“Learn about

Transducer:
Session outcome •
• strain gauges,
displacement sensor,
• temperature sensors”

2
Electrical & Electronics System EE1002
 Assignment
quiz
mid term examination –II Assessment criteria’S
END TERM
EXAMINATION

Electrical & Electronics System EE1002 3

 PROGRAM
OUTCOMES
MAPPING WITH
CO1

[PO1]
Engineering Knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics,
science, engineering fundamentals, and an engineering
specialization to the solution of complex engineering problems.

Electrical & Electronics System EE1002 4

Topic: Transducers

Lecture No. 42-43

Electrical & Electronics System EE1002 5

Introduction to Sensors and
Transducers
• Measurement is an important subsystem in any major system, whether it may be a mechanical
system or an electronic system. A measurement system consists of sensors, actuators,
transducers and signal processing devices.
• A sensor converts a physical event into an electrical signal, whereas an actuator converts
electrical signal into a physical event. When sensors are used at input of a system, actuators are
used to perform output function in a system as they control an external device.
• Transducers are the devices that convert energy in one form into another form. Generally the
energy is in the form of a signal. Transducer is a term collectively used for both sensors and
actuators.

sensor intelligent
real
feedback
world
actuator system
Thermal sensors
• Thermal sensors are everywhere: in our kettles,
refrigerators, microwaves, and water heaters.
Throughout the COVID-19 pandemic, non-contact
thermal sensors have been used to check temperatures.
• Thermal sensors are also present in medical systems,
food processors, boilers, and petrochemical systems.
The Role of Thermal Sensors

• Most electronic components are rated to operate under

a range of temperatures. However, an electronic
component’s performance can get derated with an
increase in temperature from a specified ambient. When
the temperature crosses the allowable maximum limit,
the component gets damaged due to heating or thermal
runaway. Because of this, thermal characteristics play a
significant role in the component selection of electronic
circuits. In automotive, industrial, and consumer
electronic applications, performance and reliability are
maintained with the help of thermal sensors.
 Thermocoup
les
• A thermocouple is a non-linear thermal
sensor. The sensitivity and temperature
ranges of the thermocouple vary with the
types of metals bound together. The
accuracy of thermocouples is very low, but
they offer a broad range of operation, from -
200℃ to 1750 ℃.
• Thermocouples are the most commonly-used
thermal sensors in industrial, automotive,
and consumer applications. They work on
the principle of the Seebeck effect—the
phenomenon in which the temperature
difference between two dissimilar metal
wires produces a voltage difference. The
voltage difference is proportional to the
temperature change. A look-up table is used
to convert the voltage difference to
temperature measurements.
Resistance Temperature
Detectors (RTD)
• A Resistance Temperature Detector (also known as a
Resistance Thermometer or RTD) is an electronic device
used to determine the temperature by measuring the
resistance of an electrical wire. This wire is referred to as a
temperature sensor. If we want to measure temperature with
high accuracy, an RTD is the ideal solution, as it has good
linear characteristics over a wide range of temperatures.
• The variation of resistance of the metal with the variation of
the temperature is given as, Where, Rt and R0 are the
resistance values at toC and t0oC temperatures. α and β are
the constants depends on the metals.
Rt = R0[1+α(t-t0)+β(t-t0)2+….]
This expression is for huge range of temperature. For
small range of temperature, the expression can be ,

• Rt = R0[1+α(t-t0)]

