Geographic Information System (GIS) is a computer-based tool that is used to

collect, store, manage, analyze, and display geographically referenced data to

understand spatial patterns and relationships.

Two important aspects of GIS are,

1.Defining absolute location of earth with reference to global coordinate
systems.
Example: Latitude/Longitude.
2.Ability to represent various georeferenced coordinate system and non-
georeferenced coordinate system.
Example : Georeferenced coordinate system = Northing, Easting, elevation etc.
Non-georeferenced coordinate system = Image corners.

Components of GIS (Geographic Information System)

A Geographic Information System (GIS) is a system that captures, stores,
analyzes, and visualizes geographic (spatial) data. It helps in decision-making
for applications like urban planning, disaster management, agriculture, and
environmental monitoring.
GIS consists of five main components:
1. Hardware
Definition: Hardware refers to the physical devices used to process GIS data
and run GIS software.
Examples of GIS Hardware:
 Computers & Servers – Used to store and process GIS data.
 GPS Devices – Collect geographic coordinates in real time.
 Scanners & Digitizers – Convert paper maps into digital formats.
 Drones & Satellites – Capture aerial and remote sensing images.
Function in GIS:
 Provides the necessary computing power to handle large datasets.
 Enables real-time data collection from the field.
2. Software
Definition: GIS software is the set of programs used to store, analyze, and
display spatial data.
Functions of GIS Software:
 Data Input & Storage – Importing maps, satellite images, and field data.
 Spatial Analysis – Performing buffering, overlay analysis, and spatial
queries.
 Visualization & Mapping – Creating interactive maps and 3D models.
Popular GIS Software:
 ArcGIS – A commercial GIS tool for advanced mapping and analysis.
 QGIS (Quantum GIS) – An open-source alternative for spatial data
analysis.
 Google Earth Engine – Cloud-based GIS for environmental monitoring.

3. Data
Definition: GIS data consists of geographic information that represents
locations and features on the Earth’s surface.
Types of GIS Data:
 1. Spatial Data (Geographic Data) – Represents the shape and location of
objects.
o Vector Data – Uses points, lines, and polygons (e.g., roads, rivers,
and buildings).
o Raster Data – Uses grids and pixels (e.g., satellite imagery and
elevation models).
2. Non-Spatial Data (Attribute Data) – Descriptive information about a
location.
o Example: A road network dataset may include information like
road name, speed limit, and traffic flow.
4. People
Definition: People are the users and experts who operate GIS systems and
interpret spatial data for decision-making.
Types of GIS Users:
 GIS Analysts – Process and analyze spatial data for various applications.
 Urban Planners – Use GIS for zoning, transportation, and infrastructure
planning.
 Environmental Scientists – Monitor climate change, forest cover, and
water resources using GIS.
 Disaster Management Teams – Use GIS to predict and manage natural
disasters like floods and wildfires.
5. Methods & Procedures
Definition: Methods and procedures are the rules and workflows that ensure
GIS data is collected, processed, and analyzed correctly.
Key GIS Methods:
 Data Collection – Gathering geographic information from GPS, surveys,
and remote sensing.
 Data Processing – Converting raw data into GIS-compatible formats.
 Spatial Analysis – Using overlay, buffering, and distance calculations to
interpret data.
 Data Visualization – Creating maps and 3D models to display insights.
Basic concpects in gis- raster ,vector attribute models
Advantages and Benefits of GIS

Geographic Information System (GIS) is a powerful tool used for capturing, storing,
analyzing, and visualizing spatial data. It plays a crucial role in various fields such as
urban planning, agriculture, disaster management, environmental monitoring, and
transportation. The following are the key advantages and benefits of GIS:
1. Improved Decision-Making
GIS provides accurate geographic insights, helping organizations make informed
decisions.
Used in urban planning, infrastructure development, and resource management to
choose the best locations for projects.
Example: A government agency uses GIS to determine optimal locations for new
hospitals based on population density.
2. Efficient Data Management
GIS allows the storage, retrieval, and organization of vast amounts of spatial and non-
spatial data.
Combines different data types (maps, satellite images, and statistical data) for
analysis.
Example: A city planner can access real-time traffic data, road maps, and population
statistics in a single system.
3. Cost Savings and Resource Optimization
Helps reduce operational costs by optimizing resource allocation and minimizing
waste.
Reduces costs associated with manual surveying and fieldwork by using remote
sensing technology.
Example: Farmers use GIS to analyze soil quality and irrigation patterns, reducing
water and fertilizer usage.
4. Better Visualization and Mapping
GIS enables the creation of interactive maps, 3D models, and spatial analyses for
better understanding.
Enhances data visualization by representing complex information in an easy-to-
understand format.
Example: Disaster management teams use GIS to create flood risk maps, improving
emergency response planning.
5. Real-Time Monitoring and Analysis
GIS integrates with real-time data sources like GPS and satellite imagery for live
tracking.
Helps in monitoring traffic congestion, weather conditions, and environmental
changes.
Example: Governments use GIS for real-time tracking of deforestation and illegal
land use.
6. Environmental Protection and Management
GIS plays a vital role in monitoring deforestation, climate change, pollution, and
biodiversity.
Helps in natural resource conservation and planning sustainable development projects.
Example: Scientists use GIS to track air pollution levels and predict climate change
impacts.
7. Disaster Management and Emergency Response
GIS helps in predicting, preparing, and responding to natural disasters like
earthquakes, floods, and hurricanes.
Allows authorities to map high-risk zones and plan evacuation routes efficiently.
Example: During a flood, GIS helps emergency teams identify the most affected areas
and allocate resources effectively.
8. Enhanced Transportation and Navigation
GIS is widely used in transportation planning, logistics, and navigation.
Helps in optimizing traffic management, route planning, and vehicle tracking.
Example: Google Maps and GPS navigation systems use GIS for real-time traffic
updates and route optimization.

9. Supports Smart City Development

GIS helps in planning modern cities with efficient infrastructure, transport, and public
services.
Assists in managing waste disposal, energy distribution, and water supply networks.
Example: Smart city projects use GIS to design eco-friendly neighborhoods with
optimized energy consumption.
10. Business and Market Analysis
Companies use GIS for customer analysis, site selection, and market expansion
strategies.
Helps in analyzing demographic data, competition, and consumer behavior.
Example: Retail chains use GIS to identify the best locations for new stores based on
customer density.

GIS Categories
A Geographic Information System (GIS) is categorized based on its
application, scale, and method of use. The five main GIS categories are:
1. Desktop GIS
 Installed on personal computers and used for map creation, data
analysis, and spatial modeling.
 Includes powerful tools for data visualization, terrain modeling, and
statistical analysis.
 Supports vector and raster data processing.
Examples:
  ArcGIS Desktop (by Esri) – Used for advanced spatial analysis.
 QGIS (Quantum GIS) – Open-source GIS software.
 MapInfo Professional – Used for business and urban planning.
Applications:
 Urban Planning: Mapping zoning areas, infrastructure, and land use.
 Environmental Studies: Analyzing deforestation, climate changes, and
pollution levels.

2. Web GIS (Online GIS)

 GIS applications that run on the internet without needing to install
software.
 Allows users to view, edit, and share spatial data remotely.
 Provides real-time geographic data from online sources.
Examples:
 Google Maps & Google Earth – Provide navigation and spatial
visualization.
 ArcGIS Online – Cloud-based GIS platform for collaborative mapping.
 OpenStreetMap (OSM) – Crowdsourced GIS data for mapping.
Applications:
 Disaster Management: Web-based platforms track hurricanes, wildfires,
and floods.
 Real-Time Traffic Monitoring: GPS navigation apps optimize route
planning.

3. Mobile GIS
 GIS applications designed for smartphones, tablets, and GPS-enabled
devices.
 Used for field surveys, real-time data collection, and navigation.
 Enables offline access and integration with cloud-based GIS.
Examples:
  Google Earth Mobile – Interactive 3D mapping tool.
 Esri Collector App – Used for collecting GIS data in the field.
 GPS Essentials App – Helps in route planning and coordinate tracking.
Applications:
 Agriculture: Farmers use mobile GIS to analyze soil conditions.
 Forestry: Rangers map wildlife habitats and deforestation areas.

4. Enterprise GIS
 A large-scale GIS system used by governments, corporations, and
organizations.
 Integrates GIS with enterprise systems (ERP, CRM, and IoT
platforms).
 Manages huge spatial databases for large-scale decision-making.
Examples:
 ArcGIS Enterprise – Used by governments for infrastructure planning.
 GeoServer – Open-source GIS platform for spatial data management.
 IBM GIS Solutions – Integrated with business intelligence tools.
Applications:
 Utilities Management: Managing electricity grids, pipelines, and water
distribution.
 Logistics & Supply Chain: Optimizing warehouse locations and
delivery routes.
5. Cloud GIS
 Stores and processes GIS data on remote cloud servers.
 Offers scalability, real-time collaboration, and AI-powered analysis.
 Uses big data analytics to process large-scale geospatial datasets.
Examples:
 Google Earth Engine – Analyzes satellite imagery and environmental
changes.
  Amazon AWS GIS Services – Provides cloud computing for GIS
applications.
 Esri ArcGIS Cloud – Allows data sharing and remote spatial analysis.
Applications:
 Climate Change Research: Scientists track temperature and sea-level
rise.
 Smart Cities: City planners use cloud GIS for real-time urban
development.

Spatial Data and Non-Spatial Data

1. Spatial Data (Geospatial Data):
Spatial data refers to information that has a geographic or location-based
component. It tells where an object is on the Earth's surface.
 Examples:
o Location of a school (latitude & longitude)
o River boundaries
o Roads and city maps
 Types of Spatial Data:
o Vector Data (points, lines, polygons)
o Raster Data (satellite images, aerial photos)
 Used In:
Mapping, GIS analysis, navigation, urban planning.

2. Non-Spatial Data (Attribute Data):

Non-spatial data describes the characteristics or details of spatial data but
without location information.
 Examples:
o Name of the school, number of students, type of building
 o River name, length, water quality
 Used In:
Providing information about spatial features, such as what, when, or
how.

Attribute Data in GIS

Attribute Data refers to the descriptive information about spatial features in
a Geographic Information System (GIS).
It provides details about the "what" of the spatial data, while the spatial data
provides the "where."

Key Points:
 Attribute data is non-spatial.
 It is linked to spatial features (points, lines, polygons) through a table.
 Organized in rows (each feature) and columns (each attribute).

Example (Attribute Table for Cities):

City Name Population Area (sq.km) State

Hyderabad 6,800,000 650 Telangana

Chennai 7,100,000 426 Tamil Nadu

Kolkata 4,500,000 205 West Bengal

Here, the location of each city is spatial data, and the information like
population, area, and state is the attribute data.
Joining Spatial and Attribute Data (as per M. Anji Reddy):
In GIS, spatial and attribute data are stored separately — spatial data in map
layers and attribute data in tabular format. To make the system functional, these
two types of data must be linked or joined using a common identifier.
 Key Explanation:
"Joining is the process of integrating the spatial features with their
corresponding attribute information through a common field (usually a
unique ID like feature ID, object ID, or code)."
– M. Anji Reddy, Remote Sensing & GIS

According to M. Anji Reddy:

 Every geographic feature (like road, river, village) is represented
spatially (point, line, polygon).
 Each feature has related attribute data (like name, length, population).
 A common link field (e.g., village code or road ID) is used to connect
the two.

This diagram shows how spatial data (maps) and attribute data (tables) are
combined (joined) in GIS using a process called overlay.

1. Spatial Data (Geographic Data on Top Left)

 There are two maps:
 o One shows parcels (land pieces) – Parcel 1 to Parcel 4.
o The other shows zones – Zone 1, Zone 2, Zone 3.
 These shapes represent real-world areas like land plots and
administrative zones.

2. Attribute Data (Tables at the Bottom)

 The first table (left) shows:
o Parcel ID (1 to 4)
o Owner Name (Smith, Omar, etc.)
 The second table shows:
o Zone ID (1 to 3)
o School Name (Fields, Oakfield, Lincoln)

3. Overlay Operation (Middle Arrow)

 GIS performs an overlay to check:
"Which parcel falls in which zone?"
 It checks the largest overlapping area between each parcel and zone.
 Then it assigns the zone and school name to each parcel based on that.

4. Final Joined Table (Right Side)

Spatial Data Input in GIS
Spatial Data Input refers to the process of bringing geographic (location-
based) information into a GIS system so it can be stored, analyzed, and
visualized.

Types of Spatial Data Input Methods:

1. Digitization
o Manual process of tracing map features (like roads, rivers) from a
paper map into a digital format.
 o Done using a digitizer tablet or on-screen digitizing.
o Converts analog maps into vector data (points, lines, polygons).
2. Scanning
o Maps are scanned using a scanner to create raster images (like
.jpg, .tiff).
o Used as background or base map in GIS.
o Can be georeferenced and later vectorized.
3. Remote Sensing
o Satellite or aerial imagery provides spatial data as raster layers.
o Includes land cover, vegetation, water bodies, etc.
o Often used as input for land use planning and environmental
analysis.
4. GPS (Global Positioning System)
o Captures real-time location data (latitude, longitude).
o Used for field surveys, asset mapping, and navigation.
o Produces accurate point, line, or polygon data.
5. Importing from Existing Data Files
o Data from other sources (like shapefiles, CAD drawings,
databases) can be directly imported into GIS software.
o Formats: .shp, .kml, .dxf, .csv with coordinates, etc.
6. Surveying
o Traditional land surveys using total stations or theodolites.
o Provides high-accuracy spatial data for infrastructure, boundary
mapping, etc.
1. Attribute Data Management
Definition:
Attribute data refers to descriptive (non-spatial) information associated with
spatial features (like points, lines, polygons). Attribute data management
involves the storage, editing, querying, and updating of this descriptive data.
Key Components:
 Storage:
Attribute data is stored in tabular format where each row represents a
spatial feature and columns represent attributes (e.g., name, area,
population).
 Linkage to Spatial Data:
Each spatial feature has a unique identifier (Feature ID or Object ID)
that links it to its attribute record.
 Database Management System (DBMS):
GIS uses relational DBMS to efficiently store, retrieve, and manipulate
attribute data.
 Operations Supported:
o Data entry (manual or from external files like .CSV, Excel)
o Updating records
o Adding/removing fields
o Sorting and filtering
o Relational joins (joining multiple tables using keys)
Example:
For a spatial layer of villages, the attribute table may include:
Village_ID Name Population Literacy_Rate

V001 Rampur 3200 68%

V002 Kothapalli 2500 72%

 2. Data Display
Definition:
Data display is the process of presenting spatial and attribute data visually
through maps, symbols, colours, labels, and charts to make the data easy to
understand and interpret.
Key Aspects:
 Map Symbolization:
Assigning colours, shapes, and line styles to represent different features
based on their attribute values.
 Thematic Mapping:
Creating maps that display a specific theme (e.g., population density,
land use types).
 Labeling:
Displaying labels on features (like names of cities, roads) derived from
the attribute data.
 Legends and Scales:
Including legends, scales, and north arrows for better interpretation.
Example:
Displaying a land use map where:
 Forests are shown in green
 Agricultural lands in yellow
 Urban areas in red

3. Data Exploration
Definition:
Data exploration is the process of interactively examining spatial and
attribute data to identify patterns, trends, or anomalies before performing
detailed analysis.
Key Functions:
 Interactive Viewing:
Zoom, pan, and click features to get details.
  Attribute Queries:
Using expressions to filter data (e.g., SELECT * FROM villages
WHERE population > 5000).
 Statistical Summaries:
Generating basic statistics (mean, max, min) from attribute data.
 Visual Checks:
Inspecting data for missing values, errors, or unexpected patterns.
Example:
 Selecting all water bodies with area > 2 hectares
 Finding roads longer than 5 km
 Checking how many wells have a water level below 10 meters

4. Data Analysis
Definition:
Data analysis in GIS involves the application of mathematical, spatial, and
logical operations on spatial and attribute data to derive useful information,
solve problems, or support decision-making.
Types of Analysis:
 Spatial Analysis:
o Overlay Analysis: Combine multiple layers (e.g., soil + rainfall +
slope).
o Buffer Analysis: Create zones around features (e.g., 1 km buffer
around rivers).
o Proximity Analysis: Find features within a certain distance.
 Attribute Analysis:
o Statistical calculations based on attribute values.
o Querying and grouping data for summary.
 Network Analysis:
o Analyzing connectivity (e.g., shortest path on road networks).
 Suitability Modeling:
 o Identifying suitable locations for specific purposes using multiple
criteria.
Example:
 Finding the most suitable area for constructing a dam based on slope,
rainfall, and population.
 Identifying flood-prone zones by overlaying elevation and rainfall layers.

Final Summary Table:

Topic Detailed Description

Attribute Data Organizing attribute data using DBMS, allowing editing,

Management querying, and updating of spatially linked non-spatial data.

Presenting spatial features visually with appropriate

Data Display symbols, colors, labels, and thematic maps to aid
interpretation.

Interactively examining the data through queries,

Data Exploration selections, and simple statistics to identify patterns before
deeper analysis.

Using spatial and attribute operations to extract insights,

Data Analysis make decisions, and solve problems like site selection, risk
mapping, and resource planning.

How GIS Handles Attribute Data:

GIS handles attribute data through attribute tables linked to spatial features.
Here's how the process works:

1. Storage in Attribute Tables

 GIS stores attribute data in tabular form (like an Excel spreadsheet).
 Each row in the table corresponds to a spatial feature (e.g., a road, city,
lake).
 Each column represents an attribute field (e.g., name, population, area).
For example:
A polygon representing a forest in a spatial layer will have a record (row) in the
attribute table like:
Forest_ID = 101, Name = Nagarjuna, Area = 250 sq km, Type = Deciduous

2. Linking Attribute Data to Spatial Features

 Each feature (point/line/polygon) has a unique ID (like FID,
OBJECTID).
 The attribute table uses this ID to link the data with the map.
 This link ensures that changes in the data reflect in the map and vice
versa.

3. Attribute Data Management Tools in GIS

GIS provides various tools to manage and analyze attribute data:
 Sorting & Filtering: To display only specific records (e.g., cities with
population > 1 lakh).
 Querying (SQL-like): SELECT * FROM Roads WHERE Type =
'Highway'
 Joins & Relates: Combine attribute data from other tables using a
common key field.
 Field Calculations: Derive new attributes (e.g., Population Density =
Population / Area)
 Classifications: Group data into classes for map visualization (e.g.,
coloring districts by literacy rate)

4. Editing and Updating

 Users can manually add, edit, or delete attribute data directly in the
table.
 Useful for updating land use information, census data, or property
records.
 5. Data Types in Attribute Fields
 Text: Names, types, IDs
 Numbers: Population, length, area
 Date/Time: Installation dates, survey dates
 Boolean: True/False conditions

6. Integration with External Databases

 GIS can connect to external databases like SQL, Oracle, MS Access to
fetch real-time attribute data.
 This supports large-scale applications like utility networks, urban
planning, or emergency services.

Summary:

Component Description

Attribute Table Stores descriptive data in rows and columns

Feature ID Links spatial feature to its data

Tools Sort, filter, join, calculate, classify

Integration Supports external databases for real-time updates

A coordinate system is a reference framework that uses numbers (coordinates)

to determine the positions of points on the Earth's surface. It enables mapping,
spatial analysis, and integration of geographic data.
Coordinate systems are mainly classified into the following types:

1. Geographic Coordinate System (GCS)

A Geographic Coordinate System is a 3D spherical system used to locate
positions on the Earth using latitude and longitude.
Key Features:
Based on a spheroid/ellipsoid model of Earth.
Coordinates are given in degrees (°), minutes (′), and seconds (″).
Locations are measured relative to:
Equator (0° latitude)
Prime Meridian (0° longitude)
Requires a datum to define Earth’s shape and the origin point.
> Common Datums:
WGS 84 (World Geodetic System 1984) – used in GPS
NAD 83 (North American Datum 1983)
Example:
• (Latitude: 17.385°, Longitude: 78.4867°)

2. Projected Coordinate System (PCS)

> Definition:
A Projected Coordinate System is a 2D flat representation of the Earth derived
from a GCS using a mathematical transformation (called a projection).
> Key Features:
• Uses X (easting) and Y (northing) in meters or feet.
• Designed to minimize distortion in a specific area for shape, size,
distance, or direction.
• Commonly used in engineering, surveying, and regional mapping.
> Common Projections:
• UTM (Universal Transverse Mercator)
• SPCS (State Plane Coordinate System)
> Example:
• UTM Zone 44N, Easting: 775000 m, Northing: 1923000 m

3. Local Coordinate System

> Definition:
A Local Coordinate System is designed for small-scale areas, such as a campus,
building, or construction site.
> Key Features:
• Origin and units are arbitrary and not tied to the Earth's surface.
• Simple to use in architectural or engineering applications.
• Not suitable for global or large regional mapping.
> Example:
• Construction site grid: (X: 50 m, Y: 30 m)

4. Vertical Coordinate System

> Definition:
A Vertical Coordinate System measures elevation (height) or depth (below
surface) using Z-values.
> Key Features:
• Useful in terrain modeling, hydrology, and 3D GIS.
• Requires a vertical datum (e.g., mean sea level).

•Can be combined with horizontal coordinate systems for 3D spatial analysis.

