ES 624: Hazardous Waste Management

Prof Renuka Verma

Environmental Science and Engineering Department,
IIT Bombay
 Marks Distribution (Total = 50 marks)

✓ Quiz (Two, closed book) = 15 marks

✓ Class assignments = 5 marks
✓ End semester examination = 30 marks

• Please note that 80% attendance is mandatory.

 Course Content
✓ HWM strategy, Facility development and operations
✓ Treatment and Disposal Methods:
o Physico-chemical processes
o Biological processes
o Stabilization and Solidification
o Thermal methods
o Land disposal
✓ Pollution prevention
 Elements of Hazardous Waste Management
Pollution
Recycling
prevention/Waste
minimization
Processing

Treatment

Storage & Transportation

Collection Disposal
Waste Generation
WASTE GENERATION
• Hazardous wastes are generated in limited amounts in a community and very little
information is available on the quantities of hazardous waste generated within a
community.

• Hazardous waste generation outside the industry is irregular.

• The only practical means to overcome these limitations is to conduct a detailed inventory
and measurement studies at each potential source in a community.
• As a first step in developing a community inventory, potential sources of hazardous
waste are to be identified.
https://cpcb.nic.in/inventory/
 CPCB 2022-2023

Category-wise Hazardous waste generation

Percentage of HW generation

• During 2022-23, about 15.66 Million MT

HW generated against the authorized
capacity of about 51.91 Million MT.
 CPCB 2021-2022
Category-wise Hazardous waste generation

Percentage of HW generation

• During 2021-22, about 12.35 Million MT

HW generated against the authorized
capacity of about 46.89 Million MT.
Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) issued by CPCB for utilization of HWs
https://cpcb.nic.in/sop-for-hw-specific/
Pallet
 STORAGE
• Onsite storage practices are a function of the types and amounts of hazardous wastes
generated and the period over which generation occurs.
• Usually, when large quantities are generated, special facilities are used that have
sufficient capacity to hold wastes accumulated over a period of several days.
• When only a small amount is generated, the waste can be containerized, and limited
quantity may be stored.
• Containers and facilities used in hazardous waste storage and handling are selected on
the basis of waste characteristics.
• For example, corrosive acids or caustic solutions are stored in fibreglass or glass-lined
containers to prevent deterioration of metals in the container.
• Great care must also be exercised to avoid storing incompatible wastes in the same
container or locations.
Closed Head Drum Open Head Drum
Types of Storage Area
➢ Satellite Accumulation Area (SAA) is the name given to the location where hazardous
wastes are generated and stored before being moved to a campus 90-day central storage area.
SAA is the room in which the waste was generated. This includes such facilities as
laboratories, shops, and photographic studios.

✓ Requirements for Satellite Accumulation of Hazardous Waste:

• All generators must attend Chemical Waste Disposal Training.

• Hazardous waste must be stored at or near the point where the waste is generated, i.e., in
the same room.
o By law, you cannot move hazardous waste containers from one room to another unless
you are moving the container to a 180 day or 90 day storage area. Preferably, there is
only one SAA per room.
• A “Hazardous Waste Satellite Accumulation Area” sign should be posted at the area where
the waste is generated and stored.
• Waste containers must be under the control of the operator of the process that generates
the waste.
• Waste containers must be in good condition, no dents, cracks etc., and lids intact and
functional.
• Wastes must be chemically compatible with the container.
• Containers must be closed except when adding or removing waste. Do not leave a funnel in
the bottle.
• Mark containers with the words "hazardous waste" and other words that identify the
contents. When more than one chemical waste is stored in a container, the amount or
approximate percentage of each constituent must be identified on the label.
• Store hazardous waste chemicals in secondary containment whenever possible. Plastic
bins offer the best protection against spills.
• No more than 55 gallons of hazardous waste, or one litre of acutely hazardous waste,
may be accumulated in a Satellite Accumulation Area. Containers of excess waste must
be dated at the time 55 gallons is exceeded and moved to a 90 Day Accumulation Area
within 72 hours.
• Clean up small spills of hazardous waste if you have the proper training, the proper
personal protective equipment (PPE), and feel comfortable doing so. Spill cleanup
material of some hazardous waste, specifically P-listed wastes, must also be disposed
of as hazardous waste.
F-list (wastes from common manufacturing and industrial processes), K-list (wastes from specific industries),
P-list (acutely toxic), and U-list (wastes from commercial chemical products)
Examples of P-listed hazardous wastes
 Compatibility among Hazardous Wastes
Sample for Labeling of Containers of Hazardous
and Other Wastes Keep the following materials segregated from
each other:
• Acids and bases (for example lead acid
batteries and caustic cleaners)
• Flammables or combustibles and
oxidizers (for example paint thinner and
bleach
• Corrosives and flammables or
combustibles (for example acid cleaners
and oil)
When storing hazardous wastes, it is important
that the waste is not placed in containers made
of materials that could pose compatibility issues
like mentioned above. For example, do not place
acids in metal drums because the acid will
corrode the container and cause a leak.
 Chemical Compatibility Chart

Group 1-A Group 1-B Group 3-A Group 3-B

Alkaline Liquids Acid Liquids Alcohols Any concentrated waste in Group
Potential Consequences: Heat generation, violent 1-A or 1-B
reaction Water Calcium
Lithium
Group 2-A Group 2-B
Metal hydrides
Aluminium Any waste in Group
1-A or 1-B Potassium
Beryllium
Other water reactive wastes
Calcium
Potential Consequences: Fire, explosion, or heat
Magnesium generation; generation of flammable or toxic
Sodium gases
Other reactive metals & metal
hydrides
Potential Consequences: Fire or explosion
generation of flammable hydrogen gas
 Group 4-A Group 4-B Group 6-A Group 6-B
Alcohols Any concentrated waste in Chlorates Group 2-A wastes
Group 1-A or 1-B Chlorine Group 4-A wastes
Aldehydes Group 2-A wastes Chlorites Acetic acid and other
Halogenated hydrocarbons organic acids
Nitrated hydrocarbons Chromic acid Concentrated mineral acids
Unsaturated hydrocarbons Hypochlorites
Other reactive organic Nitrates
compounds & solvents Nitric acid, fuming
Potential Consequences: Fire, explosion, or violent reaction Perchlorates
Permanganates
Group 5-A Group 5-B
Peroxides
Spent cyanide & Group 1-B wastes
Potential Consequences: Fire, explosion, or
sulfide solutions
violent reaction
Potential Consequences: Generation of toxic
hydrogen cyanide or hydrogen sulfide gas
 MoEF GUIDELINES FOR OCCUPIER/GENERATOR OF HAZARDOUS WASTES

➢ In order to have a proper control over hazardous waste management, the regulatory
authorities should specify the occupier or generator of hazardous waste:

• To keep a complete record of the types, quantities, and characteristics of hazardous waste.
• To segregate hazardous waste at source from non-hazardous waste.
• To transport hazardous waste only through the specified and registered transporters.
• To dispose of hazardous waste only at the notified disposable facilities.
• The regulatory authorities shall ask the occupier or generator to submit quarterly reports.
• The authorities should ensure that the occupier/generator sends a copy of the manifest to
them as soon as the hazardous wastes is shipped for ultimate disposal.
• The regulatory authorities may allow the occupier/generator to store his hazardous waste
on-site provided that:
o The waste is stored in the specified containers and occupier/generator follows the
requirements for storing in the containers.
o The date upon which each period of storage begins is clearly marked and visible on each
container.
o While being stored on-site, each container is labelled or marked with the words
"HAZARDOUS WASTE" , both in English and respective local language.
• The regulatory authorities may allow the occupier/generator to store his hazardous waste
on-site a maximum quantity of 10,000 kg or a truckload whichever is less for a maximum
period of 90 days.
• If an occupier/generator generates less than 1,000 kg of hazardous waste in a month, he
may be considered as a small quantity generator. Such type of generators may be allowed to
store their waste on-site for a maximum period of 180 days. In any case, the quantity of
waste should not exceed 6,000 kg at any given point of time.
• The regulatory authorities may provide an extension in the storage period to the occupier, on
case-by-case basis, provided that:
o An occupier/generator who generates less than 1000 kg of hazardous waste in a month and
who transports his waste more than a distance of 500 km for off-site storage, treatment
and/or disposal may be allowed to store hazardous waste on-site for a maximum period of 270
days at the discretion of regulatory authorities.
o In any case, the quantity of waste should not exceed 10,000 kgs at any given point of time.
• At all times, there must be at least one employee either on the premises or on call with the
responsibilities for co-ordinating all emergency response measures.
• To inspect the on-site storage areas for proper storage.
• In order to track the hazardous waste from the source of generation to the final disposal
points, the regulatory authorities should introduce the manifest system. This system should not
only help the regulatory authorities in tracking the hazardous waste but also ensure the safe
disposal of the waste. The manifest system would serve as a "chain of custody" document.
Every time the shipment changes hands, the responsible persons sign the manifest.
 COLLECTION
• The waste generator, or a specialized hauler, generally collects the hazardous waste
for delivery to a treatment or disposal site.

