I.

​ Eukaryotic Cell

CELL THEORY
→ Cells are held to be the basic units of all living organisms
→ First proposed by German Scientists…
●​ Theodor Schwann — Proposed the Classical Cell Theory in 1839
●​ Matthias Jakob Schleiden
​ ​ (In 1838)
​ → (1665) Robert Hooke = Micrographia, where Hooke discovered cells in organisms while
​ looking at a cork through the microscope.

​ CLASSICAL CELL THEORY

​ 1.) All organisms are made up of cells
​ 2.) Cells are the basic units of life – Concluded by Schwann and Schleiden in 1838
​ 3.) Cells come from preexisting cells — Concluded by Rudolf Virchow in 1858 “Omnis cellula
​ e cellula”

​ MODERN CELL THEORY

1.) DNA is passed between cells during cell division
2.) Cells of all organisms within a similar species are mostly the same, both structurally and
chemically
3.) Energy flow occurs within cells

THE NUCLEUS
→ Contains most of the genes (as some genes are located in the mitochondria and
chloroplasts)
→ Directs protein synthesis by synthesizing Messenger RNA (mRNA) according to
instructions provided by the DNA = Once it is transported to the cytoplasm, ribosomes translate
mRNA’s genetic message into primary structure of a specific polypeptide
→ Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is also synthesized from the instructions in the DNA
→ Contents
●​ Nuclear Envelope
→ Consist of two membranes (inner and outer) each made up of lipid bilayers
→ Perforated with pores (Nuclear Pores) and lined by the nuclear lamina
→ Separates the genetic material in the nucleus from the cytoplasm
●​ Nuclear Pores
→ Protein-lined channels
→ Act as selective gates, regulating proteins and RNA entering and leaving the
nucleus
●​ Nucleolus
→ The area inside the nucleus that is made up of RNA and proteins. This is where most
ribosomes are made
 → Proteins imported from the cytoplasm are assembled with rRNA into large and
small subunits of ribosomes = these subunits exit from the pores and assemble into
ribosomes
●​ Chromatin
→ Mixture of DNA and Proteins that form the chromosomes
→ Diffused and scattered when NOT in cell division
→ Condensed when in cell division

RIBOSOMES: PROTEIN FACTORIES

→ Complexes made of Ribosomal RNA and Proteins
→ Carry out protein synthesis
→ NOT ORGANELLES — Not membrane bounded

ENDOMEMBRANE SYSTEM: REGULATES PROTEIN TRAFFIC + PERFORM

METABOLIC FUNCTIONS
→ Contains:
●​ Nuclear Envelope
●​ Endoplasmic Reticulum (Smooth and Rough)
●​ Golgi Apparatus
●​ Lysosomes
●​ Vesicles and Vacuoles
●​ Plasma Membrane
→ Membranes of this system are related via
●​ Direct Physical Continuity
●​ Transfer of membrane segments (Via tiny vesicles)

ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM: BIOSYNTHETIC FACTORY

→ Network of membranous tubules and sacs called Cisternae (Cisterna — A reservoir for
liquid)
→ “Endoplasmic” — Within the membrane, “Reticulum” — Little net
→ Continuous with the nuclear envelope
→ The space between two membranes of the envelope is continuous with the Lumen/Cisternal
Space of the ER
→ Smooth ER: Stores calcium ions (Which also triggers the secretion of vesicles carrying
newly synthesized proteins)
→ Rough ER: Contains ribosomes that synthesize proteins. As the polypeptide chain grows
from a bound ribosome, the chain is threaded into the ER Lumen where it folds into its
functional shape (Secretory proteins, e.g Glycoprotein). The Rough ER also makes
membrane phospholipids.

GOLGI APPARATUS: SHIPPING AND RECEIVING CENTER

→ After leaving the ER, many transport vesicles head to the Golgi Apparatus
→ Products of the ER (e.g proteins) are modified and stored/packaged here, and then sent out
to other destinations
→ Consists of a group of associated, flattened membranous sacs—cisternae.
→ Unlike the sacs in the ER, the sacs in the Golgi apparatus are not physically connected
→ Molecular Identification Tags = Aid in sorting Golgi products

The two sides of a Golgi Stack:

Cis Face = The receiving side of the Golgi Apparatus
Trans Face = The shipping side of the Golgi Apparatus

The Golgi Apparatus can…

* Remove sugar monomers and substitute it for others
* Alter membrane phospholipids
* Manufacture macromolecules (e.g polysaccharides)

LYSOSOME: DIGESTIVE COMPARTMENTS

→ Membranous sac of hydrolytic enzymes (enzymes that do hydrolysis/break down)
→ Used to digest/break down macromolecules / Carry out intracellular digestion via
Phagocytosis
→ Lysosomal enzymes work best in acidic conditions found in the lysosomes
→ Excessive leakage from a large number of lysosomes can destroy a cell by self-digestion
→ Made in the Rough ER
→ Phagocytosis (“Phagein” — To eat, “Kytos” — Vessel): Lysosomes digest/hydrolyze
materials taken into the cell

→ Lysosomes also recycle the cell’s own organic material via Autophagy

Example: Tay-Sachs Disease: A lipid-digesting enzyme is inactive/missing and the brain

becomes impaired by an accumulation of lipids in the cells

VACUOLES: DIVERSE MAINTENANCE COMPARTMENTS

→ Large vesicles derived from the ER and the Golgi Apparatus
→ Selective in transporting solutes (E.g food vacuoles are formed by phagocytosis)
→ Vacuoles may…
 ●​ Be contractile vacuoles = Pump out excess water out of the cell
●​ Carry out enzymatic hydrolysis
●​ Hold nutrients and other organic substances
●​ Store poisonous compounds as a defense mechanism
●​ Contain pigments
→ In plant cells, the central vacuole is the largest compartment in the cell. The more mature
the plant cell, the bigger the central vacuole.

MITOCHONDRIA AND CHLOROPLASTS CHANGE ENERGY FROM ONE FORM TO

ANOTHER
→ Mitochondria/Mitochondrion: Sites of cellular respiration—using oxygen to make ATP by
extracting energy from sugars, fats, and other fuels (food)
→ Chloroplasts: Sites of photosynthesis—converts solar energy into chemical energy. It uses
sunlight to drive the synthesis of organic compounds.

ORIGIN OF MITOCHONDRIA AND CHLOROPLASTS: ENDOSYMBIOTIC THEORY

→ This theory states that an early ancestor of eukaryotic cells engulfed an oxygen-using non
photosynthetic prokaryotic cell (for animal cells) and photosynthetic prokaryotic cell (for
plant cells) which eventually formed a relationship w/ the host cell becoming an endosymbiont
(a cell living within a cell)
→ Evidence behind the theory:
●​ Mitochondria and Chloroplast have two membranes surrounding them
●​ Mitochondria and Chloroplast contain their own ribosomes as well as DNA molecules
●​ Mitochondria and Chloroplast are autonomous, organelles that grow and reproduce
within the cell

MITOCHONDRIA
→ The number of mitochondria in a cell depends on the cell’s level of metabolic activity
→ Each of the two membranes enclosing the mitochondrion is a phospholipid bilayer
→ Outer membrane: Smooth, Internal membrane: Convoluted with infoldings called cristae
→ First compartment: Intermembrane Space (the space between the outer and inner membrane)
→ 2nd compartment: Matrix which contains different enzymes as well as the mitochondrial
DNA and ribosomes

CHLOROPLASTS
→ 3 Compartments: (1) Intermembrane Space, (2) The Stroma, (3) The Thylakoid Space
→ Stroma — The fluid outside the thylakoids. Contains free ribosomes and Chloroplast
DNA
→ 1 “circular green disk” = Thylakoid
→ A stack of thylakoids = Granum
→ Multiple granum = Grana
→ Chloroplasts contain green pigment called chlorophyll along w/ other enzymes
→ The chloroplast is a specialized member of the families, plastids and chromoplast (pigments
that give the fruits’ color)

PEROXISOME
→ Roughly spherical, granular/crystalline core
→ Contain enzymes that remove hydrogen ions from various substrates and transfer them to
Oxygen (O2) producing Hydrogen Peroxide (H2O2)
→ Some peroxisomes use oxygen to break down fatty acids into smaller molecules and to be
transported in the mitochondria
→ Glyoxysomes (a specialized peroxisome found in fat-storing tissues of plant seeds): Contain
enzymes that turn fatty acids into sugar

CYTOSKELETON
→ Function: To give mechanical support to the cell and help maintain its shape
→ Cell Motility: Changes in cell location and movements of cell parts
→ Cytoskeleton also manipulates the plasma membrane, bending it inward to form food
vacuoles or other phagocytic vesicles

The protein in this case is called a dynein protein

→ Components:
●​ Microtubules/Tubulin Polymers
●​ Microfilaments/Actin Filaments
●​ Intermediate Filaments

MICROTUBULES/TUBULIN POLYMERS
→ Thickest out of the three types
→ Structure: Hollow tubes
→ It maintains the cell shape (compression-resisting “girders”), allows cell motility (as in
cilia/flagella), allows chromosome movements during cell division.
→ Made from tubulin, each tubulin protein being a dimer (molecule w/ two subunits)
→ Each dimer consists of two different polypeptides, alpha tubulin and beta tubulin

CENTROSOMES AND CENTRIOLES

→ (In animal cells) Microtubules grow out from the centrosome
→ Within the centrosome is a pair of centrioles, each composed of nine sets of triplet
microtubules arranged in a ring

CILIA AND FLAGELLA

→ Cilia: Back and forth motion (The lining of the trachea)
→ Flagella: Undulates, snakelike motion (E.g sperm cell)
→ Both contain microtubules
→ “9 + 2” pattern in motile cilia and flagella, “9 + 0” pattern in nonmotile cilia and flagella

MICROFILAMENTS/ACTIN FILAMENTS
→ Structure: Two intertwined strands of actin
→ Function: Maintenance of cell shape (tension-bearing elements), changes in cell shape
(muscle contraction)
→ Known for their role in cell motility
→ Made up of myosin
→ In amoebas, actin and myosin help in the amoeboid/crawling movement of the cells. The
cells crawl along a surface called pseudopodia (“Pseudes” – False, “Pod” — Foot)
→ In plant cells, actin-protein interactions contribute to cytoplasmic streaming (a circular flow
of cytoplasm within the cell)

INTERMEDIATE FILAMENTS
→ Structure: Fibrous proteins coiled into cables
→ Function: Maintenance of cell shape (tension-bearing elements), anchorage of nucleus and
other organelles, formation of nuclear lamina
→ Only found in the cells of some animals (including vertebrates)
→ More permanent fixtures compared to microtubules and microfilaments
→ Made up of protein (mostly/commonly keratin)

CELL WALL OF PLANTS

→ Extracellular structure of plant cells, much thicker than the plasma membrane
→ Protects the plant cell, maintains its shape, prevents excessive uptake of water, hold the
plant up against gravity
→ Prokaryotes, fungi, and other unicellular eukaryotes have cell wall
→ Microfibrils made up of cellulose are synthesized by cellulose synthase and secreted to the
extracellular space, where they get embedded into the matrix
→ Primary Cell Wall (the cell wall in young plants)
→ Between primary walls of adjacent cells is the middle lamella which “glues” adjacent cells
together.
→ Secondary Cell Wall (in mature plants, has a strong and durable matrix)
→ Wood, for example, consists mainly of secondary cell wall
→ Plant cell walls are usually perforated by channels between adjacent cells called
plasmodesmata

EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX (ECM) OF ANIMAL CELLS

→ Main ingredients of ECM: Glycoproteins and other carbohydrate-containing molecules
→ The most abundant glycoprotein in ECM of most animal cells is collagen (in fact, it accounts
40% of the total protein in the human body)
→ Collagen fibers are embedded in a network woven out of proteoglycans secreted by cells
→ Some cells are also attached to the ECM (e.g fibronectin) which bind to cell-surface receptor
proteins called integrins
→ Integrins: Transmit signals between the ECM and cytoskeleton

CELL JUNCTIONS
→ Cells are organized into tissues, organs, and organ systems
→ Neighboring cells often adhere, interact, and communicate via sites of direct physical
contact

TIGHT JUNCTIONS, DESMOSOMES, AND GAP JUNCTIONS IN ANIMAL CELL:

→ Tight Junctions:
●​ The plasma membrane of neighboring cells are tightly pressed against each other
●​ Establishes a barrier that prevents leakage of extracellular fluid
→ Desmosomes:
●​ Fastening cells together
●​ Desmosomes attach muscle cells
→ Gap Junctions:
●​ Provide cytoplasmic channels from one cell to an adjacent cell
●​ Consists of membrane proteins
●​ Necessary for communication between cells

PLASMODESMATA IN PLANT CELLS:

→ Channels that connect cells
→ Water and small solutes can pass freely from cell to cell
II.​ Cell Cycle

REPRODUCTION/PROCREATE
→ A unique characteristic that differentiates living organisms from nonliving things.

RUDOLF VIRCHOW (1885)

→ “Where a cell exists, there must be a preexisting cell.”
→ “Omnis cellula e cellula” AKA “Every cell from a cell.”
​ States that the continuity of life is based on cell reproduction/division

KEY ROLES OF CELL DIVISION

→ Dividing prokaryotic cells are reproducing (Applicable to unicellular eukaryotes like
amoeba)
→ For multicellular eukaryotes, cell division enables these organisms to develop from one single
cell—the fertilized egg/zygote.
→ Cell division continues to function in renewal and repair.

CELL DIVISION
→ Part of the cell cycle
→ Start from the parent cell. When the parent cell divides it gives rise to two daughter cells
→ Passing identical genetic material to cellular offsprings
→ In both prokaryotes and eukaryotes, most cell division involves the distribution of identical
genetic material/DNA to the two daughter cells (EXCEPT MEIOSIS!)
​ More precisely, the cell replicates its DNA and distributes the two copies to
​ opposite ends of the cell, and then it splits into two daughter cells.

CELLS ORGANIZATION OF GENETIC MATERIAL

→ Cell’s DNA (the genetic information) is called its genome
→ Prokaryotic Genome: Single DNA molecule
→ Eukaryotic Genome: Multiple DNA molecules
​ Human Cell - Has about 2 meters of DNA, 250,000x more than the diameter of the
​ actual cell.

REPLICATION AND DISTRIBUTION OF DNA

→ DNA molecules are packaged/condensed into chromosomes (Chroma = Color, Soma =
Body)
→ Building material of chromosomes/protein = Chromatin
→ In humans, our somatic/body cells contain 46 chromosomes. However, our gamete/sex cells
contain 23 chromosomes

DISTRIBUTION OF CHROMOSOMES DURING EUKARYOTIC CELL DIVISION

→ When a cell is not dividing, it replicates its DNA in preparation for cell division.
→ After DNA replication, these chromosomes condense (Each chromatin fiber becomes densely
coiled and folded)
→ Each duplicated chromosome consists of two sister chromatids (these are joined copies of
the original chromosome)
→ The area in the chromosome where the two sister chromatids are really joined/close to one
another is called centromeres
→ The two sister chromatids are joined by protein complexes called cohesins
→ The attachment of two sister chromatids = Sister Chromatid Cohesion
→ Chromatid Arm = Portion of chromatid to either side of a centromere
→ Later in cell division, these two sister chromatids are separated and move into each new nuclei
→ Once these sister chromatids separate, they are no longer sisters but are considered to be
individual chromosomes
→ Thus, each new nucleus receives new set of chromosomes identical to the parent cell’s

MITOSIS
→ Results 2 identical diploid cells
→ Followed immediately by cytokinesis (the division of the cytoplasm)
→ Gametes are produced from a variation of cell division called meiosis
Somatic Cells = Mitosis
Gamete Cells = Meiosis → Occurs in the ovaries/testes AKA gonads

WALTHER FLEMMING (1882)

→ Developed dyes that allowed him to observe (for the first time) the behavior of chromosomes
during mitosis and cytokinesis
→ He was the person to coin the terms: Mitosis and Chromatin

PHASES OF THE CELL CYCLE

→ The mitotic phase (consists of mitosis/meiosis and cytokinesis) is the shortest part of the cell
cycle
→ Mitotic phase alternates with the Interphase, a stage that accounts for 90% of the cell cycle
→ Interphase: G1 (1st Gap), S (DNA Synthesis), G2 (2nd Gap)
→ G0 Phase: Cells are not actively dividing but are performing their functions
→ G1 Phase: The cell grows and prepares itself for DNA replication
→ S Phase: Continues to grow as it copies its chromosomes/replicates DNA
→ G2 Phase: It continues to grow and prepares itself for the M Phase/Mitotic Phase/Cell
Division
→ A normal human cell might undergo one division in 24 hours
→ M Phase = 1 hour
→ S Phase = 10-12 hours
→ G1 Phase = 5-6 hours → Most variable in length depending on the type of cell
→ G2 Phase = 4-6 hours
→ Some cells divide frequently, some rarely, some do not EVER replicate/divide. Cells that do
not undergo division that much might spend their time in the G0 phase.
→ During Interphase, the centrosome duplicates itself

MITOSIS
→ Prophase
●​ Chromatin fibers are more tightly coiled—Chromosomes are condensing.
●​ The nucleoli starts to disappear
●​ The mitotic spindle begins to form (composed of centrosomes and microtubules).
●​ The centrosomes move away from each other and go to the opposite ends of the cell
→ Metaphase
●​ The nuclear envelope starts to disappear
●​ The kinetochore also starts to form. These are the attachment points for the mitotic
spindles to attach to the chromatids (NOTE: Not all kinetochore will attach with the
mitotic spindles)
●​ The kinetochore with mitotic spindles are called kinetochore microtubules
●​ The chromosomes have all arrived at the Metaphase Plate a line/region where the
chromatids line up, ready to be separated
●​ Nonkinetochore microtubules = Does not attach to the spindle microtubules. They are
also responsible for the elongation of cell
→ Anaphase
●​ The kinetochore microtubules shortens, pulls and separates the sister chromatids,
putting them into opposite ends of the cell. This is also aided by the enzyme separase
(which helps break down the cohesins holding the chromatids together).
●​ Shortest stage of mitosis
●​ By the end of anaphase, the two ends of the cell have equivalent and complete sets of
chromosomes—equal distributed
→ Telophase
●​ Two daughter nuclei form within the cell
●​ Nucleoli and nuclear envelope reappear
●​ Cleavage Furrow (via the process called ‘Cleavage’) manifests in animal cells. Cell
Plate for plant cells.
→ Cytokinesis
●​ Pinches the cell into two new daughter cells

BINARY FISSION IN BACTERIA

→ Prokaryotes can undergo a type of reproduction where the cell grows to roughly double its
size and divides to form 2 cells
→ AKA “Division in half” → Asexual reproduction of single-celled eukaryotes
→ Initiated when the DNA of the bacterial chromosome begins to replicate at a specific place
on the chromosome AKA The Origin of Replication. As the chromosome continues to
replicate, the origin moves rapidly to the other/opposite side of the cell

Eukaryotic cell cycle is controlled by a molecular control system. Some divide often, some not
so frequent, some do not divide once they mature at all.

CYCLIN-DEPENDENT KINASES
→ Regulatory Molecules (they regulate the cell cycle): Protein Kinases and Cyclin
→ Protein Kinases: Activate/Inactivate other proteins
→ In a growing cell, protein kinases are present, otherwise they remain inactive.
→ To be active, the kinases must be attached to a cyclin
→ MPF = Maturation-Promoting-Factor, Cyclin-Dependent Kinases triggers the cell’s passage
into the Mitotic Phase, past the G2 checkpoint
INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL SIGNS AT THE CHECKPOINT
→ If a cell is not qualified to enter the G1 phase yet, then they temporarily/permanently go to
G0 phase, the non dividing phase.
→ If a cell is qualified to enter the G1 phase, it may do so and continue the cell cycle/division
(able to pass through S phase and G2 phase)
→ When all chromosomes are attached to spindle fibers from both poles, the cell can now
proceed to the M-phase.
→ If not, it will not proceed to the M-phase.
→ Cells that do not pass a checkpoint will either stay in that phase until the issue is resolved or
self-destruct (if the issue is irreparable via apoptosis)
→ Most cells in the human body exist in the G0 phase, rarely dividing.
→ It is possible that cells in the G0 phase can be called back for cell division (this happens when
there is need for renewal or repair of cells)

LOSS OF CELL CYCLE CONTROL = CANCER

→ Cancer cells do not stop dividing. It is hypothesized that these cancer cells do not need
growth factors in their culture medium to grow and divide. (They do not need a
chemical/hormone to instruct them to duplicate/divide).
→ Cancer cells can divide indefinitely if we give them a supply of “nutrients” (mostly sugars)
→ HeLa Cells = Cells that have been reproducing since 1951 and still reproducing until today
(HeLa = Henrietta Lacks)
→ Benign Tumor = Stay on the same site
→ Malignant Tumor = Spreads to other tissues

LIFE-CYCLE
→ Generation-to-generation sequence of stages in the reproductive history of an organism
(from conception, to the production of its own offspring)

SETS OF CHROMOSOMES IN HUMAN CELLS

→ Each somatic/body cell = 46 chromosomes
→ However, it is then revealed that there are two chromosomes of each of the 23 types (23 x 2
= 46)
→ Karyotype = Orderly display of chromosome pairs from longest to smallest
→ Homologous Chromosomes/Homologs = Two chromosomes of a pair have the same length,
centromere position, and staining pattern
→ Human females have a homologous pair of X chromosomes (XX), while males have one X
and one Y chromosome.
→ X and Y chromosomes = Sex Chromosomes, other chromosomes are referred to as
autosomes
→ The number of chromosomes in a single set is represented by the variable n (haploid
number)
→ The number of chromosomes in 2 sets is represented by the variable 2n (diploid number)
→ 1 maternal + 1 paternal in a pair of homologous chromosomes are called nonsister
chromatids (they do not come from the same parent cell)
→ In a haploid cell (in gametes):
●​ Consists of 22 autosomes
●​ Consist of 1 sex chromosome
→ An unfertilized egg contains X chromosome and a sperm contains either X chromosome
or Y

MEIOSIS
→ Meiosis I - Separates the homologous chromosomes
1.) Prophase I:
Chromosomes condense, the nuclear envelope disappears
Each chromosome pairs with its homologous chromosome, aligned gene by gene, they
are held together by synaptonemal complex
Crossing over occurs - A process where chromosomes exchange genetic material,
leading to new gene combinations
Chiasmata → During crossing over, the homologous chromosome pair forms an
X-shape

​ 2.) Metaphase I:
Pairs of homologous chromosomes are now arranged at the metaphase plate
Both chromatids of the homologous chromosomes are attached to kinetochore
microtubules, one chromatid to the opposite pole/other end

​ 3.) Anaphase I:
Breakdown of cohesins (the protein that allows the chromatids to stick together)
The homologous chromosomes separate by moving towards opposite poles

​ 4.) Telophase I and Cytokinesis:

Each half of the cell has a complete haploid set of duplicated chromosomes
Cytokinesis divides the cell’s cytoplasm

→ Meiosis II - Separates the sister chromatids

1.) Prophase II:
Chromosomes here are moved by microtubules towards the metaphase plate

​ 2.) Metaphase II:

The kinetochores of two sister chromatids are attached to microtubules extending from
opposite poles

​ 3.) Anaphase II:

Breakdown of cohesins
The chromatids move toward opposite poles as individual chromosomes
 ​ 4.) Telophase II and Cytokinesis:
Nuclei form at each half of the cell
At the end of cytokinesis, there are a total of 4 haploid cells produced

GENETICS:
-​ Scientific study of heredity and variation
-​ Heredity: Transmission of traits from one generation to the next

GREGOR MENDEL

●​ Born in Brunn, Austria (now Brno, Czech Republic) entered the Augustinian monastery at age
21
●​ Studied physics and chemistry at the University of Vienna, influenced by physicist Christian
Doppler and botanist Franz Unger.
●​ Began studying inheritance patterns in garden peas in 1857, using quantitative methods.

MENDEL’S EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH

●​ True-breeding Plants: Plants that consistently produce identical offspring.

●​ Hybridization: Crossing two true-breeding varieties.
●​ Generations:
○​ P Generation: Parental true-breeding plants.
○​ F1 Generation: Hybrid offspring.
○​ F2 Generation: Offspring from self-pollination or cross-pollination of F1 hybrids.
KEY DEFINITIONS

●​ Character: Heritable feature (e.g., flower color).

●​ Trait: Specific variant of a character (e.g., purple or white flowers).

●​ Hybrids: Offspring of two different varieties.

●​ Hybridization: Cross-fertilization
○​ True-breeding parental plants: P Generation (P = Parent)
○​ Hybrid offspring: F1 Generation (F = Filial = “Son” in Latin)

→ When F1 plants fertilize: F2 Generation

●​ Homozygote: Organism with identical alleles (e.g., PP or pp) | Homozygous

●​ Heterozygote: Organism with two different alleles (e.g., Pp) | Heterozygous

hi

●​ Phenotype: Observable traits/Appearance from the Genotype (e.g., flower color)

●​ Genotype:
○​ Genetic makeup of an organism (e.g., PP, Pp, or pp)
○​ The combination of alleles an organism carries
 HOMOLOGOUS (HOMOLOGS) CHROMOSOMES

●​ Bear the alleles for each other

●​ Chromosomes in pairs (one from each parent) that carry genes for the same traits.
●​ Locus (Loci): Specific location of a gene on a chromosome, where alleles for the same gene are
found
●​ Gene: A unit of heredity, with different forms called alleles.

The matching colors of the three corresponding loci on the two homologs highlight the fact that homologous chromosomes have
genes for the same characters located at the same positions along their lengths

​
LAWS DESCRIBING HOW HEREDITARY MATERIAL (GENE) IS PASSED ON FROM
PARENTS TO OFFSPRING

1.​ Law of Independent Segregation

Mendel's Law of Independent Segregation states that alleles of a gene pair separate completely and
cleanly during meiosis. This ensures that each gamete receives only one allele from each parent.
●​ Meiosis I: Homologous chromosomes separate during anaphase I, splitting the alleles (e.g., R and
r).
●​ Meiosis II: Sister chromatids of each chromosome separate during anaphase II, resulting in
gametes that carry a single allele (R or r).
●​ After telophase II, gametes will carry only one allele for the trait.
1.​ Gametes from an Rr Cell
○​ Genotype: Heterozygous (Rr) for seed shape.
○​ Gametes Produced: 50% R (round seed trait) and 50% r (wrinkled seed trait).
○​ Why: The two alleles segregate during meiosis, producing two types of gametes.
2.​ Gametes from an RR Cell
○​ Genotype: Homozygous (RR) for seed shape.
○​ Gametes Produced: 100% R (round seed trait).
○​ Why: Both alleles are the same (R), so all gametes will carry the R allele.