> Example:
• Elevation: 350 meters above mean sea level (MSL)

5. Geocentric Coordinate System

> Definition:
A Geocentric Coordinate System uses 3D Cartesian coordinates (X, Y, Z) with
the origin at the Earth's center of mass.
> Key Features:
• Ideal for satellite positioning and space-based applications.
• Used in space geodesy and precise GPS systems.
• Provides high-accuracy positioning on a global scale.
> Example: Satellite location: (X: 6378137 m, Y: 0 m, Z: 0 m)
Earth Approximations
The real shape of the Earth is not smooth — it's bumpy with mountains, valleys,
and oceans. To make calculations (like measuring distances, drawing maps,
using GPS), we need a simple mathematical shape to represent the Earth.

Types of Earth Approximations (as per Anji Reddy’s book style):

1. Sphere (Simple Round Ball)
 Think of Earth as a perfect ball.
 Easy to use in calculations.
 Good for small-scale maps (like world maps).
 Not very accurate, because Earth is slightly flat at the poles.
Example Use: School-level globes or simple climate models.

2. Spheroid (Ellipsoid) – More Accurate

 Earth is a bit flat at the poles and bulged at the equator (like an
orange).
 This shape is called an oblate spheroid.
 More accurate than a sphere.
 Different countries may use different ellipsoids (India used Everest 1830
earlier).
WGS84 is a global ellipsoid used in GPS.

Term Value (WGS84)

Equatorial Radius (a) 6,378.137 km

Polar Radius (b) 6,356.752 km

Flattening (f) 1/298.257

3. Geoid – The Most Realistic Model
 The geoid is like the “true shape” of Earth based on gravity.
 It is like mean sea level extended under the land.
 It’s wavy and uneven — not a smooth shape.
 Very useful for accurate height measurements.
Used in precise surveying and engineering.

Summary (in Anji Reddy book style):

Approximation Shape Accuracy Use

Sphere Round ball Low Basic models, education

Spheroid Slightly flat Medium Mapping, GPS

Geoid Wavy surface High Surveying, height data

What is a Datum?
A Datum is a reference system used to model the shape of the Earth and to
define the location of any point on it — like a base map for all mapping and
coordinate calculations.
In simple words (as per M. Anji Reddy's "Remote Sensing and GIS" style):
A Datum is a mathematical model of the Earth used as a base for mapping and
measurements.

Why is a Datum important?

Because the Earth is not a perfect shape, we need a reference ellipsoid (or
spheroid) and a fixed origin point to measure positions accurately.
 Types of Datum:

1. Horizontal Datum
 Defines latitude and longitude.
 Used for flat maps and positioning on Earth.
 Example: WGS84, Everest 1830.
2. Vertical Datum
 Defines elevation or height (above sea level).
 Uses mean sea level as reference.
 Example: Mean Sea Level (MSL).
Examples of Common Datums:

Name Used In Notes

Everest 1830 India (older maps) Based on Indian subcontinent shape

WGS84 GPS, Google Maps (global) Most widely used global datum

NAD83 North America Used in US and Canada

Map Projections – Overview
Map projection is the method of transforming the curved surface of the Earth
(3D) into a flat map (2D).
To do this, the globe is projected onto developable surfaces like:
 Cylinder
 Cone
 Plane
 Cylindrical Projection

Concept:
 The Earth is projected onto a cylinder that touches the globe along the
equator.
 The cylinder is then unwrapped into a flat surface.
Characteristics:
 Meridians = vertical straight lines
 Parallels = horizontal straight lines
 Shape near the equator is accurate
 Distortion increases towards poles
Uses:
 Good for equatorial regions
 Common example: Mercator Projection (used in navigation)
As per Anji Reddy:
 Maintains angles (conformal)
 Not suitable for high-latitude areas
 Used for nautical charts and GPS

Conical Projection

Concept:
 The Earth is projected onto a cone placed over the globe.
 The cone cuts or touches the globe along one or two standard parallels
(latitudes).
Characteristics:
 Meridians = straight lines that converge at a point
 Parallels = arcs of circles
 Distortion is least near standard parallels, increases away
Uses:
 Best for mid-latitude regions (like USA, Europe, India)
 Common example: Lambert Conformal Conic Projection
As per Anji Reddy:
 Suitable for mapping countries or states
 Used in topographic maps, aeronautical charts

Azimuthal (Planar) Projection

Concept:
 The Earth is projected onto a flat plane that touches the globe at a single
point (like the North Pole).
Characteristics:
 Meridians = straight lines from the center
 Parallels = concentric circles
 Accurate at the central point, distortion increases outward
Uses:
 Ideal for polar regions
 Common examples: Stereographic, Orthographic projections
As per Anji Reddy:
 Preserves direction and distance from center
 Used in air route planning, polar studies
 Summary Table:

Projection Projection
Best For Example Distortion
Type Surface

Cylindrical Cylinder Equator Mercator High at poles

Mid- Away from standard

Conical Cone Lambert
latitudes parallels

Away from center

Azimuthal Flat plane Poles Stereographic
point

Map Projection Parameters

Map projections involve converting the Earth's curved surface onto a flat map.
To do this accurately, several projection parameters must be defined.
These parameters help to control distortion, and align the map to the actual
Earth location.