• The loading of collection vehicles is completed in either of the following ways:

(i) Wastes stored in large-capacity tanks are either drained or pumped into collection
vehicles;
(ii) Wastes stored in sealed drums or sealed containers are loaded by hand or by
mechanical equipment onto flatbed trucks

• The stored containers are transported unopened to the treatment and disposal facility.
 Flatbed truck
Railroad tank car

Tractor-trailer tank truck

Cargo tanker truck types
 Case Study - 1

Published 17 January, 2021

• India has close to 8,000 towns and cities as per Census 2011, has never officially estimated the domestic
hazardous waste it generates. Traces of this toxic waste, though, can be found in most landfills.
• In 2020, researchers from the Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Delhi and IIT Bombay analyzed eight
dump sites across the country — including Delhi, Mumbai, Kadapa (Andhra Pradesh), Hyderabad and
Ahmedabad.
• They found a significant level of toxic heavy metals and persistent organic contaminants like pesticides at
these sites. There is a very real possibility that a large portion of this toxicity is due to dumping of domestic
hazardous waste. But in the absence of proper monitoring, there is no way of ascertaining just how much.
• According to the rules, households must segregate waste into wet, dry and domestic hazardous
categories. Local government bodies must collect the hazardous waste, and/or set up collection centres
every 20 km so households can deposit it on their own. The local authorities must then safely deliver the
collected waste to disposal facilities. The rules also direct the authorities to develop the necessary
infrastructure and sensitise people by 2018. But none of these requirements have translated on the
ground.
 • Even if the waste is collected, the country does not
have enough disposal facilities to safely treat them.
A disposal facility typically has engineered landfills
that stop the percolation of toxic leachate into the
ground, and/or incinerators.
• Currently, there are only 45 of these facilities, as
per the Handbook on Chemicals and Hazardous
Waste Management and Handling in India released
in 2019 by the Union Ministry of Environment,
Forest and Climate Change.
• At least 18 states and Union Territories, including
Delhi, Bihar and Assam, do not have safe disposal
facilities. Twelve others such as Punjab and
Haryana, have one facility for the entire state.

Garbage collection trucks in Indore have six compartments to

carry wet, dry, hazardous, plastic, sanitary and e-waste
 Case Study - 2

• Adding to the already existing 2500 Swacch Autos

that were distributed back in 2015, another 650
Swacch Autos are being distributed now.

• These new autos have a separate box attached to

the vehicle for domestic hazardous waste.
• Previously, every vehicle used to pick up 850
kilograms of waster per day, but now the limit has
been extended to 1.5 tonnes of waste per day per
auto.
Published 27 March, 2021
• Amid growing worries over the city’s garbage collection lapses, senior GHMC officials have
identified that around 900 Swachh auto tippers (SATs) are failing to collect garbage door-
to-door daily. Owing to this, around 12-22% of garbage is left uncollected generating more
garbage vulnerable points (GVPs).

• There a total of 5250 SATs, out of which 4500 are operating under GHMC and 750 are
operated by private agencies. Official sources admit that only 3600 of them are collecting
garbage daily.
 Case Study - 3

Published 10 Dec, 2022

Segregate four kinds of waste

Black bin - Waste bulbs and tube lights, dead
batteries
Red bin - Waste sanitary pads
Blue bin - Dry waste such as plastic (must be
rinsed if soiled), paper, metal, rubber, thermocol,
old mops, dusters, sponges, ceramics, wooden
chips, hair, and coconut shells
Green bin - Wet waste, including vegetables, fruit
peels, cooked food, leftovers, egg shells,
chicken/fish bones, rotten fruit, tea bags, coffee
grounds

There is a fine of Rs 200 per violation for residential areas and Rs 10,000 per violation for commercial areas. Those not segregating four types of
waste - dry, wet, sanitary and domestic hazardous - will be issued challans through water bills. Throwing horticulture waste in the open will attract
a fine ranging from Rs 200 to Rs 500.
 TRANSPORTATION
MoEF guidelines for transportation of hazardous waste:

• Transportation of hazardous waste being the important link in hazardous waste management
system, it requires precise control to ensure safe disposal of such wastes.
• The transporters of hazardous waste have to be registered with the Department of
Environment & Forests in addition to the Department of Transport. This would enable the
Ministry of Environment and Forests/respective State Pollution Control Boards to ensure safe
and secured transport of hazardous wastes.
• To ensure that the occupier/generator transport their hazardous waste only in the specified
transport vehicles.
• The transporters should be asked to train the drivers and helpers of hazardous waste transport
vehicles to handle the wastes under emergency situations.
 FACILITIES FOR HAZARDOUS WASTE
• Facility is a land, structure, and other appurtenances used for storing, recovering,
recycling, treating, or disposing of hazardous waste.
• Many generators construct and operate their own captive facilities referred to as on-
site facilities.
• Other generators, not having a suitable site or not generating a sufficiently large
volume of waste to justify the investment in an on-site facility, transport their waste
to specialized facilities for treatment and disposal. Such facilities are referred to as
commercial, off-site facilities.
Major categories of facilities for Hazardous Waste
Recover material as a sellable product (typically solvents,
1 oils, acids, or metals); some recover energy values in waste

Change the physical or chemical characteristics of

2 a waste, or degrade/destroy waste constituents

Permanent emplacement
of waste on or below
3 land surface
 Recovery Facilities
➢ SOLVENT RECOVERY
o These facilities separate contaminants from waste solvents and thus restore the solvent to
its original quality or to a lower grade product.
o Distillation is used by most commercial solvent processors, and typically recovers about
75% of the waste solvent.
o The residue can be a liquid or a sludge, and requires management as a hazardous waste.
o Other separation technologies used by solvent processors include filtration, simple
evaporation, centrifugation, and stripping.
 1. The spent solvent is fed,
either automatically or
manually depending on the
equipment, into the
distillation vessel.
2. The distillation vessel is
fitted with a thermal oil
jacket that is heated by one
or more electric heaters
which brings the spent
solvent to its boiling point.

3. Once the waste is separated, the recovered solvent vapors are channeled to an air cooled
condenser, where it cools into its liquid form.
4. The liquid is then directed to the clean solvent collection drums, where it can be reused.
➢ OIL RECOVERY
• Used lubricating oils can be recovered to a quality essentially equal to virgin lubricating
oils. This process is typically referred to as oil re-refining.
• Two methods may be employed in waste oil re-refining:
a) Acid/clay method
b) Distillation method (capital-intensive)
• Because the former produces a large amount of spent acidic clay residue, distillation is
preferred.
(a) Acid/Clay Method
Pre-treatment

Base Oil
Acidic sludge
• In the acid clay process, used oil is typically filtered and then heated to remove debris,
solid particles and water.
• It is then mixed with sulfuric acid which extracts metal salts, acids, aromatics, and other
impurities. This forms a by-product of acidic sludge that settles out of the oil.
• The remaining slightly acidic oil is mixed with active fuller’s earth (clay) to remove other
contaminants and to improve color.
• After clay is filtered from the oil, the final steps are neutralization and distillation of the
oil.
 (b) Distillation Method

➢ Pre-treatment
• Used oil is heated and treated with chemicals to
separate suspended solids and water content in
preparation for the Distillation process.

➢ Distillation
• To remove heavy metals, contaminants and ash
content from used oil, to recover re-refined oils
and other petroleum fractions.

➢ Solvent Extraction
• After distillation, the re-refined lubricant is
further processed with a solvent that extracts the
final stages of impurities and aromatic
compounds from the oil, resulting in clean, high
quality specification Base Oil products
• Distillation cuts are the output streams from a distillation tower. They are called "cuts"
because they are the result of separating the crude oil into its constituent parts based
on the different temperatures at which they evaporate and condense.

• The typical distillation cuts coming from atmospheric distillation and vacuum
distillation are:
a) Refinery gas - made up of methane and ethane. This stream remains a gas and is sent
to the fuel system
b) Propane - Blended into LPG or used as refinery fuel
c) Butane - blended into LPG or used as refinery fuel
d) Kerosene - Used to make jet fuel or blended into diesel

• Vacuum Tower Bottoms are the left over bottom products of distillation, which can be
used for upgrading into gasoline and diesel. They are the heaviest material in the
refinery tower. If allowed to cool to room temperature, Vacuum Tower Bottoms would
become a solid.
➢ METALS RECOVERY
• The technologies for recovering metals can be grouped as pyrometallurgical or
hydrometallurgical.
• Pyrometallurgy uses the differences in melting and boiling properties to separate metals
at high temperatures.
• The hydrometallurgy technology extracts and concentrates metals from liquid waste
using any of a variety of processes such as ion exchange, reverse osmosis, membrane
filtration, adsorption, solvent stripping, and precipitation. Non-liquid wastes first require
dissolution.
➢ Fuel blending for hazardous waste reduction is a
process where hazardous waste materials (such as
industrial solvents, used oils, and contaminated
fuels) are mixed with conventional fuels to create a
usable energy source.

➢ Key Benefits of Fuel Blending for Waste Reduction:

✓ Waste Minimization – Reduces hazardous waste disposal needs
✓ Energy Recovery – Converts waste into usable energy, reducing fossil fuel consumption
✓ Cost Savings – Reduces landfill and hazardous waste disposal costs
✓ Regulatory Compliance – Meets environmental standards for responsible waste
management
 Specific Hazardous Waste Types Suitable for Fuel Blending

1. Waste Solvents
Sources: Paint manufacturing, pharmaceuticals, chemical plants
Examples: Toluene, xylene, acetone, Methyl ethyl ketone (MEK), Alcohols (ethanol, methanol)
Benefit: High-energy content, easily combustible

2. Used Oils & Lubricants

Sources: Automotive workshops, refineries, metalworking industries
Examples: Spent motor oil, Hydraulic fluids, Transformer oil (non-PCB)
Benefit: High calorific value, good combustion properties

3. Refinery & Petrochemical Wastes

Sources: Oil refineries, chemical plants
Examples: Slop oil, Tank bottom residues, Contaminated diesel and gasoline
Benefit: Compatible with industrial burners and kilns
➢ Hazardous Wastes NOT Suitable for Fuel Blending

⚠ Heavy Metal-Containing Wastes – Lead, mercury, cadmium (can cause toxic emissions)
⚠ Highly Halogenated Waste – PVC, fluorinated compounds (produces toxic dioxins/furans)
⚠ Explosive & Reactive Wastes – Peroxides, highly unstable chemicals
⚠ PCBs & Dioxin-Contaminated Oils – Highly regulated due to extreme toxicity
➢ CO-INCINERATION IN INDUSTRIAL KILNS/FURNACES

• The manufacturers of cement, light aggregate, and some other products use a special
type of rotary kiln.
• The destruction of hazardous waste by co-incineration with primary fuels and raw
materials in such industrial kilns has been practiced for a long time.
• Cement kilns operate at high temperatures (2600-3000F) and provide very long
residence times, which make possible very high destruction of Principal Organic
Hazardous Constituents (POHCs).
• The waste may be blended at the site where the waste is burned or blended at a separate
facility and shipped to the site of the industrial kiln.
 Treatment Facilities
Incinerator

➢ THERMAL DESTRUCTION: Exposing waste

to high temperatures in the presence of
oxygen results in either partial or complete
destruction of organic waste materials.
o The most common application is an
incinerator, which is an “enclosed device
using controlled flame combustion, the
primary purpose of which is to thermally
break down hazardous waste.”
➢ AQUEOUS TREATMENT: An aqueous waste treatment system removes and/or detoxifies
hazardous constituents that are dissolved or suspended in water. The selection and sequence
of unit processes are determined by the characteristics of incoming wastes and the required
effluent quality.

❑ Common Types of Aqueous Hazardous Waste

✓ Heavy Metal-Contaminated Wastewater – From metal plating, mining, and battery industries
✓ Organic-Contaminated Wastewater – Containing solvents, pesticides, or pharmaceuticals
✓ Acidic and Alkaline Wastes – Generated from chemical manufacturing and industrial cleaning
✓ Radioactive Liquid Waste – From nuclear power plants, research labs, and hospitals
✓ Oil-Contaminated Water – Includes emulsified oils, hydrocarbons, and petrochemical residues
➢ BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT: Biological treatment systems utilize microorganisms to degrade
organic wastes. Organic substances are either mineralized or transformed into compounds
having a lower molecular weight. The primary process variables are the method of contacting
the waste with biomass (microbes), the moisture content of the waste (eg. liquid, slurry, or
solid), and the method and degree of aeration.

❑ Applications of Biological Treatment in Hazardous Waste Management

✓ Petroleum Industry – Bioremediation of oil spills and hydrocarbon-contaminated soils
✓ Pharmaceutical Wastewater – Degradation of antibiotics and hormones
✓ Heavy Metal Removal – Microbial and plant-based uptake of lead, arsenic, and mercury
✓ Pesticide & Herbicide Detoxification – Breakdown of toxic agricultural chemicals
✓ Industrial VOC Treatment – Biotrickling filters for treating air emissions from chemical industries
➢ STABILIZATION: Stabilization involves
o admixing materials with wastes to improve the handling and physical characteristics of the
wastes and
o to reduce mobility of contaminants in a landfill environment.

❑ Objectives of Stabilization
✓ Immobilize Contaminants – Prevent leaching of heavy metals, organics, and toxic chemicals
✓ Reduce Toxicity – Convert hazardous compounds into less harmful forms
✓ Improve Structural Integrity – Solidify waste to enhance handling and disposal
✓ Meet Regulatory Standards – Ensure compliance with environmental laws

❑ Applications of Stabilization
✓ Industrial Wastewater Treatment – Stabilization of heavy metals
✓ Radioactive Waste Management – Vitrification of nuclear waste for permanent disposal
✓ Hazardous Soil Remediation – Stabilization of oil spills, pesticides, and PCB-contaminated soils
✓ Landfill Waste Treatment – Cement-based stabilization before hazardous waste landfill disposal
 Land Disposal Facilities
➢ LANDFILL
• A landfill involves permanent emplacement
of hazardous waste.
• In many instances, waste will undergo some
form of pretreatment (eg. Stabilization) prior
to land disposal. Emplacement would occur
either in relatively shallow trenches or in
vaults.
• A landfill facility has several protective
elements (eg. Liners), to contain emplaced
wastes, to minimize the generation of
leachate, and to remove leachate as it is
generated.
➢ DEEP WELL INJECTION
• This disposal method features injection of liquid
waste into a deep, porous subsurface geological
formation.
• The receiving formation is well below potable
aquifers and should have an impermeable
confining layer above it.
• The injection well consists of the injection pipe
surrounded by a series of concentric casings,
containing cement and noncorrosive fluids to
prevent leakage into shallow formations.
 Waste Management flow diagram for fully integrated hazardous waste
management facility

Incinerator slag is the solid byproduct left after waste is burned in an incinerator. It contains a mix of non-
combustible materials, metals, glass, and mineral residues.
 FACILITY OPERATIONS
• The operations at a hazardous waste facility consist of five subsystems:

1. Pre-shipment waste analysis

2. Waste receiving
3. Waste storage and preparation
4. Waste treatment
5. Residuals management

• It is important to note that all components operate under an umbrella of a

number of special measures. These special precautionary measures include
security, inspections, maintenance, training, incident prevention, emergency
planning, safety, monitoring, and auditing.
Operations subsystems and their components
 PRE-SHIPMENT WASTE ANALYSIS

• A waste analysis plan is a critical part of a facility. The plan specifies the parameters
for which each waste will be analyzed, the sampling and analytical methods to be
used, and the frequency of analysis.

• Before a facility treats, stores, or disposes of a waste, it must profile the waste,
including a detailed chemical and physical analysis of a representative sample of the
waste. Commercial facilities require this full characterization prior to shipment by the
generator.

• Representative sampling of a waste shipment is conducted upon arrival at the facility

to verify that the composition of the shipped waste matches the fully characterized
waste.
• The purpose of the full characterization before shipment is to satisfy the following
requirements:

a) Determine if the waste is acceptable for receipt at the facility in terms of the
capability of the facility to treat or dispose of the waste.

b) Identify the inherent hazards of the waste so that appropriate precautions can be
taken during its handling and storage at the facility to prevent incidents.

c) Determine the physical characteristics and chemical constituents of the waste to

allow selection of effective waste processing and disposal methods.

a) Develop an estimate of the cost of treatment or disposal.

Waste Profile Form
2
1

3
 WASTE RECEIVING
• Waste shipments typically arrive by truck at a facility’s gatehouse.
• Upon accepting the waste, the facility signs the manifest and sends a copy to the generator. At
that point, the facility shares liability with the generator and transporter.
• It is critical that the pre-shipment waste analysis has already been completed and the shipment
scheduled.
• Without prior scheduling of the incoming shipment or if the shipment is improperly
documented, the gatehouse will refuse entry of the truck.
• Scheduled and properly documented shipments are directed to the receiving station where any
packaging is checked, the loaded truck is weighed, and representative samples are collected for
testing the parameters.
• The waste may arrive as bulk liquids in a tank truck, containerized liquids or sludges in drums,
bulk shipments of contaminated soil in dump trucks, or by a number of other methods.
• Collecting a representative sample can pose a difficult task considering that the waste may
be in multiple phases and states or have pockets of high contamination.
• The receiving station must use previously established procedures for each situation to ensure
the collection of a representative sample.
• Upon collection of the sample, the laboratory analyses various parameters of the waste.
• Upon verification of the waste shipment, the truck is directed to an unloading area where it
is emptied and then reweighed before it leaves the facility.
• The mere “emptying” of a truck can pose a difficult challenge if the waste has stratified, a
container has leaked, or a solidification reaction has occurred.
• It is important that facilities have planned procedures and are prepared with special
equipment to resolve such problems.
• The truck may need to be decontaminated to remove any trace residues.
 WASTE STORAGE AND PREPARATION

• Upon unloading, the wastes are moved into storage that can consist of tanks or
impoundments for bulk liquids, hoppers for solids and sludges, or pads and warehouses
for containers.

• The objectives of storage and preparation are fourfold:

a) Store the waste safely before introduction as feed into the system of unit treatment and
disposal processes
b) Provide adequate accumulation time during periods when treatment and disposal
process systems are out of service
c) Facilitate mixing, blending, and repackaging of waste as deemed necessary
d) Allow input of various wastes with reagents to the subsequent unit treatment processes
• An obviously important safety consideration is fire prevention and protection. The
storage of certain types of hazardous waste requires automatic alarms and possibly
sprinklers. The facility must provide adequate water supply for extinguishing fires plus the
capability to collect and store fire water runoff. The storage or treatment of any water-
reactive waste necessitates an alternative type of fire protection system.

• A key issue in providing safe storage is compatibility. This has two independent
considerations:
1. The compatibility of the waste with the material used to construct the container, tank, or
liner in contact with the waste (eg. Certain solvents should not be stored in plastic
containers)
2. The compatibility of the waste with other wastes stored together (eg. Containers of
cyanide waste should not be located near acid waste)
• The key is to segregate incompatible wastes by placing them in separate areas constructed
of suitable materials. If stored together, incidents such as leaks could result in mixing of
incompatible wastes. Different chemical reactions could occur. Some reactions could
produce excessive pressure, thus posing fire or explosion hazards. Others could produce
toxic fumes or gases.

• Certain types of wastes will require prior mixing. For example, the concentration of waste
constituents can vary considerably because of large differences in incoming waste strength.
This is particularly true at most commercial treatment facilities. Mixing can control such
variations to arrange that will not upset performance of the subsequent unit treatment
processes.

• Some waste must undergo other forms of preparation before feeding to the waste
treatment processes. For example, contaminated soil can obtain rocks, bricks, and
reinforcing rods that could damage materials handling equipment if not removed.
 WASTE TREATMENT
• While the waste is maintained in storage, a treatment schedule is developed that will
identify the waste to be treated, any necessary preparations, the method of treatment,
and the rate at which the waste is fed.

• Upon commencement of waste treatment operations, the waste is typically fed by bulk
materials handling systems such as pipelines or conveyors to the equipment used to
perform the prescribed treatment steps.

• Treatment operations may be carried out on a batch or continuous basis. A facility

must monitor operations carefully to assure that its performance attains the desired
results.

• Operational monitoring is done with instrumentation, direct human observation, and

chemical analysis. This typically involves extensive record keeping using a combination
of computers, chart recorders, and manually entered paper logs.
• Hazardous waste can be treated using any of a large number of commercially proven
unit processes. The treatment methods fall into four categories:

a) Phase separation (eg. Sedimentation)

b) Component separation (eg. Ion exchange)
c) Chemical transformation (eg. Chemical oxidation)
d) Biological transformation (eg. Fixed film aerobic treatment)

• The selected method of treatment not only depends upon the type of waste but on the
waste’s individual physical and chemical characteristics and the specifications for the
treated waste.
General suitability of various treatment methods versus
characteristics of waste
 RESIDUALS MANAGEMENT

• Each waste treatment process produces gaseous emissions, wastewater effluents, or

residuals requiring subsequent management if not additional treatment.

• An incinerator, for eg., produces combustion gases that require scrubbing that in turn
produces an acidic washwater requiring wastewater treatment. Incinerator also
produces fly ash requiring disposal, if not treatment.

• The unit treatment processes are not the only operations that generate residuals.
Spillage and runoff from storage areas require treatment.

• A full-service facility can usually provide all necessary treatment of residuals. Smaller
facilities may have to collect the residuals and transport them as hazardous waste to
another facility capable of treating them.
Integrated hazardous waste treatment processes
 SPECIAL MEASURES
• A hazardous waste facility needs to take a number of special precautionary measures for all
of its day-to-day operations, these measures can be quite complex for full-service,
commercial facilities and much less involved for single purpose, on-site facilities.
Nevertheless, both types of facilities need all of these measures to prevent incidents.

• In fact, the permitting process requires that the permit application provide detailed plans
and procedures on how the facility will implement precautionary measures. These
measures can be listed as follows:
❑ Security ❑ Employee training
❑ Inspection and maintenance ❑ Safety
❑ Incident prevention ❑ Monitoring
❑ Emergency planning ❑ Audits
➢ A facility needs to provide SECURITY to prevent
vandals and intruders who could
o become exposed from contact with waste,
o damage the equipment, or
o cause illicit dumping
• Most facilities use a combination of
o security guards,
o total enclosure with fences,
o adequate lighting,
o proper warning signs, and
o 24-hour surveillance
➢ A facility needs regular and thorough INSPECTION of its equipment, structures, and other
appurtenances with preventive and corrective MAINTENANCE taken.
• This requires preparing a list of
o items to be inspected,
o a schedule, and
o the typical problems that may be encountered
• The inspection should examine
o process equipment,
o storage areas,
o emergency equipment,
o monitoring equipment, and
o security devices
• Basically, the inspection should check for equipment malfunctions, structural deteriorations,
operator errors, and discharges that could lead to the release of hazardous waste constituents.
• Some critical components of a facility require daily inspection. For eg. The operator should inspect
storage areas, looking not only for leaks but for signs of corrosion and mismanagement (say loose
lid on a drum). The unloading area is critical to inspect because of the higher potential for spills.
➢ It is important to implement INCIDENT PREVENTION measures to minimize the possibility
of a fire, explosion, spill or any other unplanned, sudden release of hazardous waste
constituents.
• Such a program begin by conducting a risk analysis to identify hazards and potential
incidents.
• The risk analysis would indicate the routine activities and waste processing operations
that have a higher probability of initiating an incident.
• In this way, preventive measures can be instituted and appropriate responses planned in
the event one of the more probable incidents were to occur.
• For eg. Fire is a major concern. Having alarms, fire control equipment, water if adequate
pressure, and personnel trained to fight fires is important, but so is maintaining adequate
aisle space to allow unobstructed movement of fire protection equipment.
➢ If an incident occurs, the facility should follow a set of procedures prepared in part of an
EMERGENCY PLAN that describes the actions that facility personnel should take in
response to fires, explosions, or other incidents.
• The plan should provide for interaction with local police departments, fire
departments, hospitals, and other appropriate emergency and community services.
• The plan should also describe evacuation procedures for facility personnel.
• Practice drills are important.
• One facility employee should be appointed as emergency coordinator and take
leadership responsibility for implementing the plan.
➢ It is important that the facility train its
employees to perform their duties
effectively and safely and to know how to
respond to an emergency.
• The TRAINING usually consists of both
classroom instruction and supervised on-
the-job training.
• Each employment position should have a
description of its responsibilities and duties,
the content of the necessary introductory
and continuing training.
➢ One of the most important measures is ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING – collecting
samples of the environmental media and testing for the presence of hazardous
substances that may have been released by the facility.
• The objective is to detect potential problems before they impact human health and the
environment.
• Early detection should allow sufficient time for adequate warning of potentially
impacted individuals and effective implementation of remedial measures.
• Important monitoring points are ground water wells for storage and land disposal
facilities and air monitoring stations at critical locations around the facility.
• Monitoring could also include surface water, employees (blood samples), and flora and
fauna.
➢ REGULATORY COMPLIANCE is essentially the driving force for the entire facility. The
operation of a facility is thus geared around managing waste in a manner that meets the
environmental regulations.

➢ AUDITS are an excellent tool for ensuring that the facility operating staff is complying with
all standard operating procedures, best management practices, and regulatory
requirements.
• Diverse groups from outside the facility conduct periodic inspections and audits from
varied perspectives.
• The regulatory authorities inspect the facility to determine compliance with regulatory
requirements.
 CLOSURE PLAN FOR THE HWM FACILITY

➢ The closure of a hazardous waste management facility can occur for several reasons, including
regulatory, environmental, financial, and operational factors.
1. Regulatory Non-Compliance
• Violation of environmental laws and regulations (e.g., improper waste disposal, emissions, or
leakage)
• Failure to renew permits
• Non-compliance with safety standards, leading to government-imposed shutdowns
• Legal actions due to community complaints or lawsuits
2. Environmental and Public Health Risks
• Groundwater or soil contamination beyond permissible levels
• Air pollution hazards from improper waste incineration or gas emissions
• Failure to control hazardous spills, leaks, or explosions
3. Financial Issues
• High operational costs, making the facility financially unviable
• Loss of funding or investment due to non-compliance or economic downturns
• Lawsuits and penalties that cause financial instability
4. Technological and Infrastructure Limitations
• Outdated treatment or disposal technology failing to meet new standards
• Deteriorating facility infrastructure leading to safety risks
• Inability to upgrade equipment due to high costs
5. Community and Social Opposition
• Protests or opposition from local communities concerned about environmental and health
impacts
• Change in land-use policies favoring residential or commercial development
6. Natural Disasters and Accidents
• Floods, earthquakes, or other natural disasters causing irreparable damage
• Fires, chemical explosions, or severe contamination events making the facility unsafe
7. Voluntary Closure and Relocation
• The company decides to shut down or relocate to a more suitable or profitable location
• Transition to alternative waste treatment technologies (e.g., waste-to-energy solutions)
 Importance of a proper closure:

• A closure plan is a necessary part of a permit application, thus providing a plan for final
closure prior to startup of operations.
• A closure plan provides a clear and orderly set of steps and methods to be followed upon
termination of all operations at a facility.
• The steps are designed to ensure that the closed facility:
(a) poses a minimal risk to the environment and human health, and
(b) requires minimal post-closure maintenance.
• A closure plan requires assurance that funds are available to close the facility even if the
facility owner enters bankruptcy proceedings. This assurance can be in the form of a bond,
corporate guarantee, or some other financial instrument.
• Closure of a storage or treatment facility requires removal of all remaining waste to
another facility.
• All equipment and structures that had been in contact with the waste must be
decontaminated. This may entail removal of concrete pads used to hold waste containers
as well as contaminated soil where leaks had occurred.
• The closure of land disposal facilities, where waste has been emplaced, differs from
closure of a treatment facility. In the former case, waste is not to be removed but
contained, necessitating installation of cover systems plus implementation of a long-term
plan referred to as a post-closure plan.
• This plan provides for leachate management, monitoring, maintenance, security, and other
measures typically for a period of 30 years, if not longer.
 FACILITY DEVELOPMENT

• Various elements included in development of a facility are:

a) Needs Assessment
b) Site Selection
c) Public Participation
d) Permitting
 NEEDS ASSESSMENT
• The first step is to decide what type of facility is needed and its capacity.
• It is readily apparent that the ideal characteristics for a site depend upon the type and
scale of facility to be located there.
• The process for making such a decision is called NEEDS ASSESSMENT.
• A needs assessment involves an analysis of the following:
1. The current and future types and quantities of hazardous waste generated
2. The current methods for managing the generated waste
3. The methods expected or desired in the future for managing the generated waste
4. The capacity of existing facilities providing such methods
• The need for new facilities is thus determined by comparing future waste generation with
capacity of existing facilities. A shortfall in capacity indicates a need for new facilities.
 SITE SELECTION
• A primary objective of a site selection process is to assure that new facilities are located at
intrinsically superior sites that, by virtue of their natural features and land use setting, provide a
high degree of protection to public health and the environment.

• In this concept, the land use setting and natural features function as an additional line of defense
if the facility operations do not perform as planned.
• A site selection process usually proceeds through a PHASED APPROACH.
✓ Phase I: It begins with the use of regional screening techniques to reduce a large study area, such
as an entire state, to a manageable number of discrete search areas. Computerized geographic
information systems (GIS) are available to assist in this task.
✓ Phase II: The next phase evaluates the discrete search areas in more detail and identifies
candidate sites within them.
✓ Phase III: These candidate sites are then evaluated in even more detail at a site-specific level of
analysis to provide the basis for selecting a site for the facility.
• The overall site selection process is thus one of increasingly intensive analysis of progressively smaller areas.
Phased Site Selection Process
 Site Screening Methods

• Different methods used to integrate and evaluate data (data synthesis) in the phased
approach site selection:
a) Intuitive
b) Stepped-down exclusion
c) Scaling
d) Criteria combinations
❑ The INTUITIVE METHOD is one in which the decision maker examines all data as a whole
and judges whether the site is acceptable.
o The argument for using this method is that the site characteristics are too functionally
interdependent with (i) each other, (ii) with the design and operation of the proposed
facility, to support an assessment derived from an examination of individual factors.

❑ The STEPPED-DOWN EXCLUSION METHOD examines each siting factor sequentially,

determines a criterion (threshold of acceptability) for the factor, and applies the criterion to
eliminate areas from further consideration.
o A criterion may be thought of as an environmental, technical, social, economic, or political
constraint for siting a facility. The progress continues by selecting another factor and applying
a criterion for it.
❑ The SCALING METHOD is one of weighting the site data, i.e., the data are modified from
their original form by replacing them with numerical surrogates having a common scale.
o For eg. Permeability of the formation below a site is a typical consideration in selecting a
site for a land disposal facility. Clay is an indicator of low permeability, and a site underlain
by 10 feet of clay may have a value of 10, while one with sandy silt may be assigned a value
of 3.
o Similar values are assigned for other data describing site suitability.
o The next step in scaling is to assign weights to indicate the relative importance of the
factors (Eg. Permeability and depth to ground water may be judged to have a weight of 8
and 4, respectively).
o After assigning weights, all factors are combined in a multiplication-summation step to
yield a numerical score for each site.
o The selected site would be the one with the best score.
❑ The CRITERIA COMBINATION METHOD can use either the stepped-down exclusion or
scaling technique.
o Instead of working with a single set of criteria or scaling values, a particular
combination of criteria can be selected to identify the sites satisfying them. The
process is then repeated for another combination.
o For eg. One combination may stress that the facility be located over thick deposits of
clay, and it may give less consideration to factors such as proximity to population.
Another combination of criteria may relax the requirement for clay but require that the
facility be located on remote land.
o This method results in the selection of a set of starkly different sites representing
different perspectives about what constitutes a better site.
 Siting Criteria

• Most screening methods require siting criteria and siting criteria stem from siting factors.
• A siting factor is associated with a specific consideration important in judging the suitability
of a site.
• For eg. The potential for leachate to migrate to ground water is a consideration with land
disposal facilities. Accordingly, it is desirable that a land disposal site have one or more of the
following characteristics: the permeability of the uppermost formation is low, the depth to
ground water is high, and the thickness of any clay deposits is high. Thus, the pertinent siting
factors are permeability, depth to ground water, and thickness of clay. The factors applicable
to a treatment facility may be very different.
• A criterion is a definitive threshold of acceptability for a siting factor. For eg. a criterion for
permeability could be a maximum of 1 × 10−7 𝑐𝑚Τ𝑠𝑒𝑐. Sites having a value higher than this
would be deemed unsuitable.
• Siting criteria can be divided into two types:
a) Mandatory criteria – represent a legal requirement, a regulatory standard, or some
other aspect deemed so important that it cannot be violated under any circumstance
b) Discretionary criteria – represent desirable but not mandatory features. These reflect
preferences and value judgements.

• Narrative and Numerical criteria – example: protection of ground water from the possible
migration of leachate from a hazardous waste landfill
o A narrative criterion for permeability – “Allowed only in areas having a sufficient thickness of
naturally occurring geologic materials of low permeability (like dense bedrock) to assure that
effective remedial action can be taken”
o Numerical criterion for permeability – “A minimal thickness (eg. 20 feet) of regionally
continuous clay having a permeability no greater than 1 × 10−7 𝑐𝑚Τ𝑠𝑒𝑐.
 Value Judgements and Trade-offs

• A site selection process will involve value judgements because:

a) Criteria are based on an “acceptable risk” concept (there are no circumstances for which
risks, however remote, are zero)
b) The line between “acceptable” and “unacceptable” is typically unclear, and often varies
from one point of view to the next
• More significantly, value judgements are required because the ideal site with optimum
conditions for all siting considerations (eg. Hydrogeology, land use, transportation) does not
exist.
• The siting process must, therefore, examine trade-offs in its determination of what
constitutes “better” conditions, and this will inevitably encounter differences in
judgements among the authorities in the same field.
 PUBLIC PARTICIPATION
• The process of selecting sites for new facilities and obtaining permits for them is referred
to as “siting”. It is a very costly process and can take a decade or more of effort before a
definitive decision is received from the permitting agency.
• While every aspect of developing and operating a facility is conducted under close
scrutiny, nothing seems to raise as much PUBLIC OPPOSITION as siting a new facility.
Root causes of public opposition
• The typical layperson perceives a facility in his/her community as:
a) Imposed upon the community (involuntarily encountered)
b) Having no real benefit
c) Representing an unknown but substantial risk
➢ There is not enough public trust upon which to promote understanding and acceptance. The
engineers and science professions believe they have developed the capabilities required to
construct, operate, and monitor safe waste management facilities within technically acceptable
risk limitations. However, the public does not necessarily share the same belief.
➢ Opposition stems in part from how the public first becomes aware of a proposal to site a
facility.
o Most of the public, even in a process that has been conducted openly, will learn of the project
after a site has been identified in its community and publicized. The post facto revelation of a
siting, without proper explanation, can prompt an intense feeling of opposition.
o Getting the public involved early is a difficult undertaking. When the public has been given an
opportunity to participate in the planning, the public usually fails to perceive its stake and
typically will not participate. Only after the sites are identified, citizens in the potential host
communities get involved.
➢ Another compounding factor is that some well organized political activist groups exist that
oppose all new hazardous waste facilities in general. These groups will support local
communities in their opposition to a proposed facility; thus adding a degree of confusion for
laypersons struggling to understand a technical issue.
 How to gain public acceptance – PUBLIC INVOLVEMENT

• The extensive community participation in the siting process is the key to success, fostering
trust upon which understanding and acceptance could build.
• The triad of the facility developer, the local community, and the regulatory agency is
closely interrelated in the issue of siting new facilities.
• In the supportive role, government initiatives include a credible waste management plan
justifying the need for a new facility, assistance grants to proposed host communities,
extensive public information, public participation in selection of siting criteria if not the site
itself or at least the type of facility developed at the site, and a negotiated siting agreement
between the facility developer and the local community.
• To the facility developer, this level of public involvement may seem excessive to deal with.
However, experience shows that without it, an expensive and long siting process and the
high probability of regulatory denial are inevitable.
Key issues among triad of participants
in siting a facility
 What can be done for successful siting?

➢ Form a committee of representatives from government and the public to develop and
implement a site selection process consisting of two parts:
a) The development and scientific application of technical siting criteria to ensure the intrinsic
suitability of the selected site
b) The resolution of sociological issues so as to foster acceptance by the host communities
➢ Meetings with municipalities, local authorities, community representatives to explain the need
for a facility, discuss planned siting process, and to receive local input. (preferably after
preparing the regional screening maps but before naming the specific sites)
➢ More local meetings and workshops to educate the community; formation of local review
committees; major objectives:
a) Engender a sense of individual responsibility for overall industrial, municipal, and household
waste problem of which hazardous waste is one small part
b) Demonstrate that the risks of a facility are no greater than those posed by other industries
➢ Strong communication program:

✓ Materials to assist at public meetings

✓ Displays and participation at local conferences
✓ A print campaign of brochures and handout materials
✓ An education program for schools
✓ A newsletter outlining the issues, activities, and progress
 PERMITTING

• Treatment, storage and disposal facilities (TSDFs) are required to obtain permission
which establishes the administrative and technical conditions under which waste at the
facility must be managed.
• A permit is a legally binding document that establishes the waste management activities
a facility can conduct and the conditions under which it can conduct them.
• Permits typically require facilities to develop emergency plans, find insurance and
financial backing, and train employees to handle hazards. Permits can also
include specific facility requirements, such as groundwater monitoring.
• The permitting agency has the authority to issue or deny permits and is responsible for
monitoring the facility.
 Permitting Process for TSDFs
➢ The hazardous waste permitting process for Treatment, Storage, and Disposal Facilities
(TSDFs) in India follows the Hazardous and Other Wastes (Management and
Transboundary Movement) Rules, 2016, under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
The process ensures that TSDFs are properly designed, operated, and monitored to prevent
environmental contamination.

Steps in the Hazardous Waste Permitting Process for TSDFs in India

1. Identification of the Need for a TSDF
• A TSDF is required where hazardous waste generators do not have in-house treatment or
disposal systems.
• Industries or government agencies may propose the development of a TSDF for regional
waste management.
2. Site Selection & Approval
• The site selection process follows the guidelines set by Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB).
• Factors considered:
✓ Environmental Sensitivity – Proximity to water bodies, forests, residential areas, etc.
✓ Geological Suitability – Soil stability, groundwater depth, etc.
✓ Accessibility – Road and transportation network
• A site selection report is submitted to the State Pollution Control Board (SPCB) and the Ministry of
Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEF&CC).
3. Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) & Environmental Clearance (EC)
• TSDF projects fall under Category A of the EIA Notification, 2006, requiring an Environmental
Clearance (EC) from MoEF&CC.
• Steps in EIA process:
✓ Scoping – Defining the project scope and potential impacts
✓ Public Consultation – SPCB organizes a public hearing in the project area
✓ Environmental Management Plan (EMP) – Proposes measures to mitigate env impacts
✓ Final EIA Report Submission – Submitted to MoEF&CC for review
4. Consent to Establish (CTE) from SPCB
• Once EC is granted, the project proponent applies for Consent to Establish (CTE) from
the State Pollution Control Board (SPCB).
• The application includes:
✓ Layout & design of the TSDF
✓ Waste management & treatment processes
✓ Leachate management and monitoring plans
5. Construction of TSDF & Compliance Inspection
• After obtaining CTE, construction of the TSDF begins.
• SPCB & CPCB officials inspect the facility during and after construction to ensure
compliance with environmental regulations.
6. Consent to Operate (CTO) from SPCB
• Once construction is complete, the proponent applies for Consent to Operate
(CTO) from SPCB.
• The application must include:
✓ Operational plans for treatment, storage, and disposal
✓ Emergency response plan
✓ Monitoring systems for emissions, leachate, and groundwater contamination
• SPCB grants CTO with specific conditions, and operations can commence.
7. Hazardous Waste Authorization
• Separate authorization is required under the Hazardous Waste Management Rules, 2016 to
handle, store, and dispose of hazardous waste.
• The authorization specifies:
✓ Types & quantities of hazardous waste permitted
✓ Methods of treatment and disposal
✓ Record-keeping and reporting requirements
8. Manifest System & Transportation Compliance
• The TSDF must implement a six-copy manifest system to track hazardous waste from
generators to the disposal facility.
• Transport vehicles must comply with Central Motor Vehicle Rules, 1989, including
labeling and safety measures.
9. Compliance Monitoring & Reporting
• TSDF operators must:
✓ Maintain records of waste received, treated, and disposed of.
✓ Submit Annual Returns to SPCB.
✓ Conduct regular environmental monitoring (groundwater, air quality, etc.).
10. Renewal of Authorization & Periodic Inspection
• CTO and hazardous waste authorization must be renewed periodically.
• SPCB & CPCB conduct regular inspections to ensure compliance.
11. Closure & Post-Closure Care
• If a TSDF reaches its capacity or is shut down, a closure plan is submitted to SPCB.
• Post-closure monitoring is required for 30 years to prevent contamination.
• The site is monitored for leachate, groundwater contamination, and gas emissions.
LAND DISPOSAL
LANDFILL
 INTRODUCTION
• A landfill is defined as that system designed and constructed to contain discarded waste so as
to minimize releases of contaminants to the environment.

• Landfills are necessary because:

1. Other hazardous waste management technologies such as source reduction, recycling, and
waste minimization cannot totally eliminate the waste generated.
2. Hazardous waste treatment technologies such as incineration and biological treatment
produce residues.

• Thus, the generation of hazardous waste cannot be reduced to zero.

• Difference between land disposal and land farming: The concept behind landfilling is that
landfilling represents the ultimate fate of the waste, whereas land farming is a treatment
technique wherein biologically degradable wastes are placed onto the land in low concentrations
so that microbes can degrade the materials.
• Difference between land disposal facilities and storage facilities:
✓ Land disposal facilities represent a hazardous waste management technique that
constitutes a final placement of the waste.
✓ In contrast, storage facilities represent a temporary management technique where the
waste has not yet reached its final destination. Storage facilities hold waste prior to its
shipment for treatment.

• The overall design of secure land disposal facilities include:

1. Control of the top to minimize air emissions and infiltration of precipitation
2. Control of the bottom to maximize the collection of leachate and minimize contaminant
transport through the bottom
Cross-section of a hazardous waste landfill
Detail A – Cover System
Detail B – Liner and Leachate Collection Systems
 LANDFILL OPERATIONS
• The management of hazardous waste in land disposal facilities requires the TRACKING of
waste, i.e., recording of the journey of the waste from the time it is generated to its ultimate
disposal site.
• The principal reason for the careful tracking and disposal is to ensure waste compatibility.
Many wastes may react with each other, resulting in the potential for heat, combustion, or
toxic fumes.
• By tracking the waste and where it is discharged within the land disposal facility, a check can
be made of the waste compatibility, providing safe operating conditions for landfill operators.
• Additional purpose of this detailed tracking include the ability to pinpoint defects in the
system if specific contaminants show up in the environment at some time in future, i.e,
identify the source of the leak.
• Operational considerations include the application of a DAILY COVER placed at the close
of each operational day.
• A daily cover typically consists of soil one foot thick. The purpose is to minimize odor,
airborne transport of contaminants, and potential for direct contact, and miximize
aesthetics.

• Although the advantages of a daily cover are clear, it is also clear that placement of
uncontaminated clean soil on a daily basis in a hazardous landfill is both expensive and
uses up landfill space.

• Also, the collection and treatment of leachate is an integral part of any hazardous waste
land disposal facility.
 SITE SELECTION
• The selection of a hazardous waste disposal site is a highly charged political topic.
• From technical point of view, the site selection should incorporate considerations of geology,
hydrogeology, and hydrology.
• The natural environment of the site should exhibit characteristics that provide redundancy to
the engineered systems to protect the public health and the environment.
• For example: an area exhibiting an upward gradient from deeper aquifers would carry
contaminants (in case of a spill or leakage) away from the aquifer. Locating the landfill within
a clay formation immediately beneath the site also offers a level of natural protection.
• The intrinsic value of the site environment also needs to be considered. For example:
choosing a landfill site where the underlying ground water is unsuitable for use due to the
presence of naturally occurring chemical constituents.
• In addition to subsurface hydrology and geology, there are surface water hydrology
considerations.
• Undoubtedly, the construction of an engineered final cover will increase surface water
runoff.
• Both the sensitivity and capacity of the receiving waters to surface water runoff and to
leachate discharge after treatment require consideration.
• Streams of high value (drinking water supply source) need special consideration.
 LINER AND LEACHATE COLLECTION SYSTEMS
• The purpose of a liner is to provide a barrier to minimize migration of contaminants. A liner
with 100% effectiveness will prevent chemical constituents from migrating across the liner
system into the environment.
• Because no liner is 100% effective, some leachate will be generated inevitably and thus,
leachate collection is required.
• Therefore, the landfill bottom consists of:
1. Alternating layers of materials to provide barriers to contaminants attempting to migrate
from the landfill
2. Layers providing collection of these contaminants through collection systems
• Leachate is a combination of the direct precipitation infiltration (during operational period),
and any liquids squeezed out as a result of consolidation of landfill waste materials.
• Leachate seeps downwards to the base of the landfill due to gravitational forces. Leachate may
also carry particulate material (suspended solids) along with the dissolved constituents.
• At the base of the land disposal facility, the leachate first passes through a filter zone. The
filter zone may be a geotextile, and/or well-graded sand and gravel through which the
particulates are filtered out. A geogrid may also be included to provide additional structural
stability.

