MA4545: Applied Differential Geometry

Lecture 3: Geometry of the Gauss Map

3.1 Motivation

As we have seen in Letcure 1, the consideration of the rate of change of the tangent line to a curve led us
to an important geometric entity, namely, the curvature. In this lecture, we shall extend this idea to regular
surfaces by measuring the rate of change at p of a unit normal vector field N on a neighborhood of p. As
we shall see, this rate of change is given by a linear map on Tp (S) which hapens to be self-adjoint.

3.2 Self-Adjoint Linear Maps and Quadratic Forms

Let V be a vector space of dimension 2, endowed with an innver product <, >.

Definition 3.1 We say that a linear map A : V → V is self-adjoint if < Av, w >=< v, Aw > for all
v, w ∈ V .

To each self-adjoint linear map, we associate a map B : V × V → R defined by

B(v, w) =< Av, w > .

B is clearly bilinear, that is, it is linear in both v and w. Moreover, A is self-adjoint implies that B(v, w) =
B(w, v), that is, B is a bilinear symmetric form in V .
Conversely, if B is a bilinear symmetric form in V , we can define a linear map A : V → V by < Av, w >=
B(v, w) and the symmetry of B implies that A is self-adjoint.
On the other hand, to each symmetric, bilinear form B in V , there corresponds a quadratic form Q in V
given by
Q(v) = B(v, v), v ∈ V,
and the knowledge of Q determines B completely, since
1
B(u, v) = [Q(u + v) − Q(u) − Q(v)].
2
Thus, a one-to-one correspondence is established between quadratic forms in V and self-adjoint linear maps
of V .

Lemma 3.2 If the function Q(x, y) = ax2 + 2bxy + cy 2 , restricted to the unit circle x2 + y 2 = 1, has a
maximum at the point (1, 0), then b = 0.

Proof: Parametrize the circle x2 + y 2 = 1 by x = cos t, y = sin t, t ∈ (−ε, 2π + ε). Thus, Q, restricted to
the circle, becomes a function of t:

Q(t) = a cos2 t + 2b cos t sin t + c sin2 t.

3-1
3-2 Lecture 3: Geometry of the Gauss Map

Since Q has a maximum at the point (1, 0), we have

 
dQ
= 2b = 0.
dt t=0
Hence, b = 0 as we wished.

Proposition 3.3 Given a quadratic form Q in V , there exists an orthonormal basis {e1 , e2 } of V such that
if v ∈ V is given by v = xe1 + ye2 , then

Q(v) = λ1 x2 + λ2 y 2 ,

where λ1 and λ2 are the maximum and minimum, respectively, of Q on the unit circle |v| = 1.

Proof: Let λ1 be the maximum of Q on the unit circle |v| = 1, and let e1 be a unit vector with Q(e1 ) = λ1 .
Such an e1 exists by continuity of Q on the compact set |v| = 1. Let e2 be a unit vector that is orthogonal
to e1 , and let λ2 = Q(e2 ).
Let B be the symmetric bilinear form from that is associated to Q and let v = xe1 + ye2 . Then

Q(v) = B(xe1 + ye2 , xe1 + ye2 ) = λ1 x2 + 2bxy + λ2 y 2 ,

where b = B(e1 , e2 ). By the lemma above, b = 0. So it remains to prove that λ2 is the minimum of Q in the
circle |v| = 1. This is immediate because, for any v = xe1 + ye2 with x2 + y 2 = 1, we have that

Q(v) = λ1 x2 + λ2 y 2 ≥ λ2 (x2 + y 2 ) = λ2 ,

since λ2 ≥ λ1 .

Definition 3.4 We say that a vector v 6= 0 is an eigenvector of a linear map A : V → V if Av = λv for

some real number λ, where λ is called an eigenvalue of A.

Theorem 3.5 Let A : V → V be a self-adjoint linear map. Then there exists an orthonormal basis {e1 , e2 }
of V such that A(e1 ) = λ1 e1 , A(e2 ) = λ2 e2 , that is, e1 and e2 are eigenvectors, and λ1 , λ2 are eigenvalues
of A. In the basis {e1 , e2 }, the matrix of A is clearly diagonal and the elements λ1 , λ2 , λ1 ≥ λ2 , on the
diagonal are the maximum and the minimum, respectively, of the quadratic form Q(v) =< Av, v > on the
unit circle of V .

