Chapter 22
Atoms and Radioactivity
Structure of Atom: Introduction to electrons, protons and Neutrons
An atom is basically comprised of three types of particles: electrons, protons,
and neutrons.
Protons are positively charged particles, while neutrons are charge neutral. All
the protons and neutrons of an atom reside in a very tiny central area of the
atom, called the nucleus. The mass of these two particles is almost the same.
Electrons are tiny particles having negative charge revolve around the nucleus
in circular orbits called shell. The amount of charge in a proton and an electron
are the same in value, but opposite in sign.
The following table shows a comparison among those three particles:
Actual
Atomic Actual mass Relative Relative
charge
particle (kg) mass charge
(C)
Electron 9.11 × 10−31 1 −1.6 × 10−19 −1
−27 −19
Proton 1.673 × 10 2000 +1.6 × 10 +1
Neutron 1.675 × 10−27 2000 0 0
Atomic number (z): The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom.
It is unique for each atom and indicates the serial number of an element in the
periodic table.
Atomic mass/Mass number (A): The total number of neutrons and protons in
the nucleus of an atom.
The number of neutrons can be calculated as
𝒏= 𝑨−𝒛
Atomic notation
The generalised atomic notation is as follows:
𝐴
𝑧𝑋
where 𝐴 = atomic mass
𝑧 = atomic number
For example, 126C has atomic number of 6 and mass number of 12. It has
(12 − 6) − 6 neutrons.
Isotope: An isotope is a variant of a chemical element that has the same
number of protons but a different number of neutrons in its nucleus.
This means isotopes of the same element have the same atomic number but
different mass numbers.
For example, Carbon has three isotopes in nature:
12 13 14
6𝐶 , 6𝐶 and 6𝐶 .
Stability of Isotope
The stability of an isotope depends on the ratio of its neutrons to protons. If the
nucleus has a balanced neutrons to protons ratio, it will stay stable and so will
not disintegrate or decay.
On the other hand, if a nucleus has either excess neutrons or excess protons,
it will become unstable and so will decay.
1. Excess Neutrons (Neutron-Rich Isotopes)
When an isotope has too many neutrons compared to protons:
The strong nuclear force is unable to bind all nucleons effectively.
The isotope becomes unstable and undergoes beta decay (β⁻ decay)
to convert a neutron into a proton.
This process emits an electron (β⁻ particle) and an antineutrino to
balance charge and energy.
2. Excess Protons (Proton-Rich Isotopes)
When an isotope has too many protons compared to neutrons:
Electrostatic repulsion between protons becomes too strong, reducing
nuclear stability.
The isotope undergoes beta-plus decay (β⁺ decay) or electron capture
to convert a proton into a neutron.
Beta-plus decay (Positron Emission) emits a positron (β⁺) and a
neutrino.
Electron Capture occurs when an inner electron is absorbed by the
nucleus, turning a proton into a neutron.
The following table shows a comparison between those two causes of nuclear
instability.
Cause Effect on Stability Decay Mode Example
Excess Nucleus too heavy, Carbon-
Beta-minus (β⁻) decay
Neutrons unstable 14
Excess Electrostatic repulsion Beta-plus (β⁺) decay or Fluorine-
Protons increases instability Electron Capture 18
Radioactivity: Radioactivity is the process by which unstable atomic nuclei
decay and emit radiation. This radiation can be in the form of alpha, beta, or
gamma rays. The decay happens randomly and spontaneously.
Properties of alpha particles
Consists of 2 protons and 2 neutrons (Helium nucleus).
Positively charged (+2).
Large mass (4 atomic mass units, amu).
Weak penetration: stopped by a few centimetres of air or a sheet of
paper.
Strongly ionising: can easily remove electrons from atoms.
Affected by electric and magnetic fields (deflected due to charge).
Properties of beta particles
High-speed electron (beta-minus) or positron (beta-plus).
Charge: -1 for beta-minus, +1 for beta-plus.
Small mass (~1/1836 amu, much smaller than alpha particles).
Moderate penetration: stopped by a few millimetres of aluminium.
Less ionising than alpha radiation.
Deflected in opposite direction to alpha particles in electric and
magnetic fields.
Properties of gamma radiation
Electromagnetic waves with very short wavelengths.
No charge and no mass.
Very high penetration requires several centimetres of lead or thick
concrete to stop it.
Weakly ionising (less likely to remove electrons from atoms).
Not affected by electric or magnetic fields.
Often emitted alongside alpha or beta decay to release excess
energy.
Radioactive decay equations
Alpha decay
In alpha decay, an unstable nucleus emits an alpha particle (2 protons and 2
neutrons).
General equation:
𝐴
𝑧𝑋 → 42He + 𝐴−4
𝑧−2𝑌 + energy
Example:
222
88Ra → 42He + 218
86𝑌 + energy
Beta decay
In beta-minus decay, a neutron turns into a proton, emitting an electron and an
antineutrino.
General equation:
0
𝐴
𝑧𝑋 → −1e + 𝑧+1𝐴𝑌 + energy
Example:
14 0
6C → −1e + 147N + energy
Gamma decay
Gamma decay occurs when an excited nucleus releases excess energy as a
gamma photon.
The atomic number and atomic mass do not change in this process.
General equation:
𝐴 ∗
𝑧𝑋 → 𝐴𝑧X + 𝛾
Here, the * sign indicates the excited state of the nucleus.
Example:
60 ∗ 60
27𝑋 → 27X +𝛾
Neutron decay
By this process, the element turns into one of its isotopes having lower
neutron number .
General equation:
𝐴 1 𝐴−1
𝑧𝑋 → 0n + 𝑧𝑌
Example:
5
2He → 10n + 42He