• The filter separates the waste from a relatively free draining zone around the primary
leachate collection piping. In this primary leachate collection zone, the leachate is free to
flow to the piping system for removal for treatment.

• The primary barrier layer underlines the entirety of the primary leachate collection zone.
This primary barrier layer should be a synthetic material known as a geomembrane of flexible
membrane liner (FML). Both geotextiles and geomembranes are known as geosynthetics.

• In a perfect system, the leachate is stopped by the primary barrier layer and is collected
there for subsequent treatment. However, it has been observed that all liners leak.
Schematic of liner and leachate collection systems for a hazardous waste
disposal facility
• The secondary leachate collection zone functions much the same as the primary
leachate collection system and underlies the primary barrier layer. This second system is
also known as leak detection system.
• Given the effectiveness of the primary liner, the secondary leachate collection systems
handles considerably reduced quantity of leachate.
• Beneath the secondary leachate collection system is yet another geomembrane, the
second barrier layer, that acts in the same manner as the primary barrier layer,
preventing downward flow of contaminants and allowing the secondary collection system
to collect the leachate.
• Underlying the entire system of primary and secondary leachate collection and
geomembrane barriers is a third barrier, constructed of natural material, compacted clay
or clay admixed into the natural underlying soils.
• The third barrier layer is required to control contaminants that may have passed through
the secondary leachate collection system.
➢ There can be several combinations and variations for arrangement of liner and leachate
collection system.
• One such example is shown in the figure on next slide – for a MSW and industrial waste
landfill.
• It exclusively employs geosynthetics for both drainage and barrier layers.
• The filters are geotextiles, drainage layers are geonets, and barrier layers are
geomembranes and geocomposites.
• The geosynthetic clay liner is a sodium montmorillonite clay attached to a geotextile to
create a thin clay sheet of low permeability.
Schematic of geosynthetic liner and leachate collection systems
 COMPOSITE SYSTEMS

• A liner designed to minimize the rate of contaminant migration into the environment must:
1. Minimize hydraulic conductivity
2. Minimize molecular diffusion rate
3. Maximize retardation

• Composite liners are made of dissimilar materials, each employed to achieve one or more of
the above goals.
• The composite liner materials include bentonite, zeolite (suitable for the inorganic
components of leachate), organically modified clays, high-carbon fly ash (suitable for organic
constituents of leachate), and geosynthetics.

• The adsorbing barrier materials can be admixed with clay or attached to the geomembranes
for reducing hydraulic conductivity. The use of these materials individually is well known for
adsorption in wastewater treatment, such as zeolites, carbon, organically modified clays.
• The adsorbing layers should be located on the underside of the secondary geomembrane
liner because the geomembranes function as the primary barrier against contaminant
transport by acting as a hydraulic barrier.
• In this way, the contaminant loading to the adsorptive layers is decreased and their useful
lives are extended.

• Figure on the next slide shows a composite liner system that incorporates both the barrier
and leachate collection system along with the materials that reduce the rate of diffusion
through the system.
• Materials that delay the transport of inorganic contaminants include calcium bentonite,
sodium bentonite, and zeolite.
• Materials that attenuate organic contaminants include high-carbon fly ash (effective for
low molecular weight organics) and organically modified clay (effective for higher
molecular weight organics).
Schematic of composite liner system for a hazardous waste disposal facility
 COVER SYSTEMS
• A significant source of leachate generation at hazardous waste disposal facility is the
infiltration of water through the top of landfill, by either direct precipitation or stormwater
runoff.
• The final cover design considers health, safety, aesthetics, and site usage after closure,
coupled with engineering requirements for permeability, compressibility, and strength.
• The final cover is expected to remain in service for as long as the waste is present (30 years or
more), it must provide for the following:
✓ Control water movement into the landfill system to minimize leachate generation
✓ Control animals and vectors which can introduce disease into the ecosystem
✓ Protect the public from the results of direct contact with waste
✓ Control gas movement to avoid a decline in air quality
✓ Control surface water runoff
✓ Resist erosion
✓ Provide a more slightly appearance
Schematic of hazardous waste landfill cover
• The uppermost layer, a vegetation support layer, typically consists of an organic silty loam
(topsoil) material used to support vegetation.
• Vegetation provides several important functions in the performance of the landfill cover:
✓ Reduces erosion
✓ Reduces precipitation infiltration
✓ Enhances evapotranspiration, i.e., returning moisture that has been absorbed into the topsoil
layer into the atmosphere to further reduce deeper infiltration
• The lateral drainage layer underlies the vegetative support layer and is a free-draining
porous, gravelly material, geonet, or geocomposite. The purpose of this drainage layer is to
enhance lateral drainage of any precipitation that infiltrates through the vegetative support
zone. With proper grading of the lateral drainage layer, the infiltration can be collected.
• The lateral drainage layer and the vegetative support layer function in combination to protect
the underlying barrier layers from the environmental stresses of wetting and drying and
freezing and thawing.
• A geotextile filter may be placed beneath the topsoil and above the underlying lateral
drainage layer.
• The geotextile serves to maintain separation between the layers and to act as a filter to
minimize migration of materials, thus reducing the risk of clogging of drainage layer with topsoil
fines.
• Beneath the lateral drainage layer is one more barrier layer. The barrier layer may be
composed of any of the barriers previously discussed including geomembranes, admixed
materials, and natural clays. The barrier layer represents the final resistance to precipitation
infiltration.
• Underlying the barrier layer may be a gas collection layer used to collect generated gases
migrating from the landfill for subsequent venting to the atmosphere.
• This layer is typically composed of porous sands and gravels and may include gas collection
piping. Gases that may be generated include carbon dioxide and methane from the anaerobic
digestion of organic matter as well as volatile organics.
• Hazardous waste landfills contain significantly less organics than MSW landfills, thereby
making it impractical to collect gases for resource recovery. Nevertheless, some gases can be
expected and need to be managed.

• The lowermost layer in a landfill cover system may be a subgrade layer to accommodate
uneven and unstable landfill surfaces. This layer also aids construction of a cover with
appropriate contours needed to enhance lateral drainage.
 SURFACE WATER CONTROLS
• The construction of a hazardous waste disposal facility alters the natural hydrology of the
site. Prior to construction, surface water probably flowed onto the site.
• Surface water controls for landfills are essential to prevent erosion, minimize leachate
generation, and protect surrounding water bodies from contamination.
• To control surface water, routine technologies can be incorporated into the site development
for hazardous waste disposal facilities. The technologies include surface water diversion and
collection systems to minimize any surface water entering active areas of the site.
• Surface water diversion technologies include dikes and berms, ditches and drainage ways,
terraces and benches. Surface water can also be controlled by grading and revegetation
(enhance evapotranspiration, minimize erosion, and sediment transport).
• Control of surface water continues when the final cover is constructed. Runoff from the cover
system must be managed through the techniques shown in the table.
Surface water controls for landfills
➢ Berms are raised earthen
embankments used to
control water flow and
provide structural stability.

➢ Dikes are similar to berms

but are usually larger and
more structured, designed
to control water flow and
prevent flooding.
➢ Terraces are horizontal or gently sloped steps constructed on landfill slopes to slow down
surface water runoff and reduce erosion.
➢ Benches are flat platforms built into landfill slopes at regular intervals, mainly for structural
stability and erosion control. They are wider than terraces and serve additional purposes.