Proof: Consider the quadratic form Q(v) =< Av, v >. By the proposition above, there exists an othonormal
basis {e1 , e2 } of V , with Q(e1 ) = λ1 , Q(e2 ) = λ2 ≤ λ1 , where λ1 and λ2 are the maximum and minimum,
respectively, of Q in the unit circle. It remains to prove that

A(e1 ) = λ1 e2 , A(e2 ) = λ2 e2 .

Since B(e1 , e2 ) =< Ae1 , e2 >= 0 by the lemma above, and e2 6= 0, we have that either Ae1 is parallel to e1
or Ae1 = 0. If Ae1 is parallel to e1 , then Ae1 = αe1 . Since < Ae1 , e1 >= λ1 =< αe1 , e1 >= α, we conclude
that Ae1 = λ1 e1 . If Ae1 = 0, then λ1 =< Ae1 , e1 >= 0 and Ae1 = 0 = λ1 e1 . Thus, we have Ae1 = λ1 e1 .
Now using the fact that
B(e1 , e2 ) =< Ae2 , e1 >= 0
and that
λ2 =< Ae2 , e2 >,
we can prove in the same way that Ae2 = λ2 e2 .
Lecture 3: Geometry of the Gauss Map 3-3

3.3 Gauss Map

Given a parametrization x : U ⊂ R2 → S of a regular surface S at a point p ∈ S, we can choose a unit

normal vector at each point of x(U ) by the rule

xu ∧ xv
N (q) = (q), q ∈ x(U ). (3.1)
|xu ∧ xv |

Thus we have a differentiable map N : V → R2 that associates to each q ∈ x(U ) a unit normal vector N (q).

Remark 3.6 It is a striking fact that not all surfaces admit a differentiable field of unit normal vectors
defined on the whole surface. For instance, on the Möbius strip, one cannot define such a field. (see pp. 138
in M. do Carmo’s textbook).

Throughout this course, S will denote a regular orientable surface in which an orientation (i.e., a differentiable
field of unit normal vectors N ) has been chosen. This will be simply called a surface S with an orientation
N.

Definition 3.7 Let S ⊂ R3 be a surface with an orientation N . The map N : S → R3 takes its values in
the unit sphere
S 2 = {(x, y, x) ∈ R3 : x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 1}.

The map N : S → S 2 , thus defined, is called the Gauss map of S.

It is straightforward to verify that the Gauss map is differentiable. The differential dNp of N at p ∈ S is a
linear map from Tp (S) to TN (p) (S 2 ). Since Tp (S) and TN (p) (S 2 ) are the same vector space who share the
same normal vector, dNp can be looked upon as a linear map on Tp (S).
3-4 Lecture 3: Geometry of the Gauss Map

Remark 3.8 The linear map dNp : Tp (S) → Tp (S) operates as follows. For each parametrized curve α(t)
in S with α(0) = p, we consider the parametrized curve N (t) = N ◦ α(t) in the sphere S 2 . The tangent
vector N 0 (0) = dNp (α0 (0)) is a vector in Tp (S). It measures that the rate of change of the normal vector N ,
restricted to the curve α(t), at t = 0. Thus, dNp measures how N pulls away from N (p) in a neighborhood
of p. In the case of curves, this measure is given by a number, the curvature. In the case of surfaces, this
measure is characterized by a linear map.
√
Example 1. For a plane P given by ax + by + cz + d = 0, the unit normal vector N = (a, b, c)/ a2 + b2 + c2
is constant, and therefore dN ≡ 0.
Example 2. Consider the unit sphere S 2 = {(x, y, z) ∈ R3 , x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 1}. If α(t) = (x(t), y(t), z(t)) is
a parametrized curve in S 2 , then 2xx0 + 2yy 0 + 2zz 0 = 0, which shows that the vector (x, y, z) is normal to
the sphere at the point (x, y, z). Thus N = (−x, −y, −z) is a field of unit normal vectors in S 2 . We fix the
orientation in S 2 by choosing N = (−x, −y, −z) as a normal field. Restricted to the curve α(t), the normal
vector
N (t) = (−x(t), −y(t), −z(t))
is a vector function of t, and therefore

dN (x0 (t), y 0 (t), z 0 (t)) = N 0 (t) = (−x0 (t), −y 0 (t), −z 0 (t)).

