Basic Concepts

UNIT 3 VIRTUES AND VICES*

Structure

3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Meaning of Virtue
3.3 Socrates: Virtue is Knowledge
3.4 Plato’s Four Cardinal Virtues
3.5 Aristotle’s Conception of Virtue
3.6 Virtues in Hinduism
3.7 Virtues in Islam
3.8 Vices
3.8.1 The Christian Vices
3.9 Let Us Sum Up
3.10 Key Words
3.11 Further Readings and References
3.12 Answers to Check your Progress

3.0 OBJECTIVES
In this unit we are going to study Virtues and Vices from an ethical point of view.
After understanding the meaning of virtue, we make an effort to grasp the Socratic,
Platonic and the Aristotelian conception of virtue. Then we shall attempt to see
virtues in Hinduism and Islam. By the end of this unit you should be able to:
 grasp the meaning of virtue
 understand the virtues according to Socrates, Plato and Aristotle the three
main Greek Philosophers
 appreciate the virtues in Hinduism and Islam

3.1 INTRODUCTION
Individuals and as groups, human beings search for happiness. The means to
attain this goal was discovered by the Greeks to be in the cultivation of virtue. In
Indian philosophies also there are qualities contributing to human well-being;
however, quite often instead of focusing on human happiness as such, Indian
concepts of virtue are intertwined with the concept of salvation and afterlife.
Something similar happened in Western thought after Greek philosophy met the
Christian Revelation. In the present unit however we shall not be dealing
specifically with the religious and theological links but only with those elements
that fall under the general purview and more or less universal survey of human
reason.

*
Dr. Wilfred D’Souza, Pushpashrama College, Mysore.
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 Virtues and Vices
3.2 MEANING OF VIRTUE
The Greek term for virtue is arête which was used for excellence of any kind.
But generally the excellence referred to is an excellence belonging to a human
being so that the virtues may be described as the forms of human excellence.
‘Virtue’ which comes from the Latin virtus means moral excellence. A virtue is a
character trait or quality valued as being good. Personal virtues are characteristics
valued as promoting individual and collective well-being, and thus good by
definition. The opposite of virtue is vice. In ethics, ‘virtue’ is used with two
somewhat different meanings. (a) A virtue is a quality of character – a disposition
to do what is right in a particular direction, or to perform one of the more universal
duties. (b) A virtue is also a habit of action corresponding to the quality of character
or disposition. We may refer to the honesty of a human person, or to the honesty
of his dealings equally as virtues.
Virtues can be placed into a broader context of values. Each individual has a core
of underlying values that contribute to our system of beliefs, ideas and/or opinions.
Integrity in the application of a value ensures its continuity and this continuity
separates a value from beliefs, opinion and ideas. In this context a value (e.g.,
Truth or Equality or Creed) is the core from which we operate or react. Societies
have values that are shared among many of the participants in that culture. An
individual’s values typically are largely, but not entirely, in agreement with their
culture’s values. Individual virtues can be grouped into one of four categories of
values: Ethics (virtue - vice, good - bad, moral - immoral - amoral, right -
wrong, permissible - impermissible) Aesthetics (beautiful, ugly, unbalanced,
pleasing) Doctrinal (political, ideological, religious or social beliefs and values)
Innate/Inborn (inborn values such as reproduction and survival).
Laird has divided virtues into three classes:
(a) There are virtues of what he calls, ‘the righteous quality’. A virtue of this
kind consists in the habit of performing a duty of a particular kind and in
the quality of character which leads to this kind of action. The only distinction
that can be made between virtuous conduct of this kind and right conduct is
that the term ‘virtuous conduct’ emphasizes the habitual performance of what
is right.
(b) There are virtues of the ‘requisite quality’. These are necessary to a virtuous
character, but are also found in bad characters, and indeed may tend to increase
the wickedness of the bad. Such virtues include prudence and perseverance.
The villain who is persevering in his villainy is a worse man than the villain
who is hesitant.
(c) There are virtues of the ‘generous quality’. These are chiefly of an emotional
kind and they add something not strictly definable, but of the nature of beauty
or of moral intrinsic value, to actions that are in other respects right. They
sometimes even give a strange quality of nobility to conduct that is morally
wrong. We find this in the adventurous courage sometimes attributed to a
brigand chief and in the loyalty of often shown to people utterly unworthy of
that loyalty. Virtues of this kind seem to have some intrinsic value; this at
least is suggested by the value that we assign to these virtues in the characters
of people where no good result follows from the presence of the virtue in
their actions. 35
Basic Concepts Of the three classes, virtues of the ‘righteous quality’ are the most important in
the moral life. Virtues of the ‘requisite quality’ are clearly subordinate to the
virtues of the ‘righteous quality’, for they are of value only when they accompany
such virtues. Virtues of the ‘generous quality’ depend more on the natural
endowments than the other two classes do, and are hardly to be acquired merely
by the conscientious doing of one’s duty. Virtues of this quality have an appeal
that is perhaps more aesthetic than moral, but they do give to goodness a colour
and an adventurous atmosphere which are sometimes sadly lacking in those whose
virtues are merely of the righteous quality.

3.3 SOCRATES: VIRTUE IS KNOWLEDGE

The core of Socrates’ ethics is the concept of virtue. Virtue, according to Socrates,
is the deepest and most basic property of man. This virtue is knowledge. If on the
other hand knowledge embraces everything that is good, we shall be right to
suspect that virtue is knowledge.” If virtue is knowledge it can be known and
consequently taught. This is the meaning of the imperative ‘know yourself’. ‘Know
yourself’ means bring your inner self to light. Through knowledge humans gain
possession of oneself whereby one becomes one’s own master.
According to Socrates virtue is the highest aim and greatest good one has to seek
in life. He also insisted that if it is to be the highest aim and the greatest good it
must have universal consistency and be the same for all. Now, what is universally
consistent and the same for all is knowledge which is obtained through concept
by the use of reason common in all. The relation between virtue and knowledge
is inseparable. For, Socrates thinks that health, wealth, beauty, courage,
temperance etc., which are customarily considered to be various forms of good,
are good only if they are guided by wisdom; if guided by folly they could be
considered forms of evil.
Ethics, according to Socrates, has yet another dimension. It does not stop at mere
acquisition of the knowledge of the ideas of good. The knowledge of the idea of
the good aims at controlling all other ideas and ultimately guides the whole man,
including his will and feeling, and necessarily leads him to good actions. Hence
ethical knowledge tends to culture the soul which ultimately leads the soul towards
regaining its pure, pristine glory. For Socrates this is the reason for believing that
“no one does wrong knowingly” and “that knowledge is virtue.”
Socrates says that virtue or goodness is one, although practices differently in
different forms of good. In Plato’s Protagoras Socrates says that although wisdom,
temperance, courage, justice and holiness are the principal forms of virtue, there
is one single reality which underlies them all. Yet on another occasion, in Plato’s
Meno, we find Socrates looking for one virtue which permeates all other virtues.
Socrates explained this by means of an example of a healthy body. According to
him all kinds of bodily excellence follow from one single health of the body,
similarly, all kinds of virtue follow from the health of the soul. What is meant by
the health of the soul? The soul has different functions. The health of the soul
follows from orderly arrangement of these different functions. In Plato’s Gorgias,
we see Socrates saying that the functions of the soul are reasoning, temper, and
desire. The function of reasoning aims at attaining wisdom, temper means courage,
and desire is soberness. The health of the souls depends on the organized relation
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that these functions hold to each other. An orderly arrangement of these functions Virtues and Vices
is something like the following. Wisdom commands and temper assists in the
execution of these commands, while desire furnishes the material basis for the
actualization of these commands. The aim of the oneness or unity of virtue is the
ultimate happiness of the individual. “A successful functioning of the harmonious
activities under the regulation of reason yields happiness.” Thus the Socratic
notion of virtue as one means is “the self of a good man is an organic unity of all
its functions.”
The Socratic notion of virtue as one leads us finally to conclude that there is one
Idea of the Good which underlies all the ethical activities of man which are
intrinsically good. Socrates speaks in the Republic of Plato that in the region of
the known the last thing to be seen and hardly seen is the idea of good, and that
this is indeed the cause for all things of all that is right and beautiful, giving birth
in the visible world to light, and author of light and itself in the intelligible world
being the authentic source of truth and reason, and that anyone who is to act
wisely in private or public must have caught sight of this.
Check your progress I
Note: a) Use the space provided for your answer.
b) Check your answers with those provided at the end of the unit.
1. What is the meaning of virtue?
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2. Explain the Socratic dictum “Virtue is Knowledge”.

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3.4 PLATO’S FOUR CARDINAL VIRTUES

The four virtues which Plato described in the Republic were later called the
cardinal virtues. The word ‘cardinal’ is a derivative of the Latin word ‘cardo’,
meaning a hinge, and the cardinal virtues are the virtues by which the moral life
is supported as a door is supported by its hinges.
Plato describes the four cardinal virtues in The Republic:
Wisdom (calculative) - see the whole
Courage (spirited) - preserve the whole
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Basic Concepts Moderation (appetitive) - serve the whole
Justice (founding/ - “mind your own business” i.e. “tend to your
preserving virtue) soul”/”know yourself”
Plato defines how an individual can attain these virtues: Wisdom comes from
exercising reason; courage from exercising emotions or spirit; moderation
(sometimes “temperance”) from allowing reason to overrule desires; and from
these justice ensues, a state in which all elements of the mind are in concord
with one another. Justice is described by Plato to be the founding and preserving
virtue because only once someone understands justice, can he or she gain the
other three virtues, and once someone possesses all four virtues, it is justice that
keeps it all together.

3.5 ARISTOTLE’S CONCEPTION OF VIRTUE

Aristotle said that the moral end is ‘eudaimonia’, which may be translated as
happiness, and he said that ‘eudaimonia’ consisted in the exercise of a person’s
soul in accordance with virtue. To put it in Aristotle’s own terminology,
‘eudaimonia’ is the end or what was later called the final cause of the moral
life, while virtue is what was later called the form or the formal cause of the
moral life. The form is analogous to the conception of his picture in the mind
of an artist which guides and limits one’s activity as one works, and which
gives shape to one’s creation. Aristotle defined virtue as a habit of choice,
the characteristic of which lies in the observation of the mean or of moderation,
as it is determined by reason or as the practically prudent person would
determine it.
Aristotle regarded virtue as primarily a habit of action, and so it was with him
only secondarily a quality of character. Virtue is not a mere habit, but a habit of
choice. Aristotle defined choice as the deliberate desire of things in our power
after consideration of them by the intellect. Choice accordingly is in some sense
free for it deals with things in our own power, and it is when such a deliberate
choice is repeated that it becomes the habit of action which we call a virtue.
The choice, for example, of doing what is right in the face of pain becomes,
when habitual, the virtue of courage. The mere doing of single good actions
may be accidental or merely impulsive; it is the habitual choice that counts as
virtue.
The point in Aristotle’s definition which has been most discussed is his notion
of the mean or middle course. A virtue is regarded as if it were a middle
position between two vices; courage for example, is the middle position
between rashness and cowardice, and liberality is the middle position between
extravagance and miserliness. The place of the mean relative to the vices at
the extremes depends on the circumstances of each individual. A soldier’s
courage should be nearer to rashness than that of a statesman, for it is his
business to take risks which would be criminal on the part of a statesman to
take. This conception is obviously in agreement with the Greek emphasis on
proportion and harmony in art, as expressed in the maxim ‘Nothing too much’
or virtue lies in the middle.
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 Virtues and Vices
Check your progress II
Note: a) Use the space provided for your answer.
b) Check your answers with those provided at the end of the unit.
1. Explain the four Cardinal virtues according to Plato.
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2. Explain Aristotle’s conception of virtue.

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3.6 VIRTUES IN HINDUISM

Hinduism, or has pivotal virtues that everyone keeping the Dharma is asked to
follow. For they are distinct qualities of manusya
. (humankind), that allow one
to be in the mode of goodness. There are three modes of material nature (guna),
.
as described in the Vedas and other Indian Scriptures (e.g. sāmkhyakārikā,
.
carakasamhitā): Sattva (goodness, creation, stillness, intelligence), Rajas
(passion, maintenance, energy, activity), and Tamas (ignorance, restraint, inertia,
destruction). Every person harbours a mixture of these modes in varying degrees.
A person in the mode of Sattva has that mode in prominence in one’s nature,
which one obtains by following the virtues of Dharma.
The modes of Sattva are the following: Altruism: Selfless Service to all
humanity; Restraint and Moderation: This is having restraint and moderation
in all things. Sexual relations, eating, and other pleasurable activities should
be kept in moderation. It depends on the sect and belief system, some people
believe this means celibacy. While others believe in walking the golden path of
moderation, i.e. not too far to the side of forceful control and total abandon of
human pleasures, but also not too far to the side of total indulgence and total
abandonment for moderation. Honesty: One is required to be honest with
oneself, honest to the family, friends, and all of humanity. Cleanliness: Outer
cleanliness is to be cultivated for good health and hygiene; inner cleanliness is
cultivated through devotion to god, selflessness, non-violence and all the other
virtues; which is maintained by refraining from intoxicants. Protection and
reverence for the Earth. Universality: Showing tolerance and respect for
everyone, everything and the way of the Universe. Peace: One must cultivate a
peaceful manner in order to benefit oneself and those around him. Non-

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Basic Concepts Violence/Ahimsa: This means not killing, or not being violent in any way to
any life form or sentient being. This is why those who practice this Dharma are
vegetarians because they see the slaughter of animals for the purpose of food
as violent, when there are less violent ways to maintain a healthy diet. Reverence
for elders and teachers: This virtue is very important to learn respect and
reverence for those who have wisdom and those who selflessly teach in love.
The Guru or spiritual teacher is one of the highest principals in many Vedic
based spiritualities, and is likened to that of God.

3.7 VIRTUES IN ISLAM

In the Muslim tradition the Qur’an is, as the word of God, the great repository of
all virtue in earthly form, and the Prophet, particularly via his hadiths or reported
sayings, the exemplar of virtue in human form. The very name of Islam, meaning
“acceptance,” proclaims the virtue of submission to the will of God, the acceptance
of the way things are. Foremost among God’s attributes are mercy and compassion
or, in the canonical language of Arabic, Rahman and Rahim. Each of the 114
chapters of the Qur’an, with one exception, begins with the verse, “In the name
of God the Compassionate, the Merciful”. The Arabic word for compassion is
rahmah. As a cultural influence, its roots abound in the Qur’an. A good Muslim
is to commence each day, each prayer and each significant action by invoking
God the Merciful and Compassionate, i.e. by reciting Bi Ism-i-Allah al-Rahman
al-Rahim. The Muslim scriptures urge compassion towards captives as well as to
widows, orphans and the poor. Traditionally, Zakat, a toll tax to help the poor
and needy, is obligatory upon all Muslims (9:60). One of the practical purposes
of fasting or sawm during the month of Ramadan is to help one empathize with
the hunger pangs of those less fortunate, to enhance sensitivity to the suffering of
others and develop compassion for the poor and destitute.
The Muslim virtues are: prayer, repentance, honesty, loyalty, sincerity, frugality,
prudence, moderation, self-restraint, discipline, perseverance, patience, hope,
dignity, courage, justice, tolerance, wisdom, good speech, respect, purity, courtesy,
kindness, gratitude, generosity, contentment, etc.

3.8 VICES
Vice is a practice or a habit considered immoral, depraved, and/or degrading in
the associated society. In more minor usage, vice can refer to a fault, a defect, an
infirmity or merely a bad habit. Synonyms for vice include fault, depravity, sin,
iniquity, wickedness and corruption. The modern English term that best captures
its original meaning is the word vicious, which means “full of vice”. In this sense,
the word vice comes from the Latin word vitium, meaning “failing or defect”.
Vice is the opposite of virtue.
The term vice is also popularly applied to various activities considered immoral
by some: a list of these might include the abuse of alcohol and other recreational
drugs, gambling, smoking, recklessness, cheating, lying and selfishness. Behaviors
or attitudes going against the established virtues of the culture may also be called
vices: for instance, effeminacy is considered a vice in a culture espousing
masculinity as an essential element of the character of males.
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3.8.1 The Christian Vices Virtues and Vices