1. Spheroid (Ellipsoid)
 The mathematical model of the Earth used for projection.
 Defines the size and shape of the Earth.
 Examples:
o WGS 1984
o GRS 1980
o Clarke 1866

2. Datum
 Ties the spheroid to a specific location on Earth.
 It provides a reference origin (latitude, longitude, height).
 Examples:
 o WGS84 (global)
o Everest Datum 1830 (India)

3. Projection Type
 The method used for projection (surface used):
o Cylindrical
o Conical
o Azimuthal (Planar)

4. Central Meridian
 The longitude line that runs through the center of the map.
 It minimizes distortion in the area of interest.

5. Latitude of Origin
 The starting parallel (latitude) for projection.
 Often used in conical and azimuthal projections.

6. Standard Parallels
 Used mainly in conical projections.
 These are one or two lines of latitude where scale distortion is minimum
or zero.

7. False Easting and False Northing

 Added to avoid negative coordinates.
 Commonly used in UTM (Universal Transverse Mercator) projections.
➤ False Easting:
 Distance added to the x-coordinate.
➤ False Northing:
  Distance added to the y-coordinate.

8. Scale Factor
 Multiplier applied to reduce distortion.
 Commonly used in Transverse Mercator projections (e.g., scale factor
= 0.9996 in UTM).

9. Units
 Defines the map measurement unit (meters, feet, degrees).

Summary Table:

Parameter Purpose

Spheroid Shape/size of Earth

Datum Reference position on Earth

Projection Type Map surface method

Central Meridian Center longitude of map

Latitude of Origin Starting parallel for projection

Standard Parallels Latitudes with minimal distortion

False Easting/Northing Coordinate offset to avoid negatives

Scale Factor Adjusts for distortion

Units Measurement unit (m, ft)

What is a Projected Coordinate System (PCS)?
A Projected Coordinate System (PCS) is a flat, two-dimensional
representation of the Earth’s surface, derived from a Geographic Coordinate
System (GCS) using mathematical map projections.
It allows accurate spatial measurements (like distance, area, direction) on a
flat map, unlike GCS which uses curved (spherical) coordinates like latitude
and longitude.

1. Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM)

The UTM system divides the Earth into 60 zones, each 6 degrees of longitude
wide. Each zone uses a separate Transverse Mercator projection, which helps
reduce distortion within that zone. This system is designed for global use,
covering regions between 84°N and 80°S latitude.
Because each zone is narrow, the distortion in distance, shape, and area is
minimal — making it ideal for mapping, navigation, and surveying. UTM is
widely used across the world, including in the United States, Europe, and
India, particularly for military, engineering, and GPS applications.

2. State Plane Coordinate System (SPCS)

The State Plane Coordinate System is used exclusively in the United States.
It breaks the country into more than 120 zones, each customized for a specific
state or a portion of a state. The projection used depends on the geographic
shape of the zone — either Transverse Mercator for regions that are taller than
wide, or Lambert Conformal Conic for wider areas.
SPCS is designed to maximize local accuracy by reducing distortion as much
as possible within each zone. It's commonly used for land surveying, property
boundary mapping, infrastructure projects, and by local governments.

3. Lambert Conformal Conic

The Lambert Conformal Conic projection is especially suitable for areas in
the mid-latitudes with an east–west orientation, such as the United States or
Europe. It preserves shapes and offers moderate accuracy in area and
distance, making it popular for regional and national maps.
This projection is often used for aeronautical charts, weather maps, and
topographic maps, especially when the mapped region is wider than it is tall.
In India, it's also used in topographical sheets by Survey of India.

In Summary
 UTM: Divides the world into 60 zones; great for GPS and large-scale
maps.
 SPCS: U.S.-specific system, highly accurate for state and local mapping.
 Lambert Conformal Conic: Ideal for mapping east–west regions,
widely used in mid-latitude countries.

A map is a visual representation of the Earth's surface, drawn on a planar

surface (like paper or a screen), at a specific scale and projection. It
includes conventional signs or symbols to represent real-world features.
Every point on a map corresponds to an actual location on Earth.

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Maps are classified into three main types based on their purpose:
1. Cadastral Maps
2. Topographical Maps

3. ThematicMap

4.Choropleth

1. Cadastral Maps

◆ Origin:

 The term “cadastral” is derived from the French word "cadastre",

which refers to a register of territorial properties.
 These maps deal with land ownership, property boundaries, and legal
records.
◆ Purpose:

 To show precise land parcels and who owns what.

 Often used by municipal bodies, land record departments, and survey
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◆ Use Cases:

 녡녣 Land Surveys: Accurate documentation of land parcels.

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 ..,•^_誙Property Division: Subdividing land between owners.

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 ^Ownership Disputes: Legal clarity on land boundaries.

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 c誥誢
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◆ Features Commonly Displayed:

 Plot boundaries – showing limits of private/public property.

 Block or survey numbers – IDs for land parcels.

 Street names – for identification of land location.

 District, village names – for geographic reference.
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’Example: A map that displays the boundary of a specific house plot in
a city, along with the owner’s name and plot number.

⬛ 2. Topographical Maps
◆ Also Called:

 Contour maps, topo-sheets, or topo-maps.

◆ Purpose:

 Multi-functional maps that combine natural and man-made features.

 Focuses on physical geography but includes cultural elements as well.
◆ Details Shown:

 •臓Natural features:
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o Elevation levels using contour lines
o Water bodies like rivers, lakes
o Forested areas, hills, valleys
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臅Man-made features:

o Roads, railways, bridges

o Cities, towns, buildings

 녣녡"Cultural details:
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o Land use (agriculture, forest, urban)
o Historic sites
o Administrative boundaries (districts, zones)
◆ Use Cases:

 얡̄
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 Military Operations: Terrain knowledge is crucial for strategy.

 ¹ Engineering Projects: Useful for constructing dams, roads, etc.
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 ▲. Natural Resource Management: Forest, water, and mineral planning.

vExample: A map showing a hill area with height contours, nearby

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roads, rivers, and villages.

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3. Thematic Maps
◆ Also Known As:

 Special-purpose maps
 Statistical maps
◆ Purpose:

 Focused on a specific theme or variable over a region.

 Unlike other maps, thematic maps don’t show all features — only
the features relevant to the theme.
◆ Difference from Others:

 Topographic/Cadastral → show everything

 Thematic → shows only one topic like rainfall, population, vegetation,
etc.
◆ Examples of Thematic Maps:

 詃
,‘´`^Relief Map – shows elevation and terrain.

 ˛‘Ł’,t(Geological Map – displays rock types, faults, and geological

structures.
 ‘›’-
. Vegetation Map – classifies forest types, crop cover, etc.
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 •◆,~Weather Map – daily info on temperature, wind, rainfall.

 舏 Political Map – defines boundaries of countries, states.

 ●Climatic Map – shows climate zones, rainfall distribution.

◆ Key Idea:

 Thematic maps are data-driven maps that are designed to highlight

a message or trend (e.g., deforestation, urbanization, etc.).
 They are useful in analysis and decision-making.
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Example: A rainfall map of India showing regions with high, medium, and
low rainfall using different colors.

4. Choropleth Maps
A Choropleth Map is a type of thematic map where areas are shaded or
colored in proportion to the measurement of the statistical variable being
displayed on the map (like population density, literacy rate, GDP, etc.).

◆ Purpose:

To visually represent numerical data across geographical regions using

color gradients.

◆ Features:

 Uses color shades (light to dark) to indicate value ranges.

 Geographic areas (like states, districts, or countries) are colored
based on the data value.
  Helps compare and analyze data distribution across different regions.

◆ Examples:

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ꄓ ˆ˙˘´¡ Population Density Map – darker shades for areas with high
population.

 –µ‘궝궘r
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 곜.I Income or GDP Map – shows economic distribution region-wise.

 ꨐ
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Ć˙Health Indicators Map – e.g., COVID-19 infection rates per
district.

◆ Use Cases:

 Government Planning – for resource allocation and funding.

 Education – teaching statistics, demographics, and social patterns.
 Healthcare – identifying regions needing medical support.
 Environmental Studies – showing pollution levels, forest cover loss,
etc.

◆ Key Idea:

Choropleth maps make statistical data easy to interpret visually by

tying numbers to color intensity across geographic zones.

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A choropleth map of India showing population density where: