ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS

Outcome

At the end of the lesson. Students should be able to

 Identify an electron as one of the basic components of an atom

 Define an electron
 Recognize that an electron carries a basic quantity of charge Q=Ne
 State the relative mass of an electron
 Sketch the structure of an atom and nucleus
 Write down the charges of electrons and nucleons
 Be familiar with Nucleon number/proton number
 State and use A=Z + N
 Define and identify Isotopes

LESSON 1: THE ATOM

INTRODUCTION:

 John Dalton (1766-1844) is considered as the father of atomic theory. He considered an atom of being the
simplest component of matter.
 The discovery of Radioactivity by Henry Becquerel (1891) showed that atoms are complex rather than “
indivisible” but can break down ( or disintegrate ) forming atoms of different elements
 Ernest Rutherford’s (1911) suggested that an atom consists of positively heavy core called nucleus where
most of the mass is concentrated and around the nucleus negatively charged electrons circle the orbit
 In 1913 Neils Bohr who had studied in Rutherford’s laboratory suggested a model of hydrogen atom in
which the electrons move around the nucleus in specific circular orbits

Definition of atom and its constituents

 According to Dalton an atom is the smallest indivisible particle of an element that takes part in a chemical
reaction
 An atom is made up of protons, electrons and neutrons. This can be clearly demonstrated by using the diagram
below

electron
Nucleus

Shell or orbit

Structure of an atom

1
Properties of these Sub-atomic particles

Particle Mass Charge Location Symbol

Proton 1 +1 Nucleus 1
P1
Neutron 1 0 Nucleus 1
0n
Electron 1 -1 Shell or orbit 0
−1e
1840

Some definitions related to an atom

 Atomic (or Proton) Number: This is the number of protons in an atom. It is denoted as z .
 Mass (or Nucleon) Number: this is the sum total of the number of protons and neutrons in an atom. It is denoted
as A . Mathematically it is written as A=Z + N where N=¿ the number of neutrons in the nucleus of the atom.

Recall:

- In a neutral atom the number of protons is equal to the number of electrons

- An electron is the smallest indivisible quantity of a charge

Determining A, N and Z using A=Z + N

Where A = mass or nucleon number, N = neutron number and Z = proton or atomic number.
A
Generally an atom is denoted as Z X where X represent any atom in consideration

Activity
37 A
1. Consider the atom17Cl. By comparing it with the general expression Z X ,
i. Identify X, A and Z
ii. By using the values obtained in (i) above, calculate N

SOLUTION

From A=Z + N ⇒ N= A−Z=37−17=20 ⇒

i. X = Cl A=37 Z=17
ii. N=20
23
2. Consider a sodium atom 11 Na. Determine
i. The nucleon number
ii. Proton number
iii. Neutron number
iv. Number of electrons
v. Is the atom neutral? Explain
SOLUTION
i. A=23
ii. Z=11
iii. N=23−11=12⇒ N=12
iv. Number of electrons=11
v. Yes. Because the number of protons equal to the number of electrons
 Isotopes: These are atoms of the same element with the same atomic ( or proton) number but different mass ( or
37 35
nucleon) number e.g 17 Cl ∧17Cl

2
Activity
The following are the symbols ( not their usual symbols) used to represent some elements in the periodic table
56 56 56 57
24 A 26B 25C 26 D
a. Identify a pair of isotopes
b. In each of the pair, calculate the proton number and neutron number
c. From your answer in (b) above which particle is responsible for the formation of isotopes?
SOLUTION
56 57
a. 26 B ∧26 D are isotopes
56 57
b. for 26B . Z =26 , N =30∧for 26 D . Z=26∧N=31
c. The neutron number

Conclusion: we can also define isotopes as “atoms of the same element having the same atomic ( or
proton) number but different neutron number”

QUESTIONS

1. An atom contains electrons, protons and neutrons.

Which of these
a) Are outside the nucleus
b) Are uncharged
c) Have negative charge
d) Are nucleons
e) Are much lighter than others
2. An aluminum atom has an atomic number of 13 and a mass number of 27.how many
a) Protons b) electrons c) neutrons does it have?
3. Chlorine s a mixture of two isotopes, with mass numbers 35 and 37. What is the difference between the
two types of atom?
14
4. In symbol form nitrogen-14 can be written 7 N . How can each of the following be written?
a) Carbon-12 b) oxygen-16 c) radium-226
5. Atom X has 6 electrons and a mass number of 12.
Atom Y has 6 electrons and a mass number of 14.
Atom Z has 7 neutrons and a mass number of 14.
Identify the elements X, Y and Z.