Christians believe that there are two kinds of vice: those which originate with the
physical organism as perverse instincts (such as lust), and those which originate
with false idolatry in the spiritual realm. The first kind of vice, although sinful, is
believed to be less serious than the second. Some vices recognized as spiritual by
Christians are blasphemy (holiness betrayed), apostasy (faith betrayed), despair
(hope betrayed), hatred (love betrayed) and indifference (scripturally, a “hardened
heart”). Christian theologians have reasoned that the most destructive vice equates
to a certain type of pride or the complete idolatry of the self. It is argued that
through this vice, which is essentially competitive, all the worst evils come into
being. In Judeo- Christian creeds it originally led to the Fall of Man, and as a
purely diabolical spiritual vice, it outweighs anything else often condemned by
the Church.
The Roman Catholic Church distinguishes between vice, which is a habit inclining
one to sin. Note that in Roman Catholicism, the word “sin” also refers to the
state which befalls one upon committing a morally wrong act; in this section, the
word will always mean the sinful act. It is the sin, and not the vice, which deprives
one of God’s sanctifying grace. Thomas Aquinas taught that “absolutely speaking,
the sin surpasses the vice in wickedness”. On the other hand, even after a person’s
sins have been forgiven, the underlying habit (the vice) may remain. Just as vice
was created in the first place by repeatedly yielding to the temptation to sin, so
vice may be removed only by repeatedly resisting temptation and performing
virtuous acts; the more entrenched the vice, the more time and effort needed to
remove it. Saint Thomas Aquinas says that following rehabilitation and the
acquisition of virtues, the vice does not persist as a habit, but rather as a mere
disposition, and one that is in the process of being eliminated.
Dante’s seven deadly vices are: Pride or vanity — an excessive love of the self
(holding the self outside of its proper position regarding God or fellows; Dante’s
definition was “love of self perverted to hatred and contempt for one’s
neighbor”). In the Latin lists of the Seven Deadly Sins, pride is referred to as
superbia. Avarice (covetousness, greed) — a desire to possess more than one
has need or use for (or according to Dante, “excessive love of money and
power”). In the Latin lists of the Seven Deadly Sins, avarice is referred to as
avaritia. Lust — excessive sexual desire. Dante’s criterion was that “lust detracts
from true love”. In the Latin lists of the Seven Deadly Sins, lust is referred to
as luxuria. Wrath or anger — feelings of hatred, revenge or denial, as well as
punitive desires outside of justice (Dante’s description was “love of justice
perverted to revenge and spite”). In the Latin lists of the Seven Deadly Sins,
wrath is referred to as ira. Gluttony — overindulgence in food, drink or
intoxicants, or misplaced desire of food as a pleasure for its sensuality
(“excessive love of pleasure” was Dante’s rendering). In the Latin lists of the
Seven Deadly Sins, gluttony is referred to as gula. Envy or jealousy - resentment
of others for their possessions (Dante: “love of one’s own good perverted to a
desire to deprive other men of theirs”). In the Latin lists of the Seven Deadly
Sins, envy is referred to as invidia. Sloth or laziness - idleness and wastefulness
of time and/or other allotted resources. Laziness is condemned because it results
in others having to work harder; also, useful work will not be done. Sloth is
referred to in Latin as accidie or acedia.
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Basic Concepts
Check your progress III
Note: a) Use the space provided for your answer.
b) Check your answers with those provided at the end of the unit.
1. List the Hindu and Islamic Virtues.
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2. What is vice? Which are the seven deadly vices?

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3.9 LET US SUM UP

‘Virtue’ which comes from the Latin virtus means moral excellence. A virtue is a
character trait or quality valued as being good. Personal virtues are characteristics
valued as promoting individual and collective well-being, and thus good by
definition. The opposite of virtue is vice. While for Socrates knowledge is virtue,
for Aristotle virtue lies in the middle; and Plato speaks of the four cardinal virtues
on which rest all the moral virtues. Every religion advocates a virtuous life and
shuns vices. We have seen how Hinduism and Islam stress on various moral
virtues and point a way to salvation. On the other hand, by looking at the vices
and the seven deadly sins we have understood the way Christianity advocates a
virtuous life. Hence the message of all the three religions: Live virtuously and
avoid all the vices.

3.10 KEY WORDS

Arete : Greek term for excellence of any kind.
Virtue : Latin term for moral excellence.
Vitium : Latin term for vice, meaning defect.
Cardinal : comes from the Latin ‘cardo’ meaning hinge. So cardinal means the
main virtue on which others are hinged.

3.11 FURTHER READINGS AND REFERENCES

Lillie, William. An Introduction to Ethics. New Delhi: Allied Publishers Private
Limited, 1984.
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Olivera, George. Virtue in Diverse Traditions. Bangalore: Asian Trading Virtues and Vices
Corporation, 1998.
Guthrie, W.K.C. Socrates. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1971.
Singer, Peter (Ed.). A Companion to Ethics. Cambridge: Blackwell Publishers,
1995.

