EUROCODES 2: DESIGN OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES
1 Introduction
Focuses on design of buildings and civil engineering works in concrete. They come in four parts.
Eurocode 0 and Eurocode 1 is used to determine the values of actions. BS 4449 is used to determine
the mechanical properties of reinforcing steel.
BS 8500 and EN 206 for durability design and Eurocode 7 is for foundation design.
2 Material properties
2.1 Characteristic strengths
2.1.1 Concrete (Cl. 3.1, EC 2)
Characteristic strength is based on 5%-cylinder strength of concrete at 28 days (𝑓𝑐𝑘 ). Equivalent
cube strength (𝑓𝑐𝑘,𝑐𝑢𝑏𝑒 ) are included in EC 2 but they are only regarded as an alternative method
to prove compliance.
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Generally, the cylinder strength is approximately 0.8 x the cube strength of concrete i.e.
(𝑓𝑐𝑘 = 0.8 × 𝑓𝑐𝑘,𝑐𝑢𝑏𝑒 ).
The design rules in EC2 are valid for concrete of strength Classes up to C90/105, i.e. cylinder
strength 90 MPa and cube strength 105 MPa.
2.1.2 Reinforcing steel (Cl. 3.2, EC 2)
Annex C, design rules in EC 2 are applicable to steel reinforcement with characteristic yield in the
range 400-600 N mm2. BS 4449:2005.
Steel is manufactured in three grades, characteristic yield strength, but with different ductility.
Ductility classes B and C are most widely available. Ductility class A, are in sizes of 12 mm and
below is widely used by reinforcement fabricators.
3 Design Strengths (CL. 2.4.2.4. EC 2)
Design strength (𝑋𝑑 ) are obtained by dividing the characteristic strength (𝑋𝑘 ) by the appropriate
partial safety factor of materials (𝛾𝑀 )
𝑋𝑘
𝑋𝑑 =
𝛾𝑀
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4 Stress-Strain diagrams
4.1 Concrete (Cl. 3.1.7, EC 2)
Ultimate strain (𝜀𝑐𝑢2 ) of the concrete in compression is taken as 0.0035. 𝜀𝑐2 =0.002 for 𝑓𝑐𝑘 ≤
50 𝑀𝑃𝑎
The design compressive strength of concrete, 𝑓𝑐𝑑 , is defined as
𝑓𝑐𝑑 = 𝛼𝑐𝑐 𝑓𝑐𝑘 /𝛾𝐶
Where:
𝛼𝑐𝑐 is the coefficient taking account of long-term effects on the compressive strength =0.85
𝛾𝐶 partial safety factor for concrete=1.5(table 8.4)
EC2 allows the use of an equivalent rectangular stress distribution for the design of cross-sections.
For 𝑓𝑐𝑘 ≤ 50 𝑀𝑃𝑎, the depth of compression zone is 0.8x and the effective strength is
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0.85𝑓𝑐𝑘 /1.5 = 0.567𝑓𝑐𝑘
𝜂=1
4.2 Reinforcing steel
Design steel stresses, 𝑓𝑦𝑑 , are derived from the idealized (characteristic) stresses, 𝑓𝑦𝑘 , by dividing
by the partial safety factor for steel, 𝛾𝑠 :
𝑓𝑦𝑑 = 𝑓𝑦𝑘 /𝛾𝑆
The strain limit of 𝜀𝑢𝑑 = 0.9𝜀𝑢𝑘 , 𝜀𝑢𝑘 =table 8.3 or horizontal top branch curve with no limit ot
the steel strain and a maximum design stress of 𝑓𝑦𝑑 can be used. The horizontal top case has been
adopted in this text.
5 Cover, fire, durability and bond (Cl 4, EC 2)
In EC 2, cover to reinforcement is principally a function of
• Fire resistance
• Durability
• Bond
5.1 Fire (EC 2-1-2)
Exposure of high temperatures in the event of a fire can results in reduction of strength of both the
concrete and embedded steel reinforcement, as well as spalling of the concrete cover.
The fire resistance of concrete member is related to the size and shape of the element as well as
cover to the center of reinforcing bars (axis distance).
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In the case of columns, it is also a function of the load supported. The risk of spalling is related to
the type of aggregate use in the mix, with concrete made of siliceous aggregate more vulnerable
to this form of damage.
The tabulated values are valid for normal weight concrete made of siliceous aggregates
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5.2 Bond and Durability
Durability requirements focus on protection of steel reinforcement in concrete from corrosion
caused by carbonation and chloride attack
The nominal cover to reinforcement, 𝑐𝑛𝑜𝑚, is obtained from the minimum cover, 𝑐𝑚𝑖𝑛, by adding
an allowance for likely deviation during construction, ∆𝑐𝑑𝑒𝑣
𝑐𝑛𝑜𝑚 = 𝑐𝑚𝑖𝑛 + ∆𝑐𝑑𝑒𝑣
The recommended value of ∆𝑐𝑑𝑒𝑣 for reinforced concrete is normally taken as 10 mm but for
concrete cast against uneven surfaces should be increased allowing larger deviation in design.
According to Cl. 4.4.1.3, the minimum cover should be taken as 40 mm for concrete cast on
prepared ground (including blinding) and 65 where is cast directly against the soil.
The minimum cover to reinforcement is given by the following expression
𝑐𝑚𝑖𝑛 = max{𝑐𝑚𝑖𝑛,𝑑𝑢𝑟 ; 𝑐𝑚𝑖𝑛,𝑏 ; 10𝑚𝑚}
Where:
𝑐𝑚𝑖𝑛,𝑑𝑢𝑟 is the minimum cover for durability
𝑐𝑚𝑖𝑛,𝑏 is the minimum cover for bond
Thus, the minimum cover should not be less than 10 mm
In clause 4.4.1.2(3), it is further recommended that in order to transmit bond forces safely and to
ensure adequate compaction of the concrete, the minimum cover should not be less than 𝑐𝑚𝑖𝑛,𝑏
where
𝑐𝑚𝑖𝑛,𝑏 = diameter of the bar Φ, provided the nominal maximum aggregate 𝑑𝑔 ≤ 32 𝑚𝑚
𝑐𝑚𝑖𝑛,𝑑𝑢𝑟 is principally depends on:
1. Environmental conditions
2. Concrete quality
Environmental conditions
EC 2 defines six major exposure classes and 18 sub classes to which a structure could be subject
during its design life.
Concrete quality is determined through EN 206-Concrete- Performance, production, Placing and
compliance Criteria and the complementary British Standard BS 8500: Part 1: Method of
specifying and guidance for the specifier in order to determine the minimum concrete quality and
minimum cover necessary to achieve the design life of the structure.
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Design life is 50 years for OPC concrete. If blended mixes are used it is possible to reduce the
depth of concrete cover and/or the quality of the concrete cover and/or the quality of concrete
indicated in the table. For example, use of admixtures, and certain types of aggregate to ensure
concrete surfaces are free draining and good workmanship.
Clause 7.3.1 EC 2, presence of cracks can impair concrete durability and, recommends that the
maximum surface crack width should not exceed 0.3 mm in reinforced concrete members. This
limiting crack width is achieved in practice by:
• Providing a minimum area of reinforcement
• Limiting either the maximum bar spacing or the maximum bar diameter.
6 Basic Structural Concepts and Material Properties
6.1 Introduction
All structures are composed of a number of inter-connected elements such as slabs, beams,
columns, wall and foundations. Collectively, they enable the internal and external loads acting on
the structure to be safely transmitted down to the ground. It is assumed that the reaction from one
element is a load on the next and that the sequence of load transfer between elements occurs in the
order: ceiling/floor slab to beams to columns to foundations to ground.
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The designer must make an assessment of the future likely level of loading, including self-weight,
to which the structure may be subject during its design life. The design loads acting on individual
elements can then be evaluated. The design loads are used to calculate the bending moments, shear
forces and deflections at critical points along the elements. Finally, suitable dimensions for the
element can be determined. This aspect requires an understand of the elementary theory of bending
and the behavior of elements subject to compressive loading. These steps are summarized in the
figure below.
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6.2 Design Loads (actions) acting on structures
The loads (actions) acting on a structure are divided into three basic types: Permanent (dead),
variable (imposed) and variable (wind). For each type of loading there will be characteristics and
design values, which must be estimated. In addition, the designer will have to determine the
particular combination of loading which is likely to produce the most adverse effect on the
structure in terms of bending moments, shear forces and deflections.
PERMANENT ACTIONS (DEAD LOADS), Gk, gk
Dead loads are all the permanent loads acting on the structure including self-weight, finishes,
fixtures and partitions. The characteristic dead loads can be estimated using the schedule of
weights of building materials given in Eurocode EC 1: Part 1-1 in the table below or from
manufacturers’ literature. The symbols Gk and gk are normally used to denote the total and
uniformly distributed characteristic dead loads respectively.
Estimation of the self-weight of an element tends to be a cyclic process since its value can only be
assessed once the element has been designed which requires prior knowledge of the self-weight of
the element. Generally, the self-weight of the element is likely to be small in comparison with
other dead and live loads and any error in estimation will tend to have a minimal effect on the
overall design.
VARIABLE ACTIONS (IMPOSED LOADS) Qk, qk
Imposed load, sometimes referred to as live load, represent the load due to the proposed occupancy
and includes the weights of the occupants, furniture and roof loads including snow. Since imposed
loads tend to be much more variable than dead loads, they are more difficult to predict. Eurocode
EC 1: Part 1-1: General Actions-Densities, self-weight, imposed loads for buildings, for Dead and
Imposed loads gives typical characteristic imposed floor loads for different classes of structure,
e.g. balconies, corridors and toilet rooms in the table below.
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WIND LOADS
Wind pressure can either add to the other gravitational forces acting on the structure or, equal exert
suction or negative pressures on the structure. Under particular situations, the latter may well lead
to critical conditions and must be considered in design. The characteristic wind loads acting on a
structure can be assessed in accordance with the recommendation in Eurocode EC 1: Part 1-4:
General Actions-Wind Actions loading is important in the design of masonry panel walls
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