In RTD devices; Copper, Nickel and Platinum are

widely used metals. These three metals are having
different resistance variations with respective to
the temperature variations. That is called
resistance-temperature characteristics.
Thermistors
Like RTDs, thermistors also make use of resistance in temperature
measurements. Thermistors use polymer or ceramic materials instead
of platinum and copper, which make them cheaper, but less accurate,
than RTDs. There are two types of thermistors:
Negative temperature coefficient (NTC) thermistors - In this type of
thermistor, the change in resistance is inversely proportional to the
temperature variation.
Positive temperature coefficient (PTC) thermistors - In this type of
thermistor, the change in resistance is directly proportional to the
temperature variation.
The basic requirements of a sensor:
1. Range: It indicates the limits of the input in which it can vary. In case of temperature measurement, a thermocouple can have a range
of 25 – 250 0C.
2. Accuracy: It is the degree of exactness between actual measurement and true value. Accuracy is expressed as percentage of full
range output.
3. Sensitivity: Sensitivity is a relationship between input physical signal and output electrical signal. It is the ratio of change in output
of the sensor to unit change in input value that causes change in output.
4. Stability: It is the ability of the sensor to produce the same output for constant input over a period of time.
5. Repeatability: It is the ability of the sensor to produce same output for different applications with same input value.
6. Response Time: It is the speed of change in output on a stepwise change in input.
7. Linearity: It is specified in terms of percentage of nonlinearity. Nonlinearity is an indication of deviation of curve of actual
measurement from the curve of ideal measurement.
8. Ruggedness: It is a measure of the durability when the sensor is used under extreme operating conditions.
9. Hysteresis: The hysteresis is defined as the maximum difference in output at any measurable value within the sensor’s specified
range when approaching the point first with increasing and then with decreasing the input parameter. Hysteresis is a characteristic
that a transducer has in being unable to repeat its functionality faithfully when used in the opposite direction of operation.
• The core causes the magnetic field generated by the primary winding to
be coupled to the secondaries. When the core is centered perfectly
between both secondaries and the primary, as shown, the voltage induced
in each secondary is equal in amplitude and 180 deg out of phase. Thus
the LVDT output (for the series-opposed connection shown in this case) is
zero because the voltages cancel each other.
• Displacing the core to the left causes the first secondary to be more
strongly coupled to the primary than the second secondary. The resulting
higher voltage of the first secondary in relation to the second secondary
causes an output voltage that is in phase with the primary voltage.
• Likewise, displacing the core to the right causes the second secondary to
be more strongly coupled to the primary than the first secondary. The
greater voltage of the second secondary causes an output voltage to be
out of phase with the primary voltage.
• Static Pressure
• Pressure can be defined as force per unit area that a
fluid exerts on its surroundings. The basic physics of
static Pressure (P), is calculated as force (F) divided by
area (A).
• P=F/A
• The Force can be generated by liquids, gases, vapours
or solid bodies.
• Working Principle of a Pressure Transducer
• Pressure transducers have a sensing element of constant
area and respond to force applied to this area by fluid
pressure. The force applied will deflect the diaphragm
inside the pressure transducer. The deflection of the
internal diaphragm is measured and converted into an
electrical output. This allows the pressure to be monitored
by microprocessors, programmable controllers and
computers along with similar electronic instruments.
• Most Pressure transducers are designed to produce linear
output with applied pressure.
Strain Gauge Sensors or Piezoresistive sensors

Strain Gauge Working Principle:

Piezoresistive means “pressure-sensitive resistance,” or a

resistance that changes value with applied pressure. The
strain gauge is a classic example of a piezoresistive
element, a typical strain gauge element shown here on
the tip of my finger:
In order to be practical, a strain gauge must be glued
(bonded) on to a larger specimen capable of
withstanding an applied force (stress):
• As the test specimen is stretched or compressed by the
application of force, the conductors of the strain gauge
are similarly deformed. Electrical resistance of any
conductor is proportional to the ratio of length over
cross-sectional area (R ∝ { l / A } ), which means that
tensile deformation (stretching) will increase electrical
resistance by simultaneously increasing length and
decreasing cross-sectional area while compressive
deformation (squishing) will decrease electrical
resistance by simultaneously decreasing length and
increasing cross-sectional area.
• As the diaphragm bows outward with applied fluid
pressure, the strain gauge stretches to a greater length,
causing its resistance to increase. This change in
resistance imbalances the bridge circuit, causing a
voltage (Vout) proportional to the amount of applied
pressure. Thus, the strain gauge works to convert an
applied pressure into a measurable voltage signal which
may be amplified and converted into a 4-20 mA loop
current signal (or into a digital “fieldbus” signal).
Pressure Sensor Circuit
• One capacitor is charged positive with respect to ground, while
the other is charged negative with respect to ground, as the AC
voltage source alternates positive and negative. While one
capacitor of the pressure sensor is charging, the other is
discharging through Rload, producing an output voltage (Vout).
• If both capacitances are equal, the output voltage will alternate
equally between positive and negative values, having a DC
average value of zero. If one capacitance is larger than the other,
it will store additional charge on its plates, causing it to sway the
output voltage of the Twin-T circuit in the direction of its polarity.
Thus, Vout becomes more positive as pressure increases on one
side of the sensor, and more negative as pressure increases on
the other side of the sensor.