1 - Photosynthesis

1.1 - Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis
-​ A green pigment called chlorophyll captures the energy in the sunlight
-​ Photosynthesis requires water from soil, carbon dioxide from the air, and energy from
sunlight
-​ Photosynthesis creates glucose and oxygen
-​ Water + carbon dioxide → glucose + oxygen

Testing for oxygen (Experiment):

Method:
1.​ Set up apparatus
2.​ Remove the test tube while securing the gas inside
3.​ Let the water run out the test tube but keep the gas
4.​ Hover a glowing splint over the test tube
5.​ Splint will relight if there is oxygen

Does light intensity affect rate of photosynthesis (Experiment):

Method:
1.​ Place a lamp close to a test tube with water and plant inside
2.​ Give plant about 5 minutes to begin photosynthesis
3.​ Measure distance from lamp and test tube and start timer for 1 minute
4.​ Count amount of bubbles produced in a minute
5.​ Move lamp further away and repeat step 3 and 4
6.​ Repeat this process until enough results are collected

Why is photosynthesis important?

-​ Provides chemical energy for other organisms as food
-​ Provides oxygen for the atmosphere and controls carbon dioxide
1.2 - More about photosynthesis
Chloroplasts and chlorophyll
-​ Chlorophyll is kept inside chloroplasts, capturing energy to make water and carbon
dioxide react
-​ During sunny days, plants make excess carbohydrates that are stored and used
during the night or whenever there is no sunlight
-​ Carbohydrates are stored as starch inside of the chloroplast

Testing for starch (Experiment):

Method:
1.​ Boil some water in a beaker using burner and put in a healthy plant
2.​ Turn off burner after 2 minutes and out the leaf in a test tube of ethanol
3.​ Stand the test tube in the beaker of hot water without using the burner
4.​ Watch the green colour of the leaf dissolve into the ethanol
5.​ Once enough colour has dissolved, spread the leaf onto a tile and spread iodine over
the leaf using a dropper
6.​ Parts of the leaf containing starch will turn blue black

Minerals and plant growth

-​ Fertiliser is added to crops to increase yield (quantity of crops harvested)
-​ Magnesium
-​ Makes chlorophyll
-​ Lack of magnesium causes yellowing and stunted growth due to lack of
chlorophyll
-​ Nitrate
 -​ Contains nitrogen atoms which converts carbohydrates to proteins
-​ Lack of nitrate causes leaves to die and the plant to stay small

1.3 - The carbon cycle

Carbon
-​ Part of the compounds carbohydrate, protein, and fat
-​ Plants convert carbon dioxide into carbohydrates
-​ Humans and animals get the carbon-containing nutrients from eating plants or other
animals
-​ Decomposers get carbon from breaking down waste products

Fossil fuels and combustion

-​ Bodies in places like the ocean cannot be decomposed as there is not enough
oxygen
-​ The bodies get gradually buried by sediment building on top of them
-​ High pressure and heat changes the remains into coal, oil, or natural gas
-​ Fossil fuels are then used for cooking, heating, and generating electricity
-​ Fossil fuels contain the carbon from the nutrients of the dead organism
-​ When fossil fuels are burned, the carbon combines with oxygen to form carbon
dioxide in a process called combustion

1.4 - Climate change

Greenhouse gases:
-​ Carbon dioxide and methane are greenhouse gases
-​ Heat from the sun is trapped inside the atmosphere due to the high levels of carbon
dioxide
Ice ages
-​ The first ice age happened 2 billion years ago
-​ After that Earth cycled throughout warm and cold periods, during warm periods there
was no ice, even at the poles
-​ On at least one occasion, the whole Earth was covered in ice and snow, leading
scientists to call it ‘snowball Earth’

Asteroids
-​ Around 470 million years ago, two asteroids collided in between Earth and Mars,
producing huge amounts of dust which reduced light and heat from the Sun to the
Earth
-​ This triggered an ice age as the Earth became colder
-​ Around 67 million years ago, an asteroid hit an area on the coast of Mexico, causing
shock waves and high temperatures and threw rocks and dust into the air
-​ The dust caused less light to reach the Earth, plants couldn’t photosynthesize and
animals had less food
-​ This lead to about 75% of the Earth’s species to go extinct
-​ There are about 175 known asteroid impact craters on Earth

Impacts of climate change

-​ More extreme weather events and natural disasters such as typhoons and hurricanes
-​ Unpredictable rain causing droughts, poor harvest, floods, and wildfires
-​ Rising sea levels due to melting glaciers and expanding waters

2 - Properties of materials

2.1 - Atomic structure of the Periodic Table

Periodic table
-​ Atoms increase in mass from left to right
-​ Atomic number = Amount of protons (Increases by one each element)
-​ Mass number = Proton + Neutron
-​ Protons = Positive charge, electrons = negative charge, neutrons = no charge

Electronic structure
 -​ Electron orbit a nucleus of the atom in electron shells
-​ The first electron shell can hold two electrons
-​ The second and third shells can hold 8 each
-​ Electrons are held in place by electrostatic forces