LESSON 2: RADIOACTIVITY

At the end of this lesson, students should be able to

 Define Radioactivity
 Write down the types of radiations released during a radioactive decay
 Give properties of alpha, beta and gamma radiations
 State the uses of G.M – tube and Cloud chambers
 Demonstrate the behaviour of alpha, beta and gamma radiations in Electric and Magnetic fields
 Write down balanced nuclear Equations
 Define half-life and state its uses
2.1 Introduction:

3
 Some materials contain atoms with unstable nuclei. In time, each unstable nucleus disintegrate (break
up). As it does so, it shoots out tiny particles and in some cases, a burst of wave energy as well. The
particles and waves “radiate” from the nucleus and are called nuclear radiation. Materials which emit
nuclear radiation are known as radioactive materials. When an unstable nucleus breaks up to release this
nuclear radiation, the essence is to become stable
2.2 Definitions
 Radioactive Decay: The disintegration of a nucleus is called radioactive decay
 Radioactivity: This is the spontaneous emission of radiation by an unstable nucleus to gain
stability with the release of energy. These radiations emitted during radioactivity are alpha (α ),
beta ( β ) and gamma (γ )
Note: A radioactive process is a;
 Spontaneous: i.e. it occurs on its own and are not affected by external factors like temperature,
pressure etc
 Random i.e. In a given sample of radioactive nuclei, one cannot tell which nucleus is going to
decay and when.
 Examples of radioactive materials include:Uranium, Radium, Polonium, Carbon etc
2.3 Properties of alpha, beta and gamma radiations
- alpha is a Helium nucleus
- beta resembles an electron
- gamma is an electromagnetic wave

Property Alpha radiation Beta radiation Gamma

radiation
Symbol 4 4 0 0 0
2 He ∨2 α −1 e ∨−1 β γ
0
Relative charge +2 −1 0
speed Up to 0.1 x the speed Up to 0.9 x the speed of Speed of light
of light light
Range in air About 5 cm About 500 cm Much farther
Stopped by A thick sheet of paper About few mm of At least 3 cm thick
or skin Aluminum or other of lead and thick
metals concrete
Ionizing effects Strong weak Very weak
Penetrating effects Not very penetrating penetrating Very penetrating
Effect of fields Deflected be electric Deflected by electric and Not deflected or
and magnetic fields magnetic fields affected by
electric and
magnetic fields
Mass 4 1 0
1840
Table 1: Summary of the properties ofα , β∧γ radiations

α − particle
× × × × × × × ×
× × × × × × × ×
γ − particle
source × × × × × × × ×

× × × × × × ×
4
β− particle
 Deflection of alpha, beta and gamma particles in a magnetic field
γ

Negative plate −¿ α
+¿
Positive plate
−¿ +¿
β
−¿ +¿
−¿ +¿

source
Deflection of alpha, beta and gamma particles in an Electric field

Note:
- alpha and beta radiations are deflected because they are charged while gamma is not deflected because it
is not charged
- beta is more deflected because it is lighter than alpha
- in electric fields beta particle is deflected towards the positive plate because it has a negative charge while
alpha particle is deflected towards the negative plate because it has a positive charge.
2.4 Uses of Geiger-Müller tube and Cloud Chamber
The G.M-tube and cloud chamber are used to detect alpha, beta and gamma radiations. Another
instruments is solid state detector

2.4.1. The G.M-tube: When radiations enter the tube, it ionizes the gas inside. This set up a high-voltage
spark across the gas and a pulse of current in the circuit.

