in the input.
• Contour lines are often generally referred to as isolines but can also have specific terms
depending on what is being measured.
• Some examples are isobars for pressure, isotherms for temperature, and isohyets for
precipitation.
• The distribution of the contour lines shows how values change across a surface.
• Where there is little change in a value, the lines are spaced farther apart.
• Where the values rise or fall rapidly, the lines are closer together.
• A base contour is used, for example, to create contours every 15 meters, starting at 10
meters. In this case, 10 is used for the base contour and 15 is the contour interval. The
values to be contoured are 10, 25, 40, 55, and so on.
Slope
• The Slope identifies the steepness at each cell
of a raster surface. The lower the slope value,
the flatter the terrain; the higher the slope
value, the steeper the terrain.
• The output slope raster can be calculated in
two types of units, degrees or percent
(percent rise).
• The percent rise can be better understood if
you consider it as the rise divided by the run,
multiplied by 100.
• Consider triangle B below. When the angle is
45 degrees, the rise is equal to the run, and
the percent rise is 100 percent. As the slope
angle approaches vertical (90 degrees), as in
triangle C, the percent rise begins to approach
infinity.
Aspect
• The Aspect identifies the
direction the downhill slope
faces.
• The values of each cell in
the output raster indicate
the compass direction the
surface faces at that
location.
• It is measured clockwise in
degrees from 0 (due north)
to 360 (again due north),
coming full circle.
• Flat areas having no
downslope direction are
given a value of -1.
▪ Hillshade
▪ Hillshading is a technique used to visualize terrain as shaded relief,
illuminating it with a hypothetical light source.
▪ The illumination value for each raster cell is determined by its
orientation to the light source, which is based on slope and aspect.
▪ Depending on your application, you might also want to simulate the
true position of the sun at a particular date and time of year.
▪ Shaded relief, or hillshading, is a technique where a lighting effect
is added to a map based on elevation variations within the
landscape.
▪ It provides a clearer picture of the topography by minimizing the
sun’s effects (illumination, shading and shadows) on hills and
canyons.
Curvature
• The amount that a surface deviates from being linear.
• Mathematically speaking, curvature is a second derivative of a surface, or the
slope of a slope.
• The Curvature function displays the shape or curvature of the slope.
• A part of a surface can be concave or convex; you can tell that by looking at
the curvature value.
• The output of the Curvature function can be used to describe the physical
characteristics of a drainage basin in an effort to understand erosion and
runoff processes.
• The curvature value can be used to find soil erosion patterns as well as the
distribution of water on land.
• The profile curvature affects the acceleration and deceleration of flow and,
therefore, influences erosion and deposition.
• The planform curvature influences convergence and divergence of flow.
➢ It is preferable to analyze digital data rather than pictorial data, where
pattern is more informative.
➢ Digital Image comprises of discrete picture elements called pixels.
➢ Pixel is 2D picture element that is the smallest non-divisible element of the
digital image.
➢ Each pixel element represents certain area on the earth surface.
➢ Each pixel has: DN vale; Brightness value & locational address in 2D image.
➢ Pixel size < more detail is present in the digital image.
➢ The address of the pixel is denoted by its row and column coordinates in the
2D image.
➢ Digital image is arranged in row(i) and column(j) in each k bands imagery.
➢ Digital Rs images are stored as a matrix(array) of numbers.
Digital image produced from RS system contain certain deficiencies, which can
be overcome by undergoing several steps (spectral; spatial; temporal and
radiometric adjustments) of processing to obtain originality of the data and to
extract required infor from the image :DIP
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
Database Management System

[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
Fundamental of data in GIS
Raster Analysis
Local operation/Statistics
Reclassification
Slope calculation for single raster: Local operation
Local operation for Multiple raster
Local operation Raster Mean
Raster Analysis
Neighborhood (focal) operation
Raster Analysis
Raster Analysis
Raster Analysis
Raster Analysis
Raster Analysis
Raster Analysis
Raster Analysis
Raster Analysis
Zonal or Global operations/statistics
Raster Analysis
Raster Analysis
Raster Analysis
Raster Analysis
Raster Analysis
Raster Analysis
Other Zonal statistics
 ------Using GIS--

Introduction to interpolation, geostatistics and spatial

sampling
What is interpolation?
1. Resampling of raster cell size
2. Transforming a continuous surface from one
data model to another (e.g. TIN to raster or
raster to vector).
3. Creating a surface based on a sample of values
within the domain.
 What is interpolation?
•Let say we have our ground water pollution samples

This gives
us
 What is interpolation?
•This can be displayed as a 3D trend surface in 3D analyst
Requirements of interpolation
•Interpolation only works where values are spatially
dependent—that values for nearby points tend to be
more similar
•Where values across a landscape are geographically
independent, interpolation does not work
Interpolation examples
•Elevation values tend to be highly
spatially autocorrelated because
elevation at location (x,y) is
generally a function of the
surrounding locations
•Except in areas where terrain is
very abrupt and precipitous, such
as Patagonia, or Yosemite
•In this case, elevation would not http://www.destination360.com

be autocorrelated at local (large)

scale, but may be autocorrelated at
regional (small scale)
 Interpolation examples
•Elevation:

Source: LUBOS
MITAS AND HELENA
MITASOVA,
University of Illinois
 How does interpolation work
• Create or add point data which includes an attribute
that will be used as a Z value
• Spatial Analyst Tools >>> Interpolation
• Inverse Distance Weighting (IDW)
• Kriging
• Natural Neighbor
• Spline
• Geostatistical Analyst
Lecture Materials by Austin Troy, Brian Voigt, Weiqi Zhou and Jarlath O’Neil Dunne©
2011
 Inverse Distance Weighting
•IDW weights the value of each point by its distance to
the cell being analyzed and averages the values.
•IDW assumes that unknown value is influenced more by
nearby than far away points, but we can control how
rapid that decay is. Influence diminishes with distance.
•IDW has no method of testing for the quality of
predictions, so validity testing requires taking additional
observations.
•IDW is sensitive to sampling, with circular patterns often
around solitary data points
Inverse Distance Weighting
•IDW: assumes value of an attribute z at any unsampled
point is a distance-weighted average of sampled points
lying within a defined neighborhood around that
unsampled point. Essentially it is a weighted moving avg
^ n
z ( x0 ) =  i  z ( xi )
n


i =1
Where λi are given by some weighting fn and i =1
i =1
-p
•Common form of weighting function is d yielding:
n

^  i ij
z ( x )  d −p

z ( x0 ) = i =1
n

 ij
d −p

i =1
IDW-How it works
• Z value at location ij is fn of
Z value at known point xy
times the inverse distance
raised to a power P.
• Z value field: numeric
attribute to be interpolated
• Power: determines
relationship of weighting
and distance; where p= 0,
no decrease in influence
with distance; as p
increases distant points
becoming less influential in
interpolating Z value at a
given pixel
 IDW-How it works
•There are two IDW method options Variable and Fixed radius:

•1. Variable (or nearest neighbor): User defines how many neighbor points are to
be used to define value for each cell
•2. Fixed Radius: User defines a radius within which every point will be used to
define the value for each cell
IDW-How it works
•Can also define “Barriers”: User chooses whether to limit certain
points from being used in the calculation of a new value for a cell, even if the
point is near. E.g. wouldn't use an elevation point on one side of a ridge to create
an elevation value on the other side of the ridge. User chooses a line theme to
represent the barrier
 IDW-How it works
•What is the best P to use?
•It is the P where the Root Mean Squared Prediction
Error (RMSPE) is lowest, as in the graph on right
•To determine this, we would need a test, or
validation data set, showing Z values in x,y locations
that are not included in prediction data and then look
for discrepancies between actual and predicted
values. We keep changing the P value until we get the
minimum level of error. Without this, we just guess.
 IDW-How it works
•This can also be done using the Geostatistical Wizard
•You can look for an optimal P by testing your sample point data against a
validation data set
•This validation set can be another point layer or a raster layer
•Example: we have elevation data points and we generate a DTM. We then validate
our newly created DTM against an existing DTM, or against another existing
elevation points data set. The computer determine what the optimum P is to
minimize our error
 Spline Interpolation
•This fits a curve through the sample data and assigns values to other locations based
on their location on the curve
•Thin plate splines create a surface that passes through sample points with the least
possible change in slope at all points, that is with a minimum curvature surface.
•Uses piece-wise functions fitted to a small number of data points, but joins are
continuous, hence can modify one part of curve without having to re-compute whole
•Overall function is continuous with continuous first and second derivatives.
Spline Method
•Tension Method: results in a rougher surface that more closely adheres to
abrupt changes in sample points
•Regularized Method: results in a smoother surface that smoothes areas of
abruptly changing values
Spline Method
•Weight: this controls the tightness of the curves.
High weight value with the Regularized Type, will
result in an increasingly smooth output surface.
Under the Tension Type, increases in the Weight will
cause the surface to become stiffer, eventually
conforming closely to the input points.
•Number of points around a cell that will be used
to fit a polynomial function to a curve

Lecture Materials by Austin Troy, Brian Voigt, Weiqi Zhou and Jarlath O’Neil Dunne©
2011
Pros and Cons of Spline Method
• Splines retain smaller
features, in contrast to
IDW
• Produce clear overview of
data
• Continuous, so easy to
calculate derivatives for
topology
• Results are sensitive to
locations of break points
• No estimate of errors, like
with IDW
• Can often result in over-
smooth surfaces
 Kriging Method
•Like IDW interpolation, Kriging forms weights from surrounding measured values to
predict values at unmeasured locations. As with IDW interpolation, the closest measured
values usually have the most influence. However, the kriging weights for the surrounding
measured points are more sophisticated than those of IDW. IDW uses a simple algorithm
based on distance, but kriging weights come from a semivariogram that was developed
by looking at the spatial structure of the data. To create a continuous surface or map of
the phenomenon, predictions are made for locations in the study area based on the
semivariogram and the spatial arrangement of measured values that are nearby.
--from ESRI Help
Kriging Method
• In other words, kriging substitutes the arbitrarily
chosen p from IDW with a probabilistically-based
weighting function that models the spatial
dependence of the data.
• The structure of the spatial dependence is quantified
in the semi-variogram
• Semi-variograms measure the strength of statistical
correlation as a function of distance; they quantify
spatial autocorrelation
• Kriging associates some probability with each
prediction, hence it provides not just a surface, but
some measure of the accuracy of that surface
• Kriging equations are estimated through least squares
Lecture Materials by Austin Troy, Brian Voigt, Weiqi Zhou and Jarlath O’Neil Dunne©
2011
 Kriging Method
•Kriging has both a deterministic, stochastic and random error component
Z(s) = μ(s) + ε’(s)+ ε’’(s), where
μ(s) = deterministic component
ε’(s)= stochastic but spatially dependent component
ε’’(s)= spatially independent residual error
•Assumes spatial variation in variable is too irregular to be modeled by simple smooth
function, better with stochastic surface
•Interpolation parameters (e.g. weights) are chosen to optimize fn
Kriging Method
• The foundation of Kriging is notion of spatial autocorrelation, or
tendency of values of entities closer in space to be related.
• This is a violation of classical statistical models, which assumes that
observations are independent.
• Autocorrelation can be assessed using a semi-variogram, which plots
the difference in pair values (variance) against their distances.
Semivariance
•Semivariance(distance h) = 0.5 * average [ (value at location i– value at location j)2] OR


 of points,
•Based on the scatter
{ z ( x )
the computer
i − z ( x + h )}2
(Geostatistical
i Analyst) fits a curve through
those points  (h) = i =1
•The inverse is the covariance matrix which
2n shows correlation
over space
 Variogram
• Plots semi-variance against
distance between points
• Is binned to simplify
• Can be binned based on just
distance (top) or distance and
direction (bottom)
• Where autocorrelation exists, Binning based on distance only
the semivariance should have
slope
• Look at variogram to find
where slope levels
• The distances between pairs at
which the variogram is
calculated are called lags .

Binning based on distance and direction

 Variogram
• SV value where it flattens
out is called a “sill.” sill

• The distance range for which

there is a slope is called the
“neighborhood”; this is
where there is positive
spatial structure
• The intercept is called the
“nugget” and represents
random noise that is nugget
spatially independent range
Steps
• Variogram cloud: can use bins to make cloud plot of all points or box
plot of points
• Empirical variogram: choose bins and lags
• Model variogram: fit function through empirical variogram
• Functional forms?
Functional Forms

From Fortin and Dale Spatial Analysis:A Guide for Ecologists

Kriging Method
•We can then use a scatter plot of predicted versus actual values to see the extent to
which our model actually predicts the values
•If the blue line and the points lie along the 1:1 line this indicates that the kriging model
predicts the data well
Kriging Method
•The fitted variogram results in a series of matrices and vectors that are used in weighting
and locally solving the kriging equation.
•Basically, at this point, it is similar to other interpolation methods in that we are taking a
weighting moving average, but the weights (λ) are based on statistically derived
autocorrelation measures.
• λs are chosen so that the estimate is unbiased and the estimated variance is less
than for any other possible linear combo of thevariables.
z ( x0 )
Kriging Method
•Produces four types of prediction maps:
•Prediction Map: Predicted values
•Probability Map: Probability that value over x
•Prediction Standard Error Map: fit of model
•Quantile maps: Probability that value over certain quantile
Kriging output: prediction
 Kriging: Ordinary vs. Universal

•Ordinary Kriging – trend is a constant or linear function

•Universal kriging – used when there is an underlying
trend beyond the simple spatial autocorrelation
•Generally this trend occurs at a different scale
•Trend may be for some geographic feature that
occurs on one part of the map
 Example
•Here are some sample elevation points from which surfaces were derived using the
three methods
 Example: IDW
•Done with P =2. Notice how it is not as smooth as Spline. This is because of the
weighting function introduced through P
 Example: Spline
•Note how smooth the curves of the terrain are; this is because Spline is fitting a simply
polynomial equation through the points
 Example: Kriging
•This one is kind of in between—because it fits an equation through point, but weights it
based on probabilities
 Example: Kriging
•This one is kind of in between—because it fits an equation through point, but weights it
based on probabilities
Hypsometry Map Choroplet map (left) and dasymetric map (right) depicting
population density
[1]