2.2 - Trends in groups within the Periodic Table

Group 1: Alkali metals
-​ Lithium, sodium, and potassium
-​ Atomic number and mass number increases as you go down the group
-​ Melting point temperature decreases as you go down the group
-​ Structure of the atoms
-​ Lithium: 2, 1
-​ Sodium: 2, 8, 1
-​ Potassium: 2, 8, 8, 1
-​ The number of full electron shells increases by one each atom in the group
-​ Last shell always contains one electron

Group 7: Halogens (extension material)

-​ Fluorine, chlorine, bromine
-​ Bromine is a liquid while fluorine and chlorine are gases at room temperature
-​ Reactivity: Fluorine > Chlorine > Bromine
-​ Melting point and boiling point increases as you go down
-​ Atomic number and mass number increases as you go down
-​ Structure of the atoms:
-​ Fluorine: 2, 7
-​ Chlorine: 2, 8, 7
-​ Bromine: 2, 8, 8, 7
-​ The number of full electron shells increases by one each atom in a group
-​ Last shell always contains seven electrons

Group 8: Noble gases

-​ Helium, neon, argon
-​ Inert (unreactive) and do not form compounds
-​ Atomic number and mass number increases as you go down
 -​ Melting point and boiling point increases as you go down
-​ Structure of atoms:
-​ Helium: 2
-​ Neon: 2, 8
-​ Argon: 2, 8, 8
-​ All electron shells are full

2.3 - Why elements react to form compounds

Atomic structure
-​ Outermost shell = Highest energy level
-​ Number of electrons = Number of protons
-​ Electrons = -1, protons = +1, thus atoms have no overall charge
-​ Electrons held in place by electrostatic forces

Reactions
-​ Atoms are more stable when their outermost electron shell is full
-​ Noble gases (Group 8) don’t react because their outermost electron shells are full
-​ Chemical bonds are formed when atoms gain electrons, lose electrons, or share
electrons

Losing electrons
-​ A sodium atom loses the electron from the outermost shell and becomes a sodium
ion
-​ A sodium ion is more stable than a sodium atom because it has a full outermost shell
-​ Because there is one less electron, there are more positively charged protons than
negatively charged electrons, so the symbol will change from ‘Na’ to ‘Na+’

Gaining electrons
-​ In groups such as Group 7, elements such as chlorine have their outermost shell
almost full
-​ The chlorine atom gains an electron from a different atom and forms a chlorine ion
-​ The chlorine ion is more stable than the chlorine atom
-​ Because there is one extra electron, there are more electrons than protons, so the
symbol should be written as ‘Cl-’ instead of ‘Cl’

Ionic bonding
-​ In an ionic bond, there is an attractions between the positively charged ion (more
proton than electron) and the negatively charged ion (more electron than proton)
-​ Some atoms such as potassium are more reactive as it has more electron shells, this
means the outermost shell is the further away from the nucleus, making it easier to
overcome electrostatic forces
-​ Na+ (Sodium) and Cl- (Chlorine) form a bond as the elements are held together to
make NaCl (Sodium chloride)
-​ Other Group 1 and Group 7 metals react the same such as:
-​ lithium + chlorine > lithium chloride
-​ lithium + fluorine > lithium fluorine
-​ potassium + chlorine > potassium chloride
 -​ Potassium + fluorine > potassium fluorine
-​ Fluorine is more reactive than chlorine
-​ Fluorine can get electrons more easily because the outermost shell is closer to the
nucleus than chlorine, so an additional electron is attracted by the fluorine

Ionic compounds
-​ Made when a metal ion reacts with a non-metal ion
-​ A magnesium atoms gives two of its electrons to the oxygen atom
-​ Mg^2+ and O^2- are attracted to each other to form an ionic compound MgO
-​ Mg^2+ and 2 Cl- are attracted and form the ionic compound MgCl2

Covalent bonds
-​ Hydrogen (1) and Chlorine (2, 8, 7) share a pair of electrons so their outermost shells
are full
-​ This forms hydrogen chloride (HCl)
-​ Two hydrogen atoms can also share electrons to complete their shells
-​ This forms a molecule of hydrogen, H2
-​ Three hydrogen atoms (1) (1) (1) join with one nitrogen atom (2, 5) to form a
molecule of ammonia, NH3
2.4 - Simple and giant structures
Giant structures in ionic compounds
-​ Sodium chloride consists of Na+ and Cl-, which are highly attracted to each other due
to them having equal opposite charges
-​ The electrostatic forces act in all directions to form ionic bonds
-​ The ions make a giant structure called lattice
-​ In a lattice structure, the ions form a regular shape because they are arranged in a
regular pattern

Giant covalent structures

-​ Many covalent bonds are formed from simple molecules such as oxygen, carbon
dioxide, and methane
-​ The forces holding the molecules together are strong but the forces between the
molecules (intermolecular forces) are weak
Giant structures of carbon
-​ Diamonds are strong and hard because each carbon atom in it forms four strong
covalent bonds
-​ This causes the diamond to have a strong three-dimensional lattice structure
-​ Carbon also forms a soft material called graphite
-​ The carbon atoms in graphite with three other atoms, forming layers which can easily
slide over one another
Ionic substances have high melting and boiling points due to their strong electrostatic forces

Covalent structures made from simple molecules have low melting and boiling points due to
the intermolecular forces being weak

Ionic compounds can conduