AFSA Applied Sprinkler Technology 201: Hydraulic Calculations Page 1 of 16
Applied Sprinkler Technology 201:
Hydraulic Calculations, Part 1
Course Description
This one hour online course is the first in a 4 part series covering the topic of hydraulic
calculations for automatic sprinkler systems. The course is designed to assist designers
and others who are seeking NICET certification and for Authorities Having Jurisdiction
desiring an understanding of calculation models and applications.
Performance Objectives
Upon completion of this course the student will:
• Understand basic terminology
• Understand basic hydraulic concepts including pressure, density, area of
coverage, friction loss.
• Be familiar with standard formulas for calculation area of operation (or coverage),
minimum flow, sprinkler operating pressure, and K-factors.
• Lay foundation for study of friction loss formulas and simple single line
calculations.
Introduction
Hydraulics is the foundation of fire sprinkler system performance. Fire sprinkler systems
utilize the concept of removing “heat” to control and extinguish fire. The most basic
concept is that sufficient water must be directed on and around the fire to keep
combustible materials from reaching their ignition point. Most sprinkler systems are
designed to wet the areas around the initial fire area to sufficiently keep the fire
contained within the area of origination. In addition, there are system design criteria that
are intended to suppress the fire by discharging large volumes of water directly on the
fire in its early stages of development. For many years, fire sprinkler design used “pipe
schedules” to determine the number of sprinklers and the size of the pipes for different
types of hazards. The schedules were a “one size fits all” criteria that was utilized as
long as the water supplies supplied a minimum volume and pressure.
NFPA 13, Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler Systems, is the most widely used
standard for the layout and installation of sprinkler systems. The first edition was
published in 1896 and the piping schedules were found in the standard. The 1966
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edition of NFPA 13 was the first to include a chapter that addressed hydraulic
calculations. The 1975 edition was the first to reference “gridded” systems. Computers
made the calculations of these types of systems (gridded) practical. Fire sprinkler
systems utilizing NFPA standards are calculated virtually 100 percent of the time.
The first known automatic fire sprinkler system was patented in England in 1723. It
consisted of a wooden cask of water, powder charges, and a series of fuses. Its design
principles are amazingly similar to today’s systems. It was activated only with heat and
its operation was automatic. Systems utilizing perforated pipe were first installed in the
United States in the early 1850s. Henry S. Parmelee patented the first practical
automatic sprinkler in 1874.
A consolidated set of rules for designing and installing fire sprinkler systems was
published in 1896 and led to the formation of the National Fire Protection Association
(NFPA) and publication of NFPA 13. NFPA 13 hydraulic design criteria specified pipe
schedules for the protection of different hazards. Pipe schedules were based on
hydraulic principles and were conservative in nature. However, the schedules did not
provide the engineer or layout technician with the opportunity to take advantage of
various piping configurations such as loops to boost the efficiency of the system.
The 1966 edition of NFPA 13 was the first to address hydraulic calculations. By the late
1970s, most systems were hydraulically calculated. An interesting phenomenon took
place though, in that the pipe schedules were often utilized when the calculations
showed that water supply was insufficient for the hazard. The use of pipe schedules was
severely restricted, and today’s standards require all systems to be hydraulically
calculated with just a few exceptions.
Hydraulic calculations affect virtually all aspects of system design. The basic principles
of system design include the following:
• Selection of correct occupancy (hazard) classification
• Proper evaluation of water supplies
• Determination of design criteria
• Selection of most efficient sprinkler(s)
• Selection of most efficient sprinkler spacing and area of coverage
• Selection of most efficient density
• Selection of the most efficient system configuration
Reference
To successfully complete this module, the student will need the following materials:
• NFPA 13, Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler Systems (all references in
this module refer to the 2007 edition)
• Basic scientific calculator
The following materials are not required but are helpful reference materials:
• Automatic Sprinkler Systems Handbook, 2007 edition. Published by NFPA.
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• Fire Protection Handbook, Nineteenth edition. Published by NFPA.
Glossary
Hydraulic Calculations: A series of mathematical equations that demonstrate that the
water supply and fire sprinkler system layout is sufficient to deliver adequate water to
meet the design criteria.
Design Criteria: The combination of density and the area of sprinkler operation specific
to a defined hazard.
Density: The rate of water application over a specific unit of area for a specific unit of
time. Expressed in English Units as gallons per minute (gpm) over an area of one
square foot.
Area of Coverage: The total area covered by a single operating sprinkler. Measured in
English Units as square feet.
Occupancy (hazard) Classification: Combination of characteristics and factors that
contribute to fire severity. The characteristics include such things as combustibility,
quantity, and arrangement of materials. The probability of a fire occurring is not a
consideration of Occupancy Classification.
C-Value (C-factor): Friction loss coefficient given to pipe based on the relative
roughness of the inside surface.
Pressure: The unit that measures force caused by compression per unit area in a fluid.
K-Factor: The discharge coefficient based on the size of an opening and the roughness
of the bore. Fire sprinklers have a factory established K-Factor.
Tree System: A piping configuration in which water follows a single path from the supply
to the operating sprinkler(s).
Loop System: A piping configuration in which water follows two or more mains from the
supply to the branch lines feeding the operating sprinkler(s).
Grid System: A piping configuration with a primary main (connected to the water
supply) and a parallel secondary main that are connected with multiple branch lines
which allows water to follow multiple paths to the operating sprinkler(s).
Occupancy (Hazard) Classification
The selection of the correct hazard and the evaluation of the water supply are at the very
foundation of hydraulic calculations. If either of these two items is incorrect, the rest of
the process is flawed. If the engineer or technician selects the incorrect hazard, no
matter how well the actual calculation process is performed, the result will be
unsatisfactory. The system will either be economically inefficient or will underperform
when operating.
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The 2007 edition of NFPA 13 addresses Occupancy Classification in Chapter 5. It is
important to note that the occupancy classifications found in NFPA 13 are not intended
to parallel those found in the building codes. They relate only to fire sprinkler design and
installation. The classifications referenced in NFPA 13 include:
• Light Hazard
• Ordinary Hazard Group 1
• Ordinary Hazard Group 2
• Extra Hazard Group 1
• Extra Hazard Group 2
• Special Occupancies (refer to Chapter 21 of 2007 edition of NFPA 13)
• Commodity (storage) Classifications
The classifications are defined, and it should be noted that care should be taken in
examining the building or area where protection is contemplated to determine which
classification is most proper. The annex of NFPA 13 contains examples of
classifications, but ultimately the proper selection must be acceptable to the Authority
Having Jurisdiction (AHJ).
Several factors to keep in mind when selecting hazards:
1. Most buildings contain multiple Occupancy Classifications.
2. System Design must protect the building for highest classification or for
specific hazards where located.
3. Special Occupancies require expertise in application.
4. The increased use of plastics has had a significant impact on occupancy
and commodity classification.
Water Supply
The best designed and installed sprinkler system will not perform to the level intended if
the water supply does not satisfy the design criteria. NFPA 13 lists the following as
acceptable water supplies:
• A reliable water works
• Gravity tank
• Pressure tank
• Fire pump
Water supplies consist of two components: 1) Volume and 2) Pressure. Water works,
gravity tanks, and pressure tanks must supply a quantity of water as well as the pressure
to deliver the water to the sprinklers.
Fire pumps are not a water supply on their own. A fire pump takes water that is unusable
and provides pressure to allow the available water to satisfy the system needs. Water for
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fire pumps can come from water works, storage tanks, reservoirs, ponds, rivers, or any
source of water that is sufficient to meet the system needs.
Water supplies must be sufficient to meet the system demand at all times. This requires
a number of factors to be considered when evaluating water supplies. Some of the
factors include:
• Seasonal and daily fluctuations
• Drought
• Future uses and demands (development)
A comprehensive examination of the water supplies is paramount to successful sprinkler
design and operation. AHJs (including the owner) are required by NFPA 13 to approve
the water supply information and give consideration to the factors listed on the previous
page. Do not gloss over this. There is an important formula that must not be ignored:
P(u) = $(s)
[Pressure Unused equals Dollars Spent]
Once the water supply for the sprinkler system has been determined and agreed upon, a
major purpose of the hydraulic calculations is to provide a system that provides the
necessary protection in the most cost efficient manner. The engineer and technician will
use as much as needed (all if necessary) of the available pressure (after the evaluation)
to design the system utilizing the fewest number of sprinklers, least amount of pipe, and
smallest piping sizes possible.
