Wind tunnel Techniques

Module-2

Classification and types of wind tunnel, special problems of testing in subsonic, transonic,
supersonic and hypersonic speed regions, Layouts – sizing and design parameters. Tunnel
blockage factor

Classification and types of wind tunnels

Wind tunnels may be classified based on any of the following:

(a) Speed, Mach no

They are classified as of low speed or high speed wind tunnels .In wind
tunnel parlance, high speed wind tunnels are those operating at speeds where
compressibility effects are important. They are also classified based on the
Mach number of operation as subsonic, transonic, supersonic or hypersonic
wind tunnels.

(b) Mode of operation (Pressure storage, in-draft or Pressure vacuum

type.)

(c) Kind of test section (T.S) - Open, Closed or Semi enclosed

Low–Speed Wind Tunnels

Low-speed tunnels are those with test-section speed less than 650 kmph.
Depending upon the test-section size they are referred to as small size or full
scale tunnels. They are further classified into the following categories: open-
circuit tunnels, having no guided return of air, as shown in fig

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Wind tunnel Techniques

Figure 1.1: Open circuit wind tunnel

The air low follows a straight path from the inlet to the exhaust.
The main components are the inlet, which guides the flow into the tunnel; the
contraction, where the low is accelerated up to the speed desired in the test
section; the test section, where the model is placed and measurements are
carried out. The test section provides the desired uniform flow conditions along
and across the section. It is important that the test section conditions are
controllable. Diffuser which reduces the low velocity by expanding the flow and
recovering the static pressure; and the fan, which drives the motion of the fluid
in the wind tunnel. Here, the tunnel draws air directly from the atmosphere, all
the time entirely fresh air flows through the tunnel. The second type, called
closed-circuit or return-flow tunnel, has a continuous path for the air, as shown
in Fig 1.2

The components of these tunnels are essentially the same as in the

open-return tunnels, with the addiction of the return duct that allows the air
exiting the fan section to return to the contraction section and to the test section.
The return duct must be properly designed to reduce the pressure losses and to
insure smooth flow in the test section. Corners typically consist of 90° bends; to
limit the pressure losses at the corners and avoid the formation of secondary
recirculating lows, the corners are usually equipped with guide vanes.

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Wind tunnel Techniques

Figure 1.2: Typical closed-circuit wind tunnel

Both open-circuit and closed-circuit tunnels can operate with either open-jet
or closed-jet test-sections. Open-jet is that test-section without side walls and
closed-jet test-section is that with side walls. The cross-section of the test-
section can have different shapes such as, rectangular, circular, elliptical,
octagonal, etc. In low-speed tunnels, the predominant factors influencing the
tunnel performance are inertia and viscosity. The effect of compressibility is
negligible for these tunnels. Thus, if the Reynolds number of the experimental
model and full scale prototype are equal, any difference in viscosity becomes
unimportant

A general utility low-speed tunnel has four important components,

namely, the effuser, the test-section, the diffuser, and the driving unit.

Effuser

This is basically a contraction cone, as shown in Figure. Its application is to

bring down the level of turbulence and increase the velocity of flow. The
contraction ratio n of an effuser is defined as

The contraction ratio usually varies from 4 to 20 for conventional low speed
tunnels.
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Wind tunnel Techniques

Test-Section

The portion of the tunnel with constant flow characteristics across its
entire section is termed the test- or working-section. Since boundary layer is
formed along the test-section walls, the walls are given a suitable divergence so
that the net cross-sectional area of the uniform flow is constant along the length
of the test-section.

Diffuser

The purpose of the diffuser is to convert the kinetic energy of the flow
coming out of the test-section to pressure energy, before it leaves the diffuser, as
efficiently as possible. Generally, the smaller the diffuser divergence angle, the
more efficient is the diffuser. Near the exit, its cross-section should be circular
to accommodate the fan

Driving Unit

Generally the driving unit consists of a motor and a propeller or fan

combination. The fan is used to increase the static pressure of the stream leaving
the diffuser. The wind tunnel fan, looking similar to the propeller of an airplane,
operates under peculiar conditions that put it in a class by itself. Since the thrust
of the fan and the drag of the various tunnel components vary with the square of
the fan rpm, it would appear that to maintain a uniform velocity distribution in
the test-section, speed adjustments should be made by varying the fan rpm
rather than fan pitch. Although this conclusion is justified in short tunnels of
low contraction ratio, for large tunnels it is not true. Indeed, many large tunnels
which are equipped with both rpm and pitch change mechanisms use only the
latter, being quick and simpler

The following are advantages and disadvantages of an open return tunnel:

Advantages

1. Construction cost is typically much less.

2. If one intends to run internal combustion engines or do extensive flow

visualization via smoke, there is no purging problem provided both inlet and
exhaust are open to the atmosphere

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Wind tunnel Techniques

Disadvantages

1. The low quality entering the inlet and moving toward the test section may be
low. To enhance the low quality, screens and low straighteners may be
introduced upstream ofthe test section.

2. High operating costs, because the fan must continuously accelerate the low
through the tunnel.

3. Noisy operation mainly associated with the fan noise. Due to the low
construction costs, the open-return configuration is often preferred

The following are advantages and disadvantages of a closed return tunnel:

Advantages

1. Through the use of comer turning vanes and screens, the quality of the flow
can be well controlled and most important will be independent of other
activities in the building and weather conditions.

2. Less energy is required for a given test-section size and velocity. This can be
important for a tunnel used for developmental experiments with high utilization
(two or three shifts, five to six days a week).

3. There is less environmental noise when operating.

Disadvantages

1. The initial cost is higher due to return ducts and comer vanes.

2. If used extensively for smoke flow visualization experiments or running of

internal combustion engines, there must be a way to purge tunnel.

3. If tunnel has high utilization, it may have to have an air exchanger or some
other method of cooling.

High–Speed Wind Tunnels

High-speed tunnels are those with test-section speed more than 650
kmph. The power to drive a low-speed wind tunnel varies as the cube of the
test-section velocity. Although this rule is not valid for the high-speed regime,
the implication of rapidly increasing power requirement with increasing test-
section speed is true for high-speed tunnels also. Because of the power
requirements, high-speed wind tunnels are often of the intermittent type in
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Wind tunnel Techniques

which energy is stored in the form of pressure or vacuum or both and is allowed
to drive the tunnel only a few seconds out of each pumping hour.

High-speed tunnels are generally grouped into intermittent and

continuous operation tunnels, based on the type of operation. The intermittent
tunnels are further divided into blowdown tunnels and induction tunnels, based
on type of the operational procedure.

Even though the flow in the Mach number range from 0.5 to 5.0 is
usually termed as high-speed flow, the tunnels with test–section Mach number
less than 0.9 are generally grouped and treated under subsonic wind tunnels.
Wind tunnels with Mach numbers from 1.5 to 5.0 are classified as supersonic
tunnels and those with Mach number more than 5 are termed hypersonic
tunnels. The wind tunnels in the Mach number range from 0.9 to 1.5 are called
transonic tunnels.

The intermittent blowdown and induction tunnels are normally used for
Mach numbers from 0.5 to about 5.0, and the intermittent pressure-vacuum
tunnels are normally used for higher Mach numbers. The continuous tunnel is
used throughout the speed range. Both intermittent and continuous tunnels have
their own advantages and disadvantages.

Blowdown–Type Wind Tunnels

The basic circuit of a blowdown tunnel is composed by compressor, air

storage tank, stagnation pressure control system, test section, and exhaust. The
working fluid is compressed by a compressor and stored in the high-pressure
tank. When the control valve is opened, the low expands in the nozzle up to the
design (supersonic) Mach number in the test section and then exhausts to the
atmosphere. Since the flow exhausts to the atmosphere, the tunnel exit pressure
is known; hence, the minimum compression ratio for the design Mach number
can be easily computed.

The sizing of a blowdown tunnel is conducted based on the consideration

that, within reasonable cost and space limitations, we would like the largest test
section possible to maximize the test Reynolds number. The run time is strictly
dependent on the air low rate and testsection size; most blowdown tunnels are
designed for minimum run times between 20 and 40 seconds.

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Wind tunnel Techniques

The tunnel test section has a width and height can be varied based on the
freestream Mach number. The Mach number in the test section can be either
subsonic (from 0.5 to 0.85) or supersonic (from 1.15 to 4.2). Dry air stored in
astorage vessel allows intermittent operation of the wind tunnel for 300 seconds.
The air contained in the vessel is dried and filtered in order to achieve
condensation-free airstream. Supersonic Mach numbers are set by means of a
continuously variable throat and flexible upper and lower nozzle walls; the
Mach number may be varied during a run. Subsonic Mach numbers are
controlled using a variable choke section in the outlet diffuser. For transonic
tests, a test section with either slotted or perforated walls may be inserted
downstream of the closed-wall test section.

Figure: Schematic layout of intermittent blowdown tunnel

Advantages

The main advantages of blowdown-type wind tunnels are the following.

• They are the simplest among the high-speed tunnel types and most eco-
nomical to build.

• Large size test-sections and high Mach numbers (up to M = 4) can be

obtained.

• Constant blowing pressure can be maintained and running time of consid-

erable duration can be achieved

These are the primary advantages of intermittent blowdown tunnels. In

addition to these, there are many additional advantages for this type of tunnel,
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Wind tunnel Techniques

like a single drive may easily run several tunnels of different capabilities, failure
of a model usually will not result in tunnel damage. Extra power is available to
start the tunnel and so on.

Disadvantages

The major disadvantages of blowdown tunnels are the following.

• Charging time to running time ratio will be very high for large size tunnels.

• Stagnation temperature in the reservoir drops during tunnel run, thus changing
the Reynolds number of the flow in the test-section.

• Adjustable (automatic) throttling valve between the reservoir and settling

chamber is necessary for constant stagnation pressure (temperature vary- ing)
operation.

• Starting load is high (no control possible).

• Reynolds number of flow is low due to low static pressure in the test- section.

The commonly employed reservoir pressure range is from 100 to 300 psi
for blowdown tunnel operations. As large as 2000 psi is also used where space
limitations require.

Induction–Type Tunnels

In this type of tunnel, a vacuum created at the downstream end of the

tunnel is used to establish the flow in the test-section. Intermittent indraft
tunnels store energy as a pressure difference between the atmosphere and a low-
pressure tank. During the operation, the air flows from the atmosphere through
the tunnel and finally into the vacuum tank, causing the tank pressure to rise.
Drier is placed at front to remove the oil contamination. The schematic drawing
of an indraft tunnel is shown in fig.

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Wind tunnel Techniques

Figure : Schematic diagram of induction tunnel

Advantages

The advantages of induction tunnels are the following.

• Stagnation pressure and stagnation temperature are constants.

• No oil contamination in air, since the pump is at the downstream end.

• Starting and shutdown operations are simple.

Disadvantages

The disadvantages of induction-type supersonic tunnels are the following.

• Size of the air drier required is very large, since it has to handle a large mass
flow in a short duration.

• Vacuum tank size required is also very large.

• High Mach numbers (M > 2) are not possible because of large suction
requirements for such Mach numbers.

• Reynolds number is very low, since the stagnation pressure is atmospheric

The above-mentioned blowdown and induction principles can also be employed

together for supersonic tunnel operation to derive the benefits of both types.

Continuous Supersonic Wind Tunnels

Continuous tunnels allow minutes of uniform flow test time instead of

seconds normally available in the intermittent tunnels. In a continuous tunnel,
the compressor continuously adds energy to the flow to allow the continuous air
flow through the tunnel. As a result, the air is continuously heated. Compressors

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Wind tunnel Techniques

used for continuous tunnels are usually not equipped with aftercoolers for
removing the compression heat; hence, a special cooler is required to avoid a
continuous increase of the air temperature in the test section. Continuous
tunnels may operate both in the supersonic regime (as blowdown and indraft
tunnels) and in the hypersonic regime.

Figure Schematic of closed-circuit supersonic wind tunnel

Like intermittent tunnels, the continuous tunnels also have some advantages and
disadvantages.

The main advantages of continuous supersonic wind tunnels are the following

• Better control over the Reynolds number possible, since the shell is pres-
surized.

• Only a small capacity drier is required.

• Testing conditions can be held the same over a long period of time.

• The test-section can be designed for high Mach numbers (M > 4) and large
size models.

• Starting load can be reduced by starting at low pressure in the tunnel shell.

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Wind tunnel Techniques

The major disadvantages of continuous supersonic tunnels are the following.

• Power required is very high.

• Temperature stabilization requires large size cooler.

• Compressor drive to be designed to match the tunnel characteristics.

• Tunnel design and operation are more complicated

It is seen from the foregoing discussions that, both intermittent and continuous
tunnels have certain specific advantages and disadvantages. Before going into
the specific details about supersonic tunnel operation, it will be useful to note
the following details about supersonic tunnels.

• Axial flow compressor is better suited for large pressure ratio and mass

flow.

• Diffuser design is critical since increasing diffuser efficiency will lower the
power requirement considerably. Supersonic diffuser portion (geometry) must
be carefully designed to decrease the Mach number of the flow to be as low as
possible, before shock formation. Subsonic portion of the diffuser must have an
optimum angle, to minimize the frictional and separation losses.