2.4.2 The Cloud Chamber: This is useful for studying these radiations because it makes their tracks visible

Gamma
Alpha Beta
Cloud chamber tracks for alpha, beta and gamma radiations

Tracks formed by alpha particles are;

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  Thick because they cause much ionization in air
 Straight because they are more massive
 Short because they have short range in air ( only few cm )
For beta particles the tracks are
 Thin because they cause less ionization in air
 Crooked ( or wavy) because they are less massive
 Longer because they have a longer range in air
On the other hand gamma radiation does not produce tracks due to the fact that they are chargeless but however
they knock off electrons in their path and these electrons ionizes the air in the cloud chamber to produce tracks
which are similar to tracks of low speed beta particles

2.5: Balancing Nuclear Equations

Recall: A radioactive process is a decay process which requires the breakdown of unstable nucleus to produce a stable
one. For this to occur, the nucleus must emit radiation and this emission may alter (or change) the number of protons and
neutrons in the nucleus. It might become the nucleus of another element.

Note: The change of the nucleus of an element to the nucleus of another element because of emission of radiation is called
Transmutation

 The parent nucleus: The nucleus that decays (or disintegrate )

 The daughter nucleus ( also called nuclide) : This is the new nucleus that is produced.
 The daughter nucleus together with the radiations produced are called decay products

2.5.1 Alpha decay

Since an alpha particle has symbol 42He ∨42 α , it therefore means during an alpha decay;

 Mass number reduces by 4

 Proton number reduces by 2
4
Y +¿
A A −4
As an illustration Z X Z−2 2 α

Example. Uranium-235 emits an alpha particle to become thorium 231 as follows

A 235
U +E
Th +¿
4
92 231
90 2 α

Note: The nuclear equation must always be balanced

2.5.2. Beta decay

0 0
Since beta has a symbol −1e ∨−1 β , it therefore means during an alpha decay;

 Mass number remain unchanged

 Proton number increases by 1
i.e AZ X A
Z +1Y
+¿ −10 β

Examples: 10n 1
P +¿−1 β
0
and 131
I 131 0
1 53
54 X e+ ¿ −1 β
2.5.3. Gamma decay

6
During gamma radiation, proton=s and neutrons themselves to make the nucleus more stable and during this
rearrangement, energy is lost in the form of gamma ray. Therefore gamma decay does not exhibit transmutation
A A
That is z X Z X +γ

2.6. Stability and N/Z ratio

In a nucleus, some proportions of neutrons to protons are more stable than others. Therefore to compare the stability of
two or more nuclei, we use the neutron-proton (N/Z) ratio

- For very stable nuclei, N/Z = 1

- For those stable, the one whose N/Z ratio is closer to 1 is more stable than the other
Example:
1. Determine the N/Z ratio of the following and state whether they are stable or not
12 14 8 235
a) 6 C b) 6 C c) 4 Be d) 92 U
23 24
2. Consider Na 11 Na. Calculate their N/Z ratio and determine which of them is more stable
and 11
2.7. Half-life of radioactive sample and uses
- This is the time taken for the activity of a radioactive sample to fall to half the initial
value
- The half-life of a radioactive sample is denoted T 1 . Assuming that at the start or initially the
2

activity N
T 1of a sample
T 1 is ON T 1 No
2 No 2 o 2
No 4 8
2

Example: The activity of a radioactive sample is 100 Bq (Becquerel) and the half-life of this sample is 10
minutes. This activity disintegrate from100Bq to 12.5 Bq

i) How long does it take to disintegrate to 12.5 Bq

ii) How many half-lives are involved in this break down?
Solution
i) 100 10 mins 10 mins 10 mins
1 T 1 50 2 T 1 25 3 T 1 12.5 Therefore total time = 30 mins
2 2 2
ii) Number of half-lives = 3 i.e 3 T 1
2

In conclusion 3 T 1 =30 minutes. If n = number of half-lives and t = total time for a decay, then
2

t
n T 1 =t i .e T 1 =
2 2
n

- Unit of activity is Becquerel (Bq)

Uses of Half-life

- To determine the age of organic objects

- To calculate how long we must store radioactive waste until they become safe
- It enables doctors to use safe radioactive tracers

7
 QUESTIONS

1. Name a radioactive isotope which occurs naturally in living things

2. apha beta gamma
which of these three types of radiation
a) is a form of electromagnetic radiation
b) carries positive charge
c) is made up of electrons
d) travels at the speed of light
e) is the most ionizing
f) can penetrate a thick sheet of lead
g) is stopped by the skin
h) has the same properties as x-rays
i) is not deflected by electric or magnetic fields
3. What is the difference between the atoms of an isotope that is radioactive and the atoms of an isotope that is
not?
4. How is an ionized material different from one that is not ionized
5. The following equation represents the radioactive decay of Thorium -232. A, Z and X are unknown
232 A 4
Th → z X + 2α
90
a) What type of radiation is being emitted?
b) What are the values of A and Z?
c) What new element is formed by the decay process ( use the Periodic table to identify the element)
d) Rewrite the above equation, replacing A,Z and X with the numbers and symbols you have found.
e) What are the decay products?
6. When radioactive sodium-24 decays, magnesium -24 is formed. The following equation represents the decay
process, but the equation is incomplete
24 24
11 Na → Mg+ 12¿ ¿____

Assuming that only one charges particle is emitted:

a) What is the mass number of this particle?
b) What is the relative charge of this particle?
c) What type of particle is it?

LESSON 3: BACKGROUND RADIATION

3.1. Definition and sources of Background Radiation

 There is a small amount of radiation around us all the time because of radioactive materials in the environment.
This is called background radiation
 Background radiations are radiations coming from the environment that can be detected by instruments in the
absence of an obvious radioactive source
 Sources: soil, rocks, air, building materials, food and drinks, cosmic rays from outer space, industrial wastes,
radioactive carbon in plants

3.2. The use of background radiation in calculating count rate

3.2.1. Definitions

8
  Ratemete. This gives the reading in counts per second e,g if 50 alpha particles were detected by G.M tube every
second, then the ratemeter would read 50 counts per second ( 50 counts/second is called the activity of the
sample). Activity is the disintegration per second. 100Bq or counts per second means 100 disintegration is one
second
 A scaler. This counts the total number of particles detected by the tube
 An amplifier or loudspeaker. The loud speakers makes a “click” when each particle is detected
 When the radiation from radioactive source is measured, the readings always include any background radiation
present. So an average reading for background radiation alone must be found and subtracted from the total.
 Example: An experiment was carried out to measure the activity of radon-222, a radioactive isotope of radium.
When the instrument was switched on in the absence of radon-222 source and left unaltered the following
readings were obtained from the intervals of one minute

Counts/minutes: 26 25 30 17 27

Table I
When radon-222 was then placed into the instrument and switched on the readings were as follows:

Time/days 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Counts/ 225 197 171 146 126 115 90
minutes
From this information
Table II
i. What is the name given to Table I?
ii. Name four ( 4 ) sources from where they could be obtained
iii. Calculate the average value
iv. By using Table II obtain the corrected count rate

3.2.2. Using Radioactive decay curve to determine the half-life of a radioactive sampleA decay curve is a plot of the
activity of a radioactive sample against time. A typical decay curve for a radioactive sample is as shown on the graphs
below

9
  At the start ( or beginning) the count rate is A o but as time goes by, the count rate drops as the number of
undecayed nuclei decreases.
Ao
 The time for A o to drop to is called the half-life and can be calculated as will be demonstrated below
2
Example: In the absence of a known radioactive source, a ratemeter indicated an average reading of 25
counts/minute. The table below shows how the reading of the ratemeter varies with time in the presence of a
known radioactive substance.

Time / mins 0.0 2.0 4.2 8.6 12 18.4 22.0

Readings/counts/mins 985 725 475 225 145 65 45
Corrected counts rates 960

i. What name is given to the count rate 25 counts/ minutes?

ii. Name two possible sources
iii. Complete the table by calculating the corrected count. One example has been done for you
iv. Draw a graph of corrected counts rate on the Y-axis against time on the X-axis
v. Use the graph to determine the half-life of the radioactive sample

3.3. Environmental and health hazards caused by background radiation

 Exposure to high levels of radiation can cause skin burns

 Damage or destroy living cells and stops organs in the body working properly
 It can also upset the chemical instructions in cells so that they grow abnormally and cause cancer
10
 QUESTIONS
1. What, on average is the biggest single source of background radiation?
2. Radon gas seeps out of rocks underground. Why is it important to stop radon collecting in houses?
3. Which is the most dangerous type of radiation
a) From radioactive sources outside the body Lead block
b) From radio actives materials absorbed by the body G.M tube
4. In an experiment on the right:
a) What is the count rate due to background radiation?
b) What is the count rate due to the source alone? Radioactive source Rate meter
c) If the source emits one type of radiation only Count rate ( average) count per second
What type is it? Give a reason for your answer
With the source in place 28