Hence, dNp (v) = −v for all p ∈ S 2 and all v ∈ Tp (S 2 ).

Proposition 3.9 The differential dNp : Tp (S) → Tp (S) of the Gauss map is a self-adjoint linear map.

Proof: Since dNp is linear, it suffices to verify that < dNp (w1 ), w2 >=< w1 , dNp (w2 ) > for a basis {w1 , w2 }
of Tp (S). Let x(u, v) be a parametrization of S at p and {xu , xv } the associated basis of Tp (S). If α(t) =
x(u(t), v(t)) is a parametrized curve in S, with α(0) = p, we have
d
dNp (α0 (0)) = dNp (xu u0 (0) + xv v 0 (0)) = N (u(t), v(t)) t=0
= Nu u0 (0) + Nv v 0 (0).
dt
Hence dNp (xu ) = Nu and dNp (xv ) = Nv . Therefore, to prove that dNp is self-adjoint, it suffices to show
that
< Nu , xv >=< xu , Nv > .
To see this, take the derivatives of < N, xu >= 0 and < N, xv >= 0, relative to v and u, respectively, to
obtain
< Nv , xu > + < N, xuv >=< Nu , xv > + < N, xuv >= 0.
Thus
< Nu , xv >= − < N, xuv >=< Nv , xu > .

The fact that dNp : Tp (S) → Tp (S) is a self-adjoint linear map allows us to associate to dNp a quadratic
form Q in Tp (S) in the following definition.

Definition 3.10 The quadratic form IIp defined in Tp (S) by IIp (v) = − < dNp (v), v > is called the second
fundamental form of S at p.

Definition 3.11 Let C be a regular curve in S passing through p ∈ S, k the curvature of C at p, and
cos θ =< n, N >, where n is the normal vector to C and N is the normal vector to S at p. The number
kn = k cos θ is then called the normal curvature of C ⊂ S at p.
Lecture 3: Geometry of the Gauss Map 3-5

Remark 3.12 In other words, kn is the length of the projection of the vector kn over the normal to the
surface at p, with a sign given by the orientation N of S at p.

Proposition 3.13 (Meusnier) All curves lying on a surface S and having at a given point p ∈ S the same
tangent line have at this point the same normed curvature. In fact, the value of the second fundamental form
IIp for a unit vector v ∈ Tp (S) is equal to the normal curvature of a regular curve passing through p and
tangent to v.

Proof: Consider a regular curve C ⊂ S parametrized by α(s), where s is the arc length of C, and with
α(0) = p. If we denote by N (s) the restriction of the normal vector N to the curve α(s), we have <
N (s), α0 (s) >= 0. Hence
< N (s), α00 (s) >= − < N 0 (s), α0 (s) > .
Therefore,

IIp (α0 (0)) = − < dNp (α0 (0)), α0 (0) >= − < N 0 (0), α0 (0) >=< N (0), α00 (0) >=< N, kn > (p) = kn (p).

By Theorem 3.5, for each p ∈ S, there exists an orthonormal basis {e1 , e2 } of Tp (S) such that dNp (e1 ) =
−k1 e1 and dNp (e2 ) = −k2 e2 . Moreover, k1 and k2 (k1 ≥ k2 ) are the maximum and minimum of the second
fundamental form IIp restricted to the unit circle of Tp (S), i.e., they are the extreme values of the normal
curvature at p.

Definition 3.14 The maximum normal curvature k1 and the minimum normal curvature k2 are called the
principal curvature at p. The corresponding directions, that is, the directions given by the eigenvectors e1
and e2 are called principal directions at p.
3-6 Lecture 3: Geometry of the Gauss Map

Definition 3.15 If a regular connected curve C on S is such that for all p ∈ C the tangent line of C is a
principal direction at p, then C is said to be a line of curvature of S.

Proposition 3.16 (Olinde Rodrigues) A necessary and sufficient condition for a connected regular curve
C on S to be a line of curvature of S is that

N 0 (t) = λ(t)α0 (t),

for any parametrization α(t) of C, where N (t) = N ◦ α(t) and λ(t) is a differentiable function of t. In this
case, −λ(t) is the (principal) curvature along α0 (t).

Proof: It suffices to observe that if α0 (t) is contained in a principal direction, then α0 (t) is an eigenvector
of dN and
dN (α0 (t)) = N 0 (t) = λ(t)α0 (t).
The converse is immediate.

Remark 3.17 (Euler formula) The knowledge of the principal curvatures at p allows us to compute easily
the normal curvature along a given direction of Tp (S). In fact, let v ∈ Tp (S) with |v| = 1. Since e1 and e2
form an orthonormal basis of Tp (S), we have

v = e1 cos θ + e2 sin θ,

where θ is the angle from e1 to v in the orientation of Tp (S). The normal curvature kn along v is given by

kn =IIp (v) = − < dNp (v), v >

=− < dNp (e1 cos θ + e2 sin θ), e1 cos θ + e2 sin θ >
= < e1 k1 cos θ + e2 k2 sin θ, e1 cos θ + e2 sin θ >
=k1 cos2 θ + k2 sin2 θ.

The last expression is known classically as the Euler formula, which is the expression of the second funda-
mental form in the basis {e1 , e2 }.

Given a linear map A : V → V of a vector space of dimension 2 and given a basis {v1 , v2 } of V , we recall
that
detA = a11 a22 − a12 a21 , trA = a11 + a22 ,
where {aij } is the matrix of A in the basis {v1 , v2 }. It is known that these numbers do not depend on the
choice of the basis {v1 , v2 }, and are therefore attached to the linear map.

Definition 3.18 Let p ∈ S and let dNp : Tp (S) → Tp (S) be the differential of the Gauss map. The
determinant of dNp is the Gaussian curvature K of S at p. The negative of half of the trace of dNp is called
the mean curvature H of S at p. Particularly, in terms of the principal curvatures, we can write

k1 + k2
K = k1 k2 , H= .
2

Definition 3.19 A point of a surface S is called

1. Elliptic if det(dNp ) > 0

Lecture 3: Geometry of the Gauss Map 3-7

2. Hyperbolic if det(dNp ) < 0

3. Parabolic if det(dNp ) = 0, with dNp 6= 0
4. Plane if dNp = 0.

Examples of the elliptic point, hyperbolic point, parabolic point, and plane point, can be found in M. do
Carmo’s text book.

Definition 3.20 If at p ∈ S, k1 = k2 , then p is called an umbilical point of S. In particular, the planar

points (k1 = k2 = 0) are umbilical points.

All the points of a sphere and a plane are umbilical points. We shall now prove the interesting fact that the
only surfaces made up entirely of umbilical points are essentially spheres and planes.

Proposition 3.21 If all points of a connected surface S are umbilical points, then S is either contained in
a sphere or in a plane.

Proof: Let p ∈ S and let x(u, v) be a parametrization of S at p such that the coordinate neighborhood V
is connected. Since each q ∈ V is an umbilical point, we have, for any vector w = a1 xu + a2 xv in Tq (S),

dN (w) = λ(q)w,

where λ = λ(q) is a real differential function in V .

We first show that λ(q) is constant in V . For that, we write the above equation as

Nu a1 + Nv a2 = λ(xu a1 + xv a2 ).

Hence, since w is arbitrary,

Nu = λxu , Nv = λxv .
Differentiating the first equation in v and the second one in u and substracting the resulting equations, we
obtain
λu xv − λv xu = 0.
Since xu and xv are linear independent, we conclude that

λu = λv = 0

for all q ∈ V . Since V is connected, λ is constant in V , as we claimed.

If λ ≡ 0, Nu = Nv = 0 and therefore, N = N0 = constant in V . Thus, < x(u, v), N0 >u =< x(u, v), N0 >v =
0. Hence,
< x(u, v), N0 >= constant
and all points x(u, v) of V belong to a plane.
If λ 6= 0, then the point x(u, v) − λ1 N (u, v) = y is fixed, because
   
1 1
x(u, v) − N (u, v) = x(u, v) − N (u, v) = 0.
λ u λ v

So
1
|x(u, v) − y|2 = .
λ2
3-8 Lecture 3: Geometry of the Gauss Map

It means that all points of V are contained in a sphere of center y and radius 1/|λ|.
This proves the proposition locally. To complete the proof, we observe that since S is connected, given any
other point r ∈ S, there exists a continuous curve α : [0, 1] → S with α(0) = p, α(1) = r. For each point
α(t) ∈ S of this curve, there exists a neiborhood Vt ⊂ S contained in a sphere or in a plane and such that
α−1 (Vt ) is an open interval of [0, 1]. The union ∪α−1 (Vt ), t ∈ [0, 1], covers [0, 1] and since [0, 1] is a closed
interval, it is covered by finitely many elements of the family α−1 (Vt ) (cf. Heine-Borel Theorem). Thus
α([0, 1]) is covered by a finite number of the neighborhood Vt .
If one of these neighborhoods are on a plane (sphere), all the others will be on the same plane (sphere).
Since r is arbitrary, all the points of S belong to this plane (sphere).

Definition 3.22 Let p be a point in S. An asymptotic direction of S at p is a direction of Tp (S) for which
the normal curvature is zero. An asymptotic curve of S is a regular connected curve C ⊂ S such that for
each p ∈ C, the tangent line of C is an asymptotic direction.

Remark 3.23 It follows at once from the definition that at an elliptic point, there are no asymptotic direc-
tions.

Definition 3.24 Let p be a point on a surface S. Two nonzero vectors w1 , w2 ∈ Tp (S) are conjugate if
< dNp (w1 ), w2 >=< w1 , dNp (w2 ) >= 0. Two directions r1 and r2 are conjugate if a pair of nonzero vectors
w1 and w2 parallel to r1 and r2 , respectively, are conjugate.

Proposition 3.25 The principal directions are conjugate and an asymptotic direction is conjugate to itself.
Furthermore, at a nonplanar umbilic, every orthogonal pair of directions is a pair of conjugate directions,
and at a planar umbilic, each direction is conjugate to any other direction.

Proof: It follows from the definition.

3.4 Gauss Map in Local Coordinates

All parametrization x : U ⊂ R2 → S considered in this section are assumed to ba compatible with the
orientation N of S, that is, in x(U ),
xu ∧ xv
N= .
|xu ∧ xv |
Let x(u, v) be a prametrization at a point p ∈ S of a surface S, and let α(t) = x(u(t), v(t)) be a parametrized
curve on S, with α(0) = p. To simplify the notation, we shall make the convention that all functions to
appear below denote their values at the point p.
The tangent vector to α(t) at p is α0 = xu u0 + xv v 0 and

dN (α0 ) = N 0 (u(t), v(t)) = Nu u0 + Nv v 0 .

Since Nu and Nv belong to Tp (S), we may write

Nu = a11 xu + a21 xv , Nv = a12 xu + a22 xv , (3.2)

and therefore,
dN (α0 ) = (a11 u0 + a12 v 0 )xu + (a21 u0 + a22 v 0 )xv .
Lecture 3: Geometry of the Gauss Map 3-9

Hence  0    0
u a11 a12 u
dN = .
v0 a21 a22 v0
This shows that in the basis {xu , xv }, dN is given by the matrix (aij ), i, j = 1, 2. Notice that this matrix
is not necessarily symmetric, unless {xu , xv } is an orthonormal basis. In fact, if {xu , xv } is an orthonormal
basis, then a21 =< dN (xu ), xv >=< xu , dN (xv ) >= a12 .
On the other hand, the expression of the second fundamental form in the basis {xu , xv } is given by

IIp (α0 ) = − < dN (α0 ), α0 >= − < Nu u0 + Nv v 0 , xu u0 + xv v 0 >= e(u0 )2 + 2f u0 v 0 + g(v 0 )2 ,

where since < N, xu >=< N, xv >= 0,

e =− < Nu , xu >=< N, xuu >

f =− < Nv , xu >=< N, xuv >=< N, xvu >= − < Nu , xv >
g =− < Nv , xv >=< N, xvv > .

We shall now obtain the values of aij in terms of the coefficients e, f , g from (3.2), we have

−f =< Nu , xv >= a11 F + a21 G,

−f =< Nv , xu >= a12 E + a22 F,
−e =< Nu , xu >= a11 E + a21 F,
−g =< Nv , xv >= a12 F + a22 G

where E =< xu , xu >, F =< xu , xv >, G =< xv , xv > are the coefficients of the first fundamental form in
the basis {xu , xv }. The relation can be expressed in matrix form by
    
e f a11 a21 E F
− = . (3.3)
f g a12 a22 F G

Hence     −1    
a11 a21 e f E F e f 1 G −F
− = = .
a12 a22 f g F G f g EG − F 2 −F E
Therefore, the following expressions for the coefficents (aij ) of the matrix of dN in the basis {xu , xv }:

f F − eG gF − f G eF − f E f F − gE
a11 = , a12 = , a21 = , a22 = . (3.4)
EG − F 2 EG − F 2 EG − F 2 EG − F 2

For completeness, it should be mentioned that relation (3.2), with the above values, are known as the
equations of Weingarten.
From (3.3), we immediately obtain
eg − f 2
K = det(aij ) = . (3.5)
EG − F 2
To compute the mean curvature, we recall that if −k1 and −k2 are the eigenvalues of dN , then
 
a11 + k a12
det =0
a21 a22 + k
or
k 2 + k(a11 + a22 ) + (a11 a22 − a21 a12 ) = 0.
3-10 Lecture 3: Geometry of the Gauss Map

Since k1 and k2 are the roots of the above quadratic equation, we conclude that
1 1 1 eG − 2f F + gE
H= (k1 + k2 ) = − (a11 + a22 ) = . (3.6)
2 2 2 EG − F 2
Hence
k 2 − 2Hk + K = 0,
and therefore, p
k1 , k2 = H ± H 2 − K.
From this relation, we have the following proposition.

Proposition 3.26 If we choose k1 (q) ≥ k2 (q), q ∈ S, then the functions k1 and k2 are continuous in S.
Moreover, k1 and k2 are differentiable in S, except perhaps at the umbilical points (H 2 = K) of S.

Example 3. Compute the Gaussian curvature of the points of the torus covered by the parametrization

x(u, v) = ((a + r cos u) cos v, (a + r cos u) sin v, r sin u), 0 < u < 2π, 0 < v < 2π.

Solution. By straightforward computation,

xu =(−r sin u cos v, −r sin u sin v, r cos u)

xv =(−(a + r cos u) sin v, (a + r cos u) cos v, 0)
xuu =(−r cos u cos v, −r cos u sin v, −r sin u)
xuv =(r sin u sin v, −r sin u cos v, 0)
xvv =(−(a + r cos u) cos v, −(a + r cos u) sin v, 0).

So
E =< xu , xu >= r2 , F =< xu , xv >= 0, G =< xv , xv >= (a + r cos u)2 ,
√
and |xu ∧ xv | = EG − F 2 = r(a + r cos u). Then

< xu ∧ xv , xuu > r2 (a + r cos u) < xu ∧ xv , xuv > < xu ∧ xv , xvv >
e= = = r, f= = 0, g= = cos u(a+r cos u).
|xu ∧ xv | r(a + r cos u) r(a + r cos u) r(a + r cos u)

Hence
eg − f 2 cos u
K= 2
= .
EG − F r(a + r cos u)

Next, as an application of the expression for the second fundamental form in coordinates, we shall prove a
proposition which gives information about the position of a surface in the neighborhood of an elliptic or a
hyperbolic point, relative to the tangent plane at this point.

Proposition 3.27 Let p ∈ S be an elliptic point of a surface S. Then there exists a neighborhood V of p
in S such that all points in V belong to the same side of the tangent plane Tp (S). Let p ∈ S be a hyperbolic
point. Then in each neighborhood of p, there exist points of S in both sides of Tp (S).

Proof: Let x(u, v) be a parametrization in p, with x(0, 0) = p. The distance d from a point q = x(u, v) to
the tangent plane Tp (S) is given by

d =< x(u, v) − x(0, 0), N (p) > .