• Proper nozzle geometry is very important to obtain good distribution of Mach

number and freedom from flow angularity in the test-section. Theoretical
calculation to high accuracy and boundary layer compensation, etc., have to be
carefully worked out for large test-sections. Fixed nozzle blocks for different
Mach numbers are simple but very expensive and quite laborious for change
over in the case of large size test-sections. The flexible wall type nozzle is
complicated and expensive from a design point of view and Mach number range
is limited (usually 1.5 < M < 3.0).

• Model size is determined from the test-rhombus, shown in Figure. The model
must be accommodated inside the rhombus formed by the incident and reflected
shocks for proper measurements.

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Wind tunnel Techniques

Special Purpose Tunnels

These are tunnels with layout totally different from that of low-speed and high-
speed tunnels. Some of the popular special purpose tunnels are: spinning
tunnels, free-flight tunnels, stability tunnels, and low-density tunnels

Hypersonic Tunnels

Hypersonic tunnels operate with test-section Mach numbers above 5.

Generally they operate with stagnation pressures in the range from 10 to 100
atmosphere and stagnation temperatures in the range from 50◦C to 2000◦C.
Contoured nozzles which are more often axially symmetric are used in
hypersonic tunnels. Models that can be tested in hypersonic tunnels are usually
larger than those meant for test in supersonic tunnels. The model frontal area
can go up to 10 percent of the test-section cross-sectional area.

Model size will probably be restricted by the wake behind it, which takes
too much flow area in the diffuser and blocks it during tunnel starting. Use of
dry and heated air is necessary for hypersonic operation to avoid condensation
effects and liquefaction during expansion to the high Mach number and
corresponding low-temperatures. The requirement of heated air is the major
factor making hypersonic tunnel operation more complicated than supersonic
tunnel operation.

Therefore, in hypersonic flows if the test-section flow temperatures are to

be at room temperature levels, the storage temperature has to be increased to

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Wind tunnel Techniques

very high values, which will pose metallurgical problems. Because of these
considerations the temperatures in the test-section of hypersonic tunnels are
usually quite low, in spite of the fact that the storage temperature is kept
appreciably above the ambient temperature.

The pressure ratios involved in hypersonic tunnel flow process are very
high. In order to achieve these pressure ratios, it is customary to employ a
combination of high pressure and vacuum together, in hypersonic tunnel
operations.

From the above discussions on hypersonic tunnel operation, the following

observations can be made.

• The pressure ratio, area ratio, and temperature ratio for M > 5 increases very
steeply with increase of M. Usually both the high pressure tank a the nozzle
inlet and the vacuum tank at the diffuser end are necessary for hypersonic
operations.

• The very low temperatures encountered in the test-section results in

liquefaction of air and hence preheating of air to 700 K to 1000 K is common in
hypersonic tunnel operation. For air, up to Mach 8 preheating to abou 1300 K is
satisfactory. For M > 10, gas like helium is better suited.

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Wind tunnel Techniques

• Because of very low density in the test-section, optical flow visualization of

viscous shock waves, etc., becomes more difficult.

• Shock wave angle (e.g., on wedge, cone, etc.,) changes appreciably with
moisture content of air and hence, measurements have to be done with extra
care.

• The heating of air introduces additional problems, like material requirements

for settling chamber, nozzle, test-section glass window, and distribution of parts
(the tunnel structure, test-section walls, etc.) to stand high temperatures.

• Because of low pressure and temperature, the flow at the test-section has low
Reynolds number and hence, the boundary layer thickness increases to a large
extent.

• Determining the exact value of Mach numbers at high Mach number is quite
difficult, since heating expands tunnel walls and therefore, area ratio is changed.
In addition, the boundary layer (which is quite thick) makes it more difficult to
calculate M. Also, the specific heat ratio γ is changing due to the drastic
changes of temperature encountered in the tunnel and hence, accurate
computation of the total pressure, p0, and static pressure, is difficult.

Special problems of testing in subsonic, transonic, supersonic and

hypersonic speed regions

Problems in subsonic and transonic wind tunnel

The major problems in testing models in subsonic and transonic wind tunnels
are power losses taking place at diffuser sections of tunnel. (Refer Assignment-
1)

Problems in supersonic and hypersonic region

Refer class notes

Layouts – sizing and design parameters. Tunnel blockage factor

Refer class notes

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Wind tunnel Techniques

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