With the source and block in place 18

With the source and block removed 2

To answer question 5 and 6, you will need the information from the table of half-lives
5. If sample of strontium -90 and radium-226 both had the same activity today, which would have the lower
activity in 10 years’ time?
6. If the activity of a sample of iodine -128 is 800 Bq, what would you expect the activity to be after
a) 25 minutes b) 50 minutes c) 100 minutes
7. The graph on the below shows how the activity of a small radioactive sample varied with time
a) Why are the points not on a smooth curve? Activity/80 Bq
b) Estimate the half-life of the sample
60

40

LESSON 4: RADIOISOTPES 20

4.1. Definition 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Time / hours
 Radioisotopes are the unstable forms of an element that emit radiations to become stable
 Radioisotopes ( or radionuclides) is also called radioactive isotopes.
 Examples are carbon-14, cobalt-60 etc.

4.2. Application of radiations released during radioactive decay.

4.2.1. In medicine

 Killing of cancerous cells (radiotherapy ). Here gamma radiation is used. The radioisotopes appropriate here are
cobalt-60 and caesium -137 ( very good gamma emitters)
 One other advantage of gamma used in this purpose is that it causes no significant ionisation which can
lead to damage of cells.
 Gamma is highly penetrating and can penetrate cells or can provide energy which can ionize cancerous
cells
 Checking the functioning of the thyroid glands

11
Here a patient drinks liquid containing iodine -123, a gamma emitter. Iodine is suitable in providing gamma in this case
because it has a very short half-life ( of about 8 days). The amount of radiation emitted gives an idea of the nature of the
thyroid

 Sterilizers: High-energy gamma radiation can kill bacteria and other microbes and so used to destroy germs in
medical equipments.The radioisotope suitable is cobalt -60

NB: Gamma sterilization is preferred to boiling because it does not expose delicate instruments to high temperatures.

4.2.2. In Industries
 Testing for cracks (or locate leakages in pipes)
 Gamma radiation is suitable here because it has a short wavelength.
 Cobalt-60 acts as a gamma source here
 Gamma emitting isotopes (tracers) are added to oil which moves with the tracers along the pipeline. If
there is a leak, there will be an unusual count rate closed to the crack.
 Gamma radiation is very penetrating and straight ( not deflected)
 Thickness monitoring
 In some production processes a steady thickness of material has to be maintained.
 If a cord or paper is too thin, more beta radiation reaches the detector. A beta radiation is most
appropriate because alpha radiation will not pass through the paper while paper has little intensity of
gamma radiation.
 A source with a long half-life like carbon-14 (half-life of 5730 years) is required so that it does not need
to be replaced very often.

4.2.3. In Agriculture

 Tracking the uptake of fertilizers by plants:

 This is done by adding tracers ( Radioisotopes) in small quantities
 Phosphorus -32 ( a beta emitter) is used
 Therefore by beta emitter, the radiations from inside the plant can be detected outside the plant

4.2.4. Carbon dating

 This is used by archeologists to determine the age of ancient substances.

 Carbon is present in the atmosphere ( in carbon dioxide) and in bodies of animals and plants. A small amount of
radioactive carbon-14 is present.
 While plants and animals are living, feeding and breathing, they absorb and give out carbon, so the proportion of
carbon-14 in their bodies stays constant. But when they die, no carbon is taken in and carbon-14 proportion
gradually reduced by radioactive decay.
 By measuring the activity of a sample, the age of the remains can be estimated
 It can be used to find the age of organic materials such as wood and cloth. However it assumes that the proportion
of carbon -14 in the atmosphere was the same hundreds or thousand of years ago as it is today

4.2.5. Dating rocks (uranium dating)

 When rocks are formed, some radioisotopes become trapped in them e.g potassium-40 is trapped when
molten materials cools to form igneous rocks. As potassium -40 decays, more and more stable of its
components like argon-40 is created.

12
  Provided none of the argon gas escaped, the age of the rock can be estimated from the proportion of
potassium-40 to argon-40.
 Igneous rocks can also be dated by the proportion of Uranium to lead isotope. Lead being the final stable
product of a series of decays that start with Uranium.