Terraces vs. Benches: Key Differences

 MATERIALS
GEOMEMBRANES
• A geomembrane is an engineered polymeric material (a geosynthetic) which is fabricated to be
virtually impermeable. A geomembrane can be made of any one of a number of plastic manufactured
materials such as butyl rubber, chlorinated polyethylene, chlorosulfonated polyethylene, ethylene-
propylene rubber (neoprene), polyethylene (HDPE, LDPE), and polyvinyl chloride.
• Compatibility studies and studies of liner performance have shown that HDPE is the material of choice
for the mixed range of wastes typically encountered in land disposal facilities.
• To evaluate the performance of the geomembrane barrier layers, it is necessary to evaluate a wide
range of properties.
• The most common test method employed for the measurement of compatibility of the membrane
with the wastes is EPA Method 9090. In this method, rectangular geomembrane samples are
immersed in the expected leachate for a minimum of 120 days at room temperature of 22C and at an
elevation temperature of 55C. Physical properties including hardness, tensile behavior, puncture
resistance, specific gravity, etc. are measured after 30 days, as well as before and after immersion.
Geomembrane types

Good resistance to corrosive chemicals; not very good for oils and solvents

Easily punctured; poor chemical resistance

Geomembrane properties
 GEOTEXTILES

• A geotextile is a geosynthetic which is fabricated to be permeable and has two categories

of hydraulic properties:
✓ Filtration – removal of suspended solids from the flowing liquid
✓ Drainage – transportation of liquids across the plane of the fabric

• Geotextiles can be classified by the way they are manufactured as either woven or non-
woven.
✓ Woven geotextiles tend to be stronger in tension and have been used for
reinforcement.
✓ Non-woven geotextiles have been used for filtration, separation, and as a protective
layer over geomembranes.
• The durability of a geotextile for the long-term demands of a hazardous waste landfill is of
critical importance. The properties for consideration of endurance include:
o Ultraviolet light stability
o Abrasion resistance
o Chemical stability
o Thermal stability

• Generally, the durability of a geotextile is not of concern except for chemical instability.
They are protected from ultraviolet light and abrasion because they are buried. They are
protected from thermal instability because they are stable over quite a wide range of
temperatures.

• A critical issue regarding the long-term performance is the issue of clogging – how rapidly;
kind of biological activity present and its contribution to clogging?
 COMPACTED CLAYS

• To supplement geomembrane liners, compacted

clay soil is typically used as the tertiary liner system.
The native soils typically consist of natural clays,
silty clays, sandy clays, and clayey silts.

• A state-of-the art compacted clay barrier does not

stop the transport of contaminants. Containment
systems simply delay transport; contaminants will
still migrate through the compacted clay liner to
the environment beneath the liner.
 BENTONITE ADMIXTURES

• Bentonite is added to natural soils to reduce the hydraulic conductivity

and increase the adsorptive capacity of the native materials.

• Sodium montmorillonite clay (bentonite) is added to the native soil

using 5-15% by dry weight. This added clay changes the natural soil to a
clayey soil. The soil-bentonite admixture is compacted into a liner of
relatively low hydraulic conductivity.

• The exchangeable ions in the clay (i.e., Ca and Na) readily exchange with heavy metals such
as copper, nickel, and lead. Thus, as leachate migrates through a soil liner containing
bentonite, the rate of advective transport is reduced as a result of the lower hydraulic
conductivity, and the diffusive transport is reduced due to the exchange and adsorption of
metal ions onto the clay surface.
 ZEOLITE

• Zeolites are naturally occurring or engineered

alumino-silicates with a caged structure. The
cation exchange capacity of zeolites is about 250
milliequivalents per 100 gm with sodium and
calcium being the major exchangeable cations.

• The caged structure of the zeolite acts like a molecular sieve. Metal ions that pass into the
sieve are trapped and held by ion exchange. The five principal zeolites found in nature are
analcite, clinoptilolite, erionite, chabazite, and mordenite.

• Zeolites perform a wide range of waste management functions including purification of water
contaminated with radioactive ions, removal of ammonium from the effluent of a waste water
treatment plants, adsorption of metals from industrial wastewaters. Among the metal ions,
zeolites prefer arsenic, cadmium, and lead.
 ORGANICALLY MODIFIED CLAYS

• Organically modified clays are naturally occurring clays in which a portion of the exchangeable
inorganic cations are exchanged with suitable organic cations such as quaternary ammonium.
• The reactions that exchange the organic cations with the inorganic cations on the surface of
the clay include adsorption, ion exchange, and intercalation.
• Different organically modified clays result from different base clays (eg. Montmorillonite and
attapulgite) and different organic cations used in the exchange.
• The unmodified clay is hydrophilic whereas the modified clay is organophylic and
hydrophobic.
• Organically modified clays adsorb organic molecules as a result of adsorbate interactions and
adsorbate-solvent interactions.
• The adsorption capacity of an organically modified clay is therefore dependent upon both the
properties of the organic cation used to make the organically modified clay as well as the
properties of the fluids, such as temperature, pH, and organic waste type and concentration.
 FLY ASH

• Fly ash is the byproduct of the combustion of coal burned for the production of electricity.
The material is a silt-sized particulate, silicious in nature, containing various levels of
unburnt carbon.

• The addition of high-carbon fly ash within the barrier

results in a substantial delay in breakthrough of
organics. High-carbon fly ash shows adsorptive
preference for low molecular weight organics
(similar to activated carbon) in contrast to
organically modified clays that preferentially
adsorb high molecular weight organics.
 LANDFILL STABILITY
• Landfill stability is essential to prevent failures such as slope collapses, leachate leaks, and
gas explosions. Stability issues can lead to environmental pollution, groundwater
contamination, and structural damage.

➢ Factors Affecting Landfill Stability

A. Geotechnical Factors
• Slope Angle & Height: Steeper and taller
landfills are more prone to failure.
• Soil & Waste Composition: Organic waste
decomposition can lead to settlement
and instability.
• Leachate Accumulation: Excess moisture weakens the waste mass and soil, leading to landslides.
B. Environmental Factors
• Rainfall & Water Infiltration: Heavy rainfall can cause saturation and slope failure.
• Gas Generation & Pressure: Methane buildup can create internal pressure and
instability.
• Seismic Activity: Earthquakes can trigger landfill slides in high-risk zones.

C. Operational Factors
• Waste Compaction: Poor compaction can create voids, increasing instability.
• Loading & Overburden: Excessive waste piling beyond design capacity can lead to
failures.
➢ Landfill Stability Assessment Methods

A. Slope Stability Analysis

• Factor of Safety (FoS): Stability is evaluated using geotechnical models (FoS > 1.5 is stable).
• Methods Used:
✓ Limit Equilibrium Analysis (LEA) – Examines potential slip surfaces.
✓ Finite Element Method (FEM) – Simulates landfill stress-strain behavior.

B. Leachate & Gas Pressure Monitoring

• Piezometers: Measure leachate levels to prevent saturation.
• Gas Probes: Monitor methane buildup to avoid explosions.

C. Settlement & Deformation Analysis

• GPS & Inclinometers: Track landfill movement over time.
• Remote Sensing (LiDAR): Detects surface deformations.
➢ Strategies for Improving Landfill Stability
A. Engineering Solutions
• Reinforced Slopes: Use geogrids and retaining walls to strengthen slopes.
• Drainage Systems: Install leachate collection and surface water diversion to reduce moisture.
• Waste Compaction & Layering: Compact waste in layers to improve load-bearing capacity.
B. Environmental Controls
• Gas Extraction Systems: Reduce internal pressure through methane recovery wells.
• Vegetative Covers: Minimize water infiltration and enhance slope integrity.
C. Monitoring & Risk Management
• Regular Stability Assessments: Conduct periodic slope analysis.
• Early Warning Systems: Install sensors to detect ground movement.
• Emergency Response Plans: Have contingency plans for slope failures.
 CLOSURE AND POST-CLOSURE CARE
➢ The closure and post-closure care of a hazardous waste landfill are critical to ensuring long-
term environmental protection, minimizing groundwater contamination, and preventing
hazardous gas emissions.

1. Objectives of Closure and Post-Closure Care

• Prevent leachate formation and groundwater contamination
• Control hazardous gas emissions (e.g., volatile organic compounds - VOCs)
• Maintain long-term structural stability
• Restrict human and ecological exposure to hazardous waste
• Ensure compliance with environmental regulations
2. Landfill Closure Process
A. Closure Plan Development
• Before closing, a detailed closure plan must be approved by regulatory authorities. The plan
includes:
✓ Final cover system design
✓ Leachate and gas control measures
✓ Monitoring and maintenance requirements
✓ Long-term land use planning
B. Final Cover System
C. Leachate and Gas Management
• Leachate Collection System: Pipes and treatment units prevent contamination of nearby
water bodies.
• Gas Extraction System: Captures hazardous gases (e.g., VOCs, methane) for safe disposal or
energy recovery.
• Surface Water Diversion: Prevents rainwater from infiltrating the waste mass.

D. Security and Institutional Controls

• Fencing and Restricted Access: Prevents unauthorized entry.
• Land Use Restrictions: Prohibits future excavation or development in hazardous zones.
• Regulatory Approval: Final closure certification is required from environmental agencies.
3. Post-Closure Care Requirements
A. Post-Closure Monitoring Period
• Typically required for 30 to 50 years (varies by regulation and site conditions)

B. Key Post-Closure Activities

C. Potential Future Land Uses
• Solar farms, wind energy projects
• Wildlife habitat restoration
• No residential or agricultural use

4. Regulatory Framework
• US EPA (RCRA Subtitle C - Hazardous Waste Landfills)
• EU Landfill Directive (1999/31/EC)
• India’s Hazardous and Other Wastes (Management & Transboundary Movement) Rules,
2016