3.12 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Answers to Check your progress I
1. The Greek term for virtue is arête which was used for excellence of any
kind. But generally the excellence referred to is an excellence belonging to
human being so that the virtues may be described as the forms of human
excellence.‘Virtue’ which comes from the Latin virtus means moral
excellence. A virtue is a character trait or quality valued as being good.
Personal virtues are characteristics valued as promoting individual and
collective well-being, and thus good by definition. The opposite of virtue is
vice. In ethics, ‘virtue’ is used with two somewhat different meanings. (a) A
virtue is a quality of character – a disposition to do what is right in a particular
direction, or to perform one of the more universal duties. (b) A virtue is also
a habit of action corresponding to the quality of character or disposition. We
may refer to the honesty of a human person, or to the honesty of his dealings
equally as virtues.
2. Virtue, according to Socrates, is the deepest and most basic propensity of
humans. This virtue is knowledge. If virtue is knowledge it can be known
and consequently taught. This is the meaning of the imperative “know thyself.”
Know yourself means bring your inner self to light. Through knowledge
man gains possession of himself whereby he becomes his own master.
According to Socrates virtue is the highest aim and greatest good one has to
seek in life. He also insisted that if it is to be the highest aim and the greatest
good it must have universal consistency and be the same for all. Now, what
is universally consistent and the same for all is knowledge which is obtained
through concept by the use of reason which is common in all. The relation
between virtue and knowledge is inseparable. For, Socrates thinks that health,
wealth, beauty, courage, temperance etc., which are customarily considered
to be various forms of good, are good only if they are guided by wisdom; if
guided by folly they could be considered forms of evil.
Answers to Check your progress II
1. Plato describes the four cardinal virtues in The Republic. They are: wisdom,
courage, moderation, justice. Plato defines how an individual can attain these
virtues: Wisdom comes from exercising reason; Courage from exercising
emotions or spirit; Moderation (sometimes “temperance”) from allowing
reason to overrule desires; and from these Justice ensues, a state in which all
elements of the mind are in concord with one another. Justice is described by
Plato to be the founding and preserving virtue because only when someone
understands justice can he or she gain the other three virtues, and once
someone possesses all four virtues it is justice that keeps it all together.
43
Basic Concepts 2. Aristotle defined virtue as a habit of choice, the characteristic of which lies
in the observation of the mean or of moderation, as it is determined by reason
or as the practically prudent man would determine it. Aristotle regarded virtue
as primarily a habit of action, and so it was with him only secondarily a
quality of character. Virtue is not a mere habit, but a habit of choice. The
point in Aristotle’s definition which has been most discussed is his notion of
the mean or middle course. A virtue is regarded as if it were a middle position
between two vices; courage for example, is the middle position between
rashness and cowardice, and liberality is the middle position between
extravagance and miserliness. The place of the mean relative to the vices at
the extremes depends on the circumstances of each individual. A soldier’s
courage should be nearer to rashness than that of a statesman, for it is his
business to take risks which it would be criminal on the part of a statesman
to take. This conception is obviously in agreement with the Greek emphasis
on proportion and harmony in art, as expressed in the maxim ‘Nothing too
much’ or virtue lies in the middle.
Answers to Check your progress III
1. The Hindu virtues are: altruism- selfless Service to all humanity, restraint
and moderation, honesty, cleanliness, protection and reverence for the earth,
universality, peace, non- violence/ahimsa, reverence and respect for elders
and teachers. The Muslim virtues are: mercy, compassion, prayer, repentance,
honesty, loyalty, sincerity, frugality, prudence, moderation, self- restraint,
discipline, perseverance, patience, hope, dignity, courage, justice, tolerance,
wisdom, good speech, respect, purity, courtesy, kindness, gratitude, generosity,
contentment, etc.
2. Vice is a practice or a habit considered immoral, depraved, and/or degrading
in the associated society. In more minor usage, vice can refer to a fault, a
defect, an infirmity or merely a bad habit. Synonyms for vice include fault,
depravity, sin, iniquity, wickedness and corruption. The modern English term
that best captures its original meaning is the word vicious, which means
“full of vice”. In this sense, the word vice comes from the Latin word vitium,
meaning “failing or defect”. Vice is the opposite of virtue. The seven deadly
vices are: pride or vanity, avarice, lust, wrath or anger, gluttony, envy or
jealousy and sloth or laziness.

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