Lecture 3: Geometry of the Gauss Map 3-11

Since x(u, v) is differentiable, we have Taypor’s formula:

1
x(u, v) = x(0, 0) + xu u + xv v + (xuu u2 + 2xuv uv + xvv v 2 ) + R,
2
where the derivative are taken at (0, 0) and the remainder R satisfies the condition
R
lim = 0.
(u,v)→(0,0) u2 + v 2
It follows

d = < x(u, v) − x(0, 0), N (p) >

1
= (< xuu , N (p) > u2 + 2 < xuv , N (p > uv+ < xvv , N (p) > v 2 )+ < R, N (p) >
2
1
= (eu2 + 2f uv + gv 2 )+ < R, N (p) >
2
1
= IIp (w)+ < R, N (p) >
2
<R,N (p)>
where w = xu u + xv v and limw→0 |w|2 = 0.

For an elliptic point p, IIp (w) has a fixed sign. Therefore, for all (u, v) sufficiently near (0, 0), d has the
same sign as IIp (w). That is, all such x(u, v) belong to the same side of Tp (S).
For a hyperbolic point p, in each neghhorhood of (0, 0), there exist points (u, v) and (ũ, ṽ) such that IIp (w)
and IIp (w̃) have opposite signs, where w̃ = xu ũ + x vṽ. Such points belong to distince sides of Tp (S), for
(u, v) sufficiently near (0, 0).

Remark 3.28 No such statement as Proposition 3.27 can be made in a neighborhood of a parabolic or a
planar point. Examples in M. do Carmo’s text book (see Examples 2 & 3 in pp. 161-162) show that an
entirely different situation may occur.

The expression of the second fundamental form in local coordinates is particularly useful for the study of
the asymptotic and principal directions. We first look at the asymptotic directions.
Let x(u, v) be a parametrization at p ∈ S with x(0, 0) = p. Let e = e(u, v), f = f (u, v) and g = g(u, v) be
the coefficients of the second fundamental form in this parametrization.

Proposition 3.29 A connected regular curve C in the coordinate neighborhood of x is an asymptotic curve
if and only if
e(u0 )2 + 2f u0 v 0 + g(v 0 )2 = 0, t ∈ I. (3.7)
Moreover, a necessary and sufficient condition for a prametrization in a neighborhood of a hyperbolic point
(eg − f 2 < 0) to be such that the coordinate curves of the parametrization are asymptotic curves is that
e = g = 0.

Proof: Because a connected regular curve C in the coordinate neighborhood of x is an asymptotic curve if
and only if for any parametrization α(t) = x(u(t, v(t))), t ∈ I, of C, we have II(α0 (t)) = 0, so if and only if,
for all t ∈ I, (3.7) holds.
Next, if both curves u = cosntant, v = v(t) and u = u(t), v = constant, satisfy (3.7), we obtain e = g = 0.
Conversely, if e = g = 0 and f 6= 0, equation (3.7) becomes f u0 v 0 = 0, which is clearly satisfied by the
coordinate lines.
3-12 Lecture 3: Geometry of the Gauss Map

Remark 3.30 Equation (3.7) is called the differential equation of the asymptotic curves.

We shall now consider the principal directions.

Proposition 3.31 A connected regular curve C in the coordinate neighborhood of x is a line of curvature
if and only if
(v 0 )2 −u0 v 0 (u0 )2
E F G = 0. (3.8)
e f g
Moreover, a necessary and sufficient condition for the coordinate curves of a parametriztion to be the lines
of curvature in a neighborhood of a nonumblical point is that F = f = 0.

Proof: A connected regular curve C in the coordinate neighborhood of x is a line of curvature if and only
if for any parametrization α(t) = x(u(t), v(t)) of C, t ∈ I, we have

dN (α0 (t)) = λ(t)α0 (t).

It follows from (3.4) that the functions u0 (t) and v 0 (t) satisfy the system of equations

f F − eG 0 gF − f G 0 eF − f E 0 f F − gE 0
u + v = λu0 , u + v = λv 0 .
EG − F 2 EG − F 2 EG − F 2 EG − F 2
By eliminating λ in the above system, we obtain

(f E − eF )(u0 )2 + (gE − eG)u0 v 0 + (gF − f G)(v 0 )2 = 0.

It is (3.8).
Using the fact that the principal directions are orthogonal to each other at the nonumblical points, the
proposition follows easily from (3.8) (Consider u0 = 0 or v 0 = 0). In fact, if F 6= 0, then e = Ef fG
F and g = F .
So
f f
λ1 u0 = − u0 , λ2 v 0 = − v 0 .
F F
Then λ1 = λ2 = − Ff , which is a contradiction at the nonumblical points. Similar argument to show f = 0.

Remark 3.32 Equation (3.8) is called the differential equation of the lines of curvature.

Example 4. Consider a surface of revolution parametrized by

x(u, v) = (ϕ(v) cos u, ϕ(v) sin u, ψ(v)), 0 < u < 2π, a < v < b, ϕ(v) > 0, (ϕ0 )2 + (ψ 0 )2 = 1.

The coefficients of the first fundamental form are given by

E = ϕ2 , F = 0, G = (ϕ0 )2 + (ψ 0 )2 = 1.

Then
−ϕ sin u ϕ0 cos u −ϕ cos u
< xu ∧ xv , xuu > 1
e= √ =√ ϕ cos u ϕ0 sin u −ϕ sin u = −ϕψ 0 , f = 0, g = ψ 0 ϕ00 −ψ 00 ϕ0 .
EG − F 2 EG − F 2 0 ψ0 0
Lecture 3: Geometry of the Gauss Map 3-13

Since F = f = 0, we conclude that the parallels v = constant and the meridians u = constnat of a surface
of revolution are lines of curvature of such a surface.
Because
eg − f 2 ψ 0 (ψ 0 ϕ00 − ψ 00 ϕ0 )
K= 2
=−
EG − F ϕ
and ϕ is always positive, if follows that the parabolic points are given by either ψ 0 = 0 (the tangent line
to the generator curve is perpendicular to the axis of rotation) or ϕ0 ψ 00 − ψ 0 ϕ00 = 0 (the curvature of the
generator curve is zero).
To compute the principal curvatures, we first make the following general observation: If a parametrization
of a regular surface is such that F = f = 0, then the principal curvatures are given by e/E and g/G. In
fact, in this case, the Gaussian and the mean curvatures are given by (3.5) and (3.6), that is,
eg 1 eG + gE
K= , H= .
EG 2 EG
Since K is the product and 2H is the sum of the principal curvatures, our assertion follows at once.
Thus, the principal curvatures of a surface of revolution are given by
e ψ0 ϕ −ψ 0 g
=− 2 =− , = ψ 0 ϕ00 − ψ 00 ϕ0 .
E ϕ ϕ G
Hence the mean curvature of such a surface is
1 −ψ 0 + ϕ(ψ 0 ϕ00 − ψ 00 ϕ0 )
H= .
2 ϕ

To conclude this section, we shall give a geometrical interpretation of the Gaussian curvature in terms of the
Gauss map N : S → S 2 . Actually, this was how Gauss himself introduced this curvature.

Proposition 3.33 Let p be a point of a surface S such that the Gaussian curvature K(p) 6= 0, and let V be
a connected neighborhood of p, where K does not change sign. Then
A0
K(p) = lim ,
A→0 A

where A is the area of a region B ⊂ V containing p, A0 is the area of the image of B by the Gauss map
N : S → S 2 , and the limit is taken through a sequence of regions Bn that converges to p, in the sense that
any sphere around p contains all Bn , for n sufficiently large.

Proof: The area A of B is given by ZZ

A= |xu ∧ xv |dudv,
R
where x(u, v) is a parametrization in p, whose coordinate neighborhood contains V (V can be assumed
to be sufficiently small) and R is the region in the uv plane corresponding to B. Obviously, N (u, v) is a
parametrization in N (p), whose coordinate neighborhood contains N (V ). The area A0 of N (B) is
ZZ
0
A = |Nu ∧ Nv |dudv.
R

By (3.2) and the formula K = det(aij ), we have

ZZ
A0 = K|xu ∧ xv |dudv.
R
3-14 Lecture 3: Geometry of the Gauss Map

Therefore,
limR→0 R1 R K|xu ∧ xv |dudv
RR
A0 A0 /R K|xu ∧ xv |
lim = lim = = = K.
limR→0 R1 R |xu ∧ xv |dudv
RR
A→0 A R→0 A/R |xu ∧ xv |