INSTRUMENTATION & MEASUREMENT I

ELE 372

Chinazom Obiora-Okeke
Electrical Engineering Department
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 INTRODUCTION
Instrumentation comprises the scientific work and technologies that are associated with measurement.pg 1
It provides a link between physical, chemical and biological phenomena and how we notice these
phenomena.
Historically, humans have always employed the use of instrumentation. The 3rd century BC, Greek
mathematician Euclid (renowned for his geometric theorems) invented the gnomon (needle of the
sundial) to measure the earth’s radius, by simultaneously observing the shadow cast by the instrument on
two parallel points.
Presently, instrumentation has evolved playing an important role in our daily life, as well as, in scientific
and industrial operations. For instance, instrumentation is the cornerstone of experimental validation,
which is a requirement for a theory to be credible. Also, notwithstanding the sophistication of an
automatic control system, if the quality and accuracy of the measured raw data, which serves as feedback
into the automatic control system, is not accounted for in the design, it will not achieve its full potential.
Hence the need for instrumentation.
This course will explore instrumentation and measurement by considering transducers, single sources
and digital instrumentation and their applications.
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Electrical Engineering Department
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 TRANSDUCERS
The main goal of a control system is to control the output variable, which is a physical pg 2
parameter such as temperature, pressure, level, flow rate, force etc. A control input is required
for the output variable to achieve the set point/reference/desired value or to maintain the set
point value in the presence of internal and external disturbances.
Figure 1.0 below shows the general arrangement of control system. It comprises the process or
plant, controller and transducer.

Fig. 1.0: A Closed Loop Control System

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TRANSDUCERS
pg 3
Most controllers are electronic. However, the controlled variable or output is a
physical quantity (temperature, level, current, etc.) or derived quantity (pressure,
speed etc.). Therefore, a device is needed in the feedback path to measure the
controlled variable and produce a proportional electrical signal. Hence, the need
for transducers.

Chinazom Obiora-Okeke
Electrical Engineering Department
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 DEFINITION
A transducer is a device that converts energy from one form to another. It converts the energy pg 4
associated with a physical/derived quantity, the measurand, into a usable output signal for
measurement, such that a change in the physical/derived quantity or measurand produces a
proportional change in the output signal of the transducer. In addition, the energy conversion
process of the transducer is called transduction.

CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS

There are different classifications for transducers. Based on power requirement for
transduction, they are classified as self-generating (active) and non-self-generating
transducers (passive). Self-generating transducers (thermocouple etc.) do not require an
external energy source for transduction, whilst and non-self-generating transducers (strain
gauge etc.) require an external energy source.

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Electrical Engineering Department
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 Input Signal Output Signal
Mechanical Thermal Electrical Magnetic Radiation Chemical
Mechanical (Fluid) Friction effects Piezoelectricity. Magneto-mechanical Photo-elastic
Mechanical e.g friction Piezoresistivity. effects. systems. Sagnac pg 5
effects e.g calorimeter. Piezomagnetic effect. Interferometer.
diaphragm Cooling effects effects.
e.g thermal flow
meter
Thermal Thermal Thermo- Thermo-optical Reaction
expansion e.g resistance. effects activation
Liquid in glass Pyroelectricity.
thermometer Seebeck effect
e.g
thermocouple
Electrical Piezoelectricity. Peltier effect Charge Biot-Savart's law Elect-optical effects. Electrolysis
Ampere's law collectors Electroluminescence
Magnetic Magneto- Thermomagnetic Hall effect Magneto-optical
mechanical effect effects
effects e.g
magnetometer
Radiation Bolometer Photo-electric Photo-
effects synthesis
Chemical Hygrometer Calorimeter Amperometry Emission &
absorption
spectroscopy
Chinazom Obiora-Okeke Table 1: Classification of Transducers Based on Transduction Principle
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 Basic Requirements of a Transducer
The main objective of a transducer is to respond only for the measurements for which it has pg 6
been designed for under specified limits. It is, therefore, necessary to know the relationship
between the input and output quantities, which should be fixed. A transducer should have the
following basic requirements:
• Linearity: Its input versus output characteristics should be linear, and it should produce
these characteristics in balanced way.
• Ruggedness: A transducer should be capable of withstanding overload and some safety
arrangements must be provided for overload protection.
• Repeatability: The device should reproduce the same output signal when the same input
signal is applied again and again under unchanged environmental conditions. For instance,
temperature, pressure, humidity, etc.

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 Basic Requirements of a Transducer
pg 7
• High Reliability and Stability: The transducer should give minimum error in
measurements for temperature variations, vibrations and other various changes in the
surroundings.
• High Output Signal Quality: The quality of output signal should be good. This means the
ratio of the signal to the noise should be high and the amplitude of the output signal should
be enough.
• No Hysteresis: It should not give any hysteresis during measurement, whilst input signal
is varied from its low value to high value and vice versa.
• Residual Deformation: There should be no deformation on removal of input signal after
long period of use.

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 RESISTANCE CHANGE TRANSDUCERS
pg 8
Resistance change transducers exploit the relationship between variation in the measurand or
phenomenon with variation in the resistance of a conductor or semiconductor. The resistance
thermometer, thermistor and photoresistor will be considered in this course.
Resistance Thermometer
The resistance R of a conductor varies with temperature T. This characteristic for most metals is
expressed in equation 1 below.
R = Rref [1+α1T+α2T2…+…αnTn] ………………………….…………………………..…....equ(1)
where Rref is the resistance at reference temperature T = 0 and α1,α2 and αn are constants.
The conductor material used in a resistance thermometer is required to:
• Possess a large change in resistance per unit temperature change.
• Have a continuous and stable relationship between its resistance and temperature.
Table 2 below shows metals that are commonly used and their important characteristics.
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 RESISTANCE CHANGE TRANSDUCERS
pg 9

Metal Resistance Temperature Temperature Melting Point ⁰C

Coefficient ⁰C (Percent) Range ⁰C
Max. Min.
Platinum 0.39 -260 1100 1773
Copper 0.39 0 180 1083
Nickel 0.62 -220 300 1455
Tungsten 0.43 -200 1000 3370
Table 2: Metal Used for Resistance Thermometers

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 RESISTANCE CHANGE TRANSDUCERS
pg 10
A Plot of Resistance against Temperature
9

7
6.8

Resistance R(Ω)
6.2
6
5.5
5
4.8
4.3
4

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Fig. 2.0: An Industrial Platinum Resistance Temperature θ ⁰C
Thermometer Fig. 2.1: Resistance/Temperature Curve

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 RESISTANCE CHANGE TRANSDUCERS
pg 11
Linear Approximation

Linear approximation refers to the development of a straight line, which approximates the curve of
a function (the resistance/temperature curve in this case) over a defined span. In figure 2.1, a
straight line has been drawn between temperature points θ1 and θ2 with θref representing the
midpoint temperature. The equation below represents the linear approximation of the resistance
versus temperature curve over the span θ1 and θ2.

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 RESISTANCE CHANGE TRANSDUCERS
pg 12
Linear Approximation
Rθ = 𝑅θref *[1+𝛼θref ∆θ] for θ1 <θref <θ2…………………….……………………………..….eqn (2)
Where Rθ = approximate resistance at any temperature θ0;
𝑅θref = approximate resistance at reference temperature θ0 𝑟𝑒𝑓 ;
∆θ = θ2 – θ1 = change in temperature;
𝛼θref = Resistance temperature coefficient at θ0 𝑟𝑒𝑓 ;
Note: 𝛼θref is employed as the fractional slope of the resistance versus temperature curve, in order
to use the same constant for conductors of the same material with different dimensions.
In general, the resistance temperature coefficient is given below in equation 3.
1 1 𝑅θ 2 − 𝑅θ 1
𝛼θref = *(Slope at θ0 𝑟𝑒𝑓 ) = ....................................................................eqn (3)
𝑅θref 𝑅θref θ2 − θ1

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 RESISTANCE CHANGE TRANSDUCERS
pg 13
Linear Approximation
Example 2: A platinum resistance thermometer has resistance of 100Ω at 250C. Find its resistance
at 650C? The resistance temperature coefficient of Platinum is 0.00392Ω/Ω-0C.

Solution:
Applying the linear approximation Rθ = 𝑅θref *[1+𝛼θref ∆θ]. The value of resistance at 650C:
R65 = 100[1+0.00392(65 - 25)],
R65 = 115.68Ω

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 RESISTANCE CHANGE TRANSDUCERS
Example 3: A temperature alarm unit with a time constant of 120 seconds is subjected to a pg 14
sudden rise in temperature of 500C, because of a fire. If an increase of 300C is required to
actuate the alarm, what will be the delay in signaling the sudden temperature increase?
Solution:
The thermometer of the temperature alarm unit is a first order system and the step input
temperature rise, θin, into thermometer is 500C. The indicated temperature variation to
actuate the alarm, θout = 300C, which is the step response of this first order system is given
below in equation (4). The question seeks the time the thermometer takes to respond to the
temperature change, considering its time constant of 120 seconds.
θout = θin 1 − 𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏 …………………………………………….….……………..…….equ.(4)
−𝑡
30 = 50 1 − 𝑒 −𝑡/120 = 𝑙𝑛 0.4
120
t =110 seconds. Therefore, the alarm will be delayed by 110 seconds.
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 RESISTANCE CHANGE TRANSDUCERS
Thermistors pg 15
Thermistors are coined from the term thermal resistors. They are semiconductors made from
metallic oxides of manganese, cobalt, uranium, chromium, nickel, iron and copper. They
exhibit non-linear characteristics. The resistance/temperature characteristics of most
thermistors are inversely proportional. Thus, these thermistors have high negative
temperature coefficient of resistance. However, a few heavily doped thermistors with
positive temperature coefficient of resistance are available at a higher cost.
Furthermore, thermistors are widely employed in the measurement and control of
temperature, measurement of thermal conductivity of a medium, and in providing time delay
between the range of -600C to 150C.

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 RESISTANCE CHANGE TRANSDUCERS
Thermistors
pg 16
The mathematical expression for the relationship between the resistance of a thermistor and its
absolute temperature is given below.
1 1
𝑅𝑇1 = 𝑅𝑇2 exp. 𝛽 − …………………………………………………………………equ (5)
𝑇1 𝑇2

Where 𝑅𝑇1 is the resistance of the thermometer at absolute temperature T1; K

𝑅𝑇2 is the resistance of the thermometer at absolute temperature T2; K
and β is a constant which depends on the nature of the thermistor material.
Given the non-linearity of the thermistor, the linear approximation from equ.(2) is employed over a
short temperature span. In addition, the logarithmic relation for the resistance/temperature
characteristics of the thermistor is presented below.
RT = a*R0*𝑒 𝑏/𝑇 ………………………………………………………………………….……equ (6)
Where R0 is the resistance at ice point (00C), 273K; RT is the resistance at absolute temperature T,
and a and b are constants.
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 RESISTANCE CHANGE TRANSDUCERS
Thermistors
pg 17
Commercially available thermistors are in the form of beads, discs and rods as shown in figures 3.1
to 3.3 below.

Figure 3.1: Bead Thermistor Figure 3.2: Disc Thermistor Figure 3.3: Rod Thermistor

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 RESISTANCE CHANGE TRANSDUCERS
Thermistors
pg 18
Example 4: A thermistor has a resistance of 3980Ω at the ice point (00C) and 794Ω at 500C.
(1) Using the resistance/temperature relation, RT = a*R0*𝑒 𝑏/𝑇 , calculate the constants a and b?
0 0
(2) Calculate the range of resistance to be measured in case the temperature varies from 40 C to 100 C?

Solution
(1) The resistance at ice point R0 = 3980Ω
Absolute temperature at ice point (00C) = 273K
⸫ 3980 = a*3980*𝑒 𝑏/273 → 1= a*𝑒 𝑏/273 ……………………………………………………..equ.(7)
The resistance at 500C, RT = 794Ω.
Absolute temperature corresponding to 500C: T = 273+500C = 323K.
⸫ 794 = a*3980*𝑒 𝑏/323 ………………...……………………………………………………..equ.(8)
Solving equations (7) and (8),
a = 30*10−6 and b = 2845.
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RESISTANCE CHANGE TRANSDUCERS
pg 19
PHOTORESISTORS
A photoresistor also known as photoconductive cell is a semiconductor device, whose resistance varies
inversely with the intensity of light which falls upon it. This principle is called photo-resistivity. In
addition, the resistance of a semiconductor depends on the number of free charge carriers available in it.
When the semiconductor is not illuminated, the number of charge carriers is small and, hence, resistivity
is high. But when light in the form of photons strikes the semiconductor, each photon delivers energy to
it. If the photon energy is greater than the energy band gap of the semiconductor, free mobile charge
carriers are liberated and, as a result, resistivity of the semiconductor is decreased

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RESISTANCE CHANGE TRANSDUCERS
pg 20
Photoresistors
Photoresistors are generally made of cadmium compounds such as cadmium sulphide (CdS) and
cadmium selenide (CdSe). The two alternative circuit symbols of a photoresistor are shown in Fig. 4.1
and 4.2 respectively. Also, the resistance versus illumination characteristics, which depicts how the
resistance of the photoresistor varies with light intensity is presented in Fig. 4.3. Typically, the dark
resistance of the photoresistor is 1 MΩ or larger. Under illumination, the resistance of the photoresistor
drops in a value between 1 and 100 kΩ depending a surface illumination. A photoresistor is an expensive
and simple detector which is widely used in OFF/ON circuits, light-measurement and light-detecting
circuits

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RESISTANCE CHANGE TRANSDUCERS
pg 21
Photoresistors

Fig 4.1: Photoresistor Circuit Fig 4.2: Photoresistor Circuit Fig 4.3: Resistance/illumination
Symbol Symbol Characteristics of a Photoresistor

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RESISTANCE CHANGE TRANSDUCERS
pg 22
Photoresistors
Example 5: A relay is controlled by a photoresistor, which has resistance of 1kΩ when illuminated and
100kΩ when it is dark. The relay is supplied with 10mA from a 30V supply, when photoresistor is
illuminated and it is required to be de-energized when the photoresistor is in the dark. Sketch a suitable
circuit and calculate the required series resistance and value of dark current?
Solution
The circuit is shown in figure 4.4 and it depicts R and r as the current limiting resistor and photoresistor
resistance respectively.

Chinazom Obiora-Okeke
Electrical Engineering Department Fig. 4.4: A Relay Circuit Controlled by a Photoresistor
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RESISTANCE CHANGE TRANSDUCERS
pg 23
Photoresistors
Solution
V
The current through the circuit I = ……………………………………………………………..(7)
R+r

Rearranging equ.(7),

V
R= -r
I

V 30
When illuminated, R = -r= - 1 ∗ 103 = 2kΩ
I 10∗10−3

30
The dark current Id = = 0.3mA
(2∗103 )+(100∗103 )

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SIGNAL GENRATORS
pg 24
THE TANK CIRCUIT
This is an oscillatory circuit, which produces electrical oscillations of any desired frequency and it
consists of a parallel combination of capacitor and inductor.
Operation of Tank Circuit
Consider the capacitor is already charged from a DC source with the polarity shown in figure 5.1
below.

Fig. 5.1: Charging of the Capacitor

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SIGNAL GENRATORS
THE TANK CIRCUIT pg 25

Operation of Tank Circuit

The upper plate is a positive terminal with respect to lower plate. It means there is a voltage across
the capacitor and it has electrostatic energy.
When the switch SW is closed, the capacitor will start to discharge the stored energy through the
inductor. The current flow is indicated in figure 5.2 below.
• Due to the nature of inductor, it will not instantly allow the entire current.

Fig. 5.2: Discharging of the Capacitor through the Inductor

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SIGNAL GENRATORS
pg 26
THE TANK CIRCUIT

Operation of Tank Circuit

• The current will build up slowly towards maximum value.

• This current flow creates the magnetic field around the coil.( ie developing electromagnetic field).

• Eventually the electrostatic energy stored across the capacitor is converted into electromagnetic
energy around the inductor.

Once the capacitor is fully discharged, the inductor’s magnetic field will start to collapse and
produce counter emf. In line with lenz’s law, the counter emf will keep the current flowing in the
same direction as shown in the below figure 5.3.
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SIGNAL GENRATORS
THE TANK CIRCUIT
pg 27
Operation of Tank Circuit

Fig. 5.3: Recharging of the Capacitor in Opposite Direction

So the capacitor will get charged in opposite polarity. Once the collapsing magnetic field has
recharged the capacitor, the capacitor starts to discharge. This time the current will flow in opposite
direction as shown in the below figure 5.4. The sequence of charging and discharging creates the
alternating motion of electrons or an oscillating current. The energy is alternately stored in
electrostatic field of capacitor and the electromagnetic field of the inductor.

Chinazom Obiora-Okeke
Fig. 5.4: Discharging of the Capacitor in Opposite Direction
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SIGNAL GENRATORS
THE TANK CIRCUIT pg 28
Operation of Tank Circuit
• We know that there is a resistive loss in inductor and dielectric loss in capacitor.
• During each cycle, a small part of energy is wasted in these losses.
• So gradually the magnitude of oscillating current will decrease and eventually it becomes zero
(i.e the tank circuit will produce damped oscillations).
• But for practical applications, we want continuous undamped oscillations.
• To get the continuous undamped oscillations from the tank circuit, we have to supply proper
amount of energy at proper intervals to the tank circuit to nullify the losses.
The frequency of oscillations in the tank circuit is decided by the values of C and L and it is given by
1
f= .Therefore, If C has large value, it takes more time to charge and discharge. Similarly, a
2𝜋√𝐿𝐶
high value of L has greater opposition to change in current flow and it leads to more time to
complete each cycle.
Chinazom Obiora-Okeke
Electrical Engineering Department
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