4.3. Effects of ionizing Radiations on Humans

 Ionizing radiation is a type of energy released by atoms that travels in the form of electromagnetic waves
( gamma or X-rays) or particles ( neutrons, beta or alpha)
 Exposure to ionizing radiation maybe external or internal
 Internally, could be through inhaling, ingested or enters in blood streams ( e.g by injection or
through wounds)
 Externally through airborne radioactive materials ( such as dust, liquids or aerosols) is deposited
on skin or cloths. This can be removed from skin by simply washing
 This can be eliminated from the body either spontaneously ( such as through excreta) or as a
result of treatment
 People can be exposed to ionizing radiation under different circumstances: at home or public places
( public exposure, their work places, in medical settings ( as patients, caregivers and volunteers) )
These effects could include:
 Damage of body tissues which can lead to sterility or birth defects
 Gene mutation
 Blood cancer or leukemia
 Skin burns
 Growth of tumours
 Cataract or blurred vision due to the destruction of the eye lens

QUESTIONS
1.
a) What are radioisotopes?
b) How are artificial radioisotopes produced?
c) Give two medical uses of radioisotopes.
2. Give two uses of gamma radiation
3. In a thickness monitoring system of a tyre
a) Why is beta source used, rather than an alpha or gamma source?
b) What is the effect on the detector if the thickness of the tyre cord increases
4.
a) Give two uses of radioactive tracers
b) Why is it important to use radioactive tracers with short hslf-lives?
5. Carbon-14 is a radioactive isotope of carbon.
a) What happens to the proportion of csrbon-14 in the body of a plant or animal while it is alive?
b) Why does the proportion of carbon-14 in the remains of dead plants and animals give clues about their age?

LESSON 5: NUCLEAR ENERGY

5.1. Definitions
 Fission: splitting of unstable nucleus into smaller fragments
 Fusion: joining together of light nuclei to make a heavier one
 During fission, a fast moving particle like a neutron is used to bombard the large nucleus to split it to smaller
nuclides.
13
 56 Ba + 36 Kr +3 ( 0n )
1 235
e.g 0n+ 92 U → 141 92 1

 In this process, an enormous amount of energy is released. If the neutron penetrates other Uranium-235
nuclide in the sample, a chain reaction can be generated.
 Example of nuclear fusion include
2 2 3 1
1 H + 1 H → 1 H + 0n

5.2. Differences between Fission and Fusion

Fusion Fission
- More energy is produced - Less energy produced 5.3. The
- High temperature required - Less temperature required
- Deals with joining smaller nuclei to - Splitting of larger nuclei to form
form larger ones smaller ones
- Used to produce power since the - Use in power reactors since it can be
reaction is not easily controlled controlled
- More expensive - Less expensive to create
- Require high pressure - Less pressure
- Not a chain reaction - A chain reaction
origin of energy released during nuclear decay.
When α ∨β particles are emitted by a radioactive isotope they collide with surrounding atom and make them
move faster i.e. temperature rises as nuclear energy is transformed to thermal energy ( heat).
 In radioactive decay, the energy released per atom is around a million times greater than from chemical changes
such as burning
 Protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom possess nuclear potential energy which is often referred to as nuclear
energy. During radioactivity, the protons and neutrons place themselves in a more stable arrangement thereby losing
nuclear energy to emitted particles.
 According to Albert Einstein (1905),energy itself has mass. If an object gains energy, its mass increases. If it loses
energy, its mass decreases. The mass change ( in kg ) is linked to the energy change E ( in joules ) by his equation
2
E=m c
Where c is the speed of light (3.0 x 108 m/s). The equation is called the equation of mass defect
 However, in nuclear reactions the energy changes per atom are much and produce detectable mass changes
 The mass of parent nucleus is always more than the total mass of decay products. This loss is converted into energy
using the equation above.

QUESTIONS
1. What is meant by
a) Fission b) fusion
2. Given the data below
−27
Mass of neutron 1.675 x 10 kg
−27
Uranium-235 nucleus 390.250 x 10 kg
14
−27
Barium -141 nucleus 233.964 x 10 kg
−27
Krypton – 92 nucleus 152.628 x 10 kg
a) Using the data above, calculate the total mass of Uranium and neutron.
b) Calculate the total mass of the barium and krypton nuclei and three neutrons
c) Use E=m c2 to calculate the energy released per decay by fission process.

LESSON 6: SAFETY AND HAZARDS

15