Design Criteria
Chapter 11 of NFPA 13 addresses Design Approaches. The selection of the design
approach is at the discretion of the designer/layout technician. The most widely used
approaches are Occupancy Hazard Fire Control and Density/Area. Density/Area is the
most commonly used design method and will be the basis for our examination of design
criteria.
The Density/Area method is based on the sprinklers delivering a specified density over a
corresponding area of sprinkler operation. The criteria were determined by fire tests and
years of actual fire experience. The theory is simple: Lower densities on the curve
require a larger area of operation before fire control is achieved.
The minimum water supply needed for fire sprinkler design using Density/Area is
determined by using Figure 11.2.3.1.1 and Table 11.2.3.1.2, found in the 2007 edition of
NFPA 13.
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Figure 11.2.3.1.1 reprinted with permission from NFPA 13-2007, Installation of Sprinkler
Systems, Copyright © 2007. National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, MA 02169. This
reprinted material is not the complete and official position of the NFPA on the referenced subject,
which is represented only by the standard in its entirety.
Minimum sprinkler flow is determined by the following formula:
Q=AxD
Q = flow (gpm)
A = Area of Operation
D = density (gpm/ft2)
It should be noted that only one point on the design curve must be satisfied and the point
can be selected at the designer/layout technician’s discretion.
Design Criteria Examples
A) Utilizing the Light Hazard curve a density of .1 gpm/ft2 is selected. The
corresponding area of operation is 1500 ft2.
Q = 1500 ft2 x .1 gpm/ft2
Q = 150 gpm
B) Utilizing the Light Hazard curve a density of .07 gpm/ft2 is selected. The
corresponding area of operation is 3000 ft2.
Q = 3000 ft2 x .07 gpm/ft2
Q = 210 gpm
In addition to the water needed for the sprinklers, an additional quantity of water is
anticipated to be needed for manual fire fighting. This is referred to as Hose Allowance.
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Table 11.2.3.1.2 reprinted with permission from NFPA 13-2007, Installation of Sprinkler Systems,
Copyright © 2007. National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, MA 02169. This reprinted
material is not the complete and official position of the NFPA on the referenced subject, which is
represented only by the standard in its entirety.
The hose allowance is selected from the Total Combined Inside and Outside Hose
column for the selected Occupancy.
The total minimum demand is determined by adding the sprinkler flow to the hose
allowance. Recalling Examples A and B from page 5, the total demand for each would
be:
A. 150 gpm plus a hose allowance of 100 gpm equals a total demand of
250 gpm
B. 210 gpm plus a hose allowance of 100 gpm equals a total demand of
310 gpm
In addition to the demand (gpm) we must also determine the total supply needed (gal).
Table 11.2.3.1.2 on page 6 has a column labeled Duration. The Duration is the length of
time that our water supply must deliver the demand. For Light Hazard it is 30 minutes.
Note that the Duration for Ordinary and Extra Hazards have two choices. The lower
Duration is for systems where the flow of water is monitored 24 hours per day at a
constantly attended location. The supply needed for our two examples includes:
A. 250 gpm x 30 min = 7500 gal
B. 310 gpm x 30 min = 9300 gal
Sprinkler Selection
The selection of the most efficient sprinkler to meet the design criteria is the single most
important decision in the hydraulic calculation process. The types and sizes of sprinklers
available to the engineer and technician have exploded over the last 20 years. However,
there are some basic hydraulic principles that apply to all sprinklers:
• The minimum pressure that any sprinkler may operate is 7 psi.
• The larger the orifice the less pressure required to flow an equal amount of
water.
• Temperature rating of sprinkler has no impact on the procedure of calculations.
• Speed of operation (RTI) has no impact on the procedure of calculations.
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Using the Density/Area design method, the minimum flow for a sprinkler uses the same
formula as that for the total system demand:
Q=AxD
Spacing requirements of the maximum areas of coverage for an individual sprinkler are
found in chapter 8 of NFPA 13. The method for determining the area of coverage on a
sprinkler is found in 8.5.2. The formula is:
A=SxL
A = Area of coverage (ft2)
S = Dimension along the branch line*
L = Dimension between the branch lines**
S = Dimension along the branch line
*S Dimension—Determine the distance between sprinklers along the branch line (or to
the wall or obstruction in the case of the end sprinkler) upstream and downstream and
choose the larger of either twice the distance to the wall or obstruction or the distance to
the next sprinkler.
L = Dimension between the branch lines
**L Dimension— Determine the perpendicular distance to the sprinkler on the adjacent
branch line (or to a wall or obstruction in the case of the last branch line) on each side of
the branch line and choose the larger of either twice the distance to the wall or
obstruction or the distance to the next branch line.
With area of coverage for the sprinkler calculated, we can now complete the formula for
determining the minimum flow required for the sprinkler.
Once we have determined the minimum flow, we can calculate the operating pressure of
a sprinkler. The formula consists of 3 variables:
Q = Flow (gpm)
K = K-Factor
P = Pressure (psi)
The K-factor of a sprinkler is based on the size of the orifice and is assigned by the
manufacturer. Chapter 6 of NFPA 13 mandates that sprinklers be classified by their
discharge characteristics which include nominal orifice sizes and referenced by the
corresponding nominal K-factor.
The formula for calculating sprinkler pressure is:
P = (Q/K)2
A. A K-5.6 sprinkler requires a minimum flow of 16 gpm. What is the
sprinkler operating pressure?
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P = (16.0 gpm/5.6)2
P = (2.86)2
P = 8.2 psi
B. The minimum flow required for a sprinkler is 25 gpm. What is the
sprinkler operating pressure when using:
a K-8.0 sprinkler?
P = (25.0 gpm/8.0)2
P = (3.13)2
P = 9.8 psi
a K-5.6 sprinkler?
P = (25.0 gpm/5.6)2
P = (4.46)2
P = 19.9 psi
Example B illustrates the significant pressure savings by using a K- 8.0 sprinkler.
Using differing K-factor sprinklers is one way of reducing (or increasing) the operating
pressure of the sprinkler. The other option is to lower the flow variable. This can be
accomplished by reducing the operating area of the sprinkler or using a lower density.
A. What is the operating pressure of a K-5.6 sprinkler delivering a
density of .1 gpm/ft2 with a:
200 ft2 area of coverage?
Q=AxD
Q = 200 ft2 x .1 gpm/ft2
Q = 20.0 gpm
P = (Q/K)2
P = (20.0 gpm/5.6)2
P = (3.57)2
P = 12.8 psi
A. What is the operating pressure of a K-5.6 sprinkler delivering a
density of .1 gpm/ft2 with a:
150 ft2 area of coverage?
Q = 150 ft2 x .1 gpm/ft2
Q = 15.0 gpm
P = (15.0 gpm/ 5.6)2
P = (2.68)2
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P = 7.2 psi
Friction Loss
Friction loss describes the pressure (force) that is used to move the water between two
points. Friction is the resistance that the surface of the pipe creates against the
movement of water. Several factors increase or decrease the resistance and thus the
amount of force (pressure) needed to overcome the resistance. The factors include:
• Smoothness of the pipe
• Diameter of the pipe
• Volume of water
The smoothness of pipe is designated by C-Factor. The larger the C-Factor, the
smoother the surface. Different types of materials have different C-Factors. For instance,
black steel is designated to have a C-Factor of 120. Plastic, such as CPVC, has a C-
Factor of 150. Pipe use also affects the C-Factor. For instance, black steel used in a dry
sprinkler system is given a C-Factor of 100.
The diameter of pipe impacts the friction loss. The greater the surface area between the
water and the pipe, the less force required to overcome friction. Thus larger pipe moving
the same volume of water will have less friction loss. Conversely, more or less water
moving through the same diameter pipe will create greater or lesser friction and
therefore use more or less pressure to move the water.
Conclusion
We have examined a number of basic concepts pertaining to the hydraulic calculation of
sprinkler systems. The foundation of all system design is the identification of the correct
hazard and the proper evaluation of the water supply. We focused on the use of the
Density/Area curves and the relationship between the two variables.
We have explored the basic formulas for determining the area of coverage, sprinkler
flow, and sprinkler pressure and how each is related in selecting the most efficient
design components.
Use this information to complete the following exercises and questions.
Exercises
Use the two images below to complete the following questions and exercises.
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Figure 1.0
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Figure 1.1
Exercise Number 1: Occupancy Classifications
1. Using Figure 1.1, identify the Occupancy classification for the following areas.
The office is a(n):
a. light hazard
b. ordinary hazard group 2
c. extra hazard group 1
d. commodity classification
The customer lounge is a(n):
a. light hazard
b. ordinary hazard group 2
c. extra hazard group 1
d. commodity classification
The Auto Service and Repair area is a(n):
a. light hazard
b. ordinary hazard group 2
c. extra hazard group 1
d. commodity classification
Exercise Number 2: Water Supply
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1. A building is identified as a light hazard occupancy. The selected area of
operation is 3000 ft2. Click here to open Figure 11.2.3.1.1 in a new window. You'll
need it in order to answer the following question.
What is the minimum flow required for this sprinkler system?
a. 210 gallons per minute
b. 122 gallons per minute
c. 55 gallons per minute
d. 400 gallons per minute
What is the total water supply needed?
a. 7300 gallons
b. 8300 gallons
c. 9300 gallons
d. 10,300 gallons
2. A full service medical center (hospital) is being developed. Upon considering all
of the possible occupancy classifications:
What is the highest likely occupancy classification?
a. Ordinary Hazard Group 3
b. Ordinary Hazard Group 2
c. Light Hazard
d. None of the above
What is the greatest possible required sprinkler flow?
a. 200 gallons per minute
b. 350 gallons per minute
c. 425 gallons per minute
d. 600 gallons per minute
What is the highest likely water supply needed?
a. 76,500 gallons
b. 96,500 gallons
c. 126,500 gallons
d. 146,500 gallons
Exercise Number 3: Area of Coverage
For the following question, please either print this page or use a separate sheet of paper
to write down your answers. The answer key for this exercise is located at the end of the
chapter.
Using Figure 1.0, what is the area of coverage for the following?
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A. ______________
B. ______________
C. ______________
D. ______________
E. ______________
Exercise Number 4: Minimum Sprinkler Flow
Using Figure 1.0, if the hazard classification is Ordinary Group 2, what is the
minimum flow required for:
A. ______________
B. ______________
E. ______________
Exercise Number 5: Sprinkler Pressure
Using Figure 1.0 and the minimum flows from Exercise number 4, what is the
sprinkler operating pressure for a K-5.6 Sprinkler?
A. ______________
C. ______________
E. ______________
Using Figure 1.0 and the minimum flows from Exercise number 4, what is the
sprinkler operating pressure for a K-8.0 Sprinkler?
A. ______________
B. ______________
E. ______________
Exercise Number 3: Area of Coverage
Answer Key
Using Figure 1.0, what is the area of coverage for the following?
A. 130 ft2
B. 120 ft2
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C. 120 ft2
D. 130 ft2
E. 117 ft2
Exercise Number 4: Minimum Sprinkler Flow
Answer Key
Using Figure 1.0, if the hazard classification is Ordinary Group 2, what is the
minimum flow required for:
A. 26 gallons per minute
B. 24 gallons per minute
E. 23.4 gallons per minute
Exercise Number 5: Sprinkler Pressure
Answer Key
Using Figure 1.0 and the minimum flows from Exercise number 4, what is the
sprinkler operating pressure for a K-5.6 Sprinkler?
A. 21.6 psi
C. 18.4 psi
E. 17.5 psi
Using Figure 1.0 and the minimum flows from Exercise number 4, what is the
sprinkler operating pressure for a K-8.0 Sprinkler?
A. 10.6 psi
B. 9.0 psi
E. 8.6 psi
Final Exam
1. Which of the following is true when choosing the design criteria for a fire sprinkler
system?
A. Each area of the building must be designed independently.
B. A single occupancy must be chosen for the entire building the system is
protecting.
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C. The system may be designed to protect the entire building for the highest
hazard found.
D. The design criteria must be determined by the building architect.
2. Which of the following must be considered when evaluating the water supply for
a sprinkler system?
A. Seasonal fluctuations
B. Future development plans
C. Volume of stored water
D. All of the above
E. None of the above
3. Sprinkler orifice sizes are designated by K-factor. Using NFPA 13 as your guide,
which of the following is not a recognized K-factor?
A. 1.4
B. 14.0
C. 5.6
D. 21.0
E. 28.0
4. Using NFPA 13, what is the C-factor (Value) for all Galvanized steel pipe?
A. 100
B. 120
C. 140
D. 150
E. None of the above
5. Which of the following is the formula for determining area of coverage of a
sprinkler?
A. A=SxL
B. A=QxD
C. A = S/L
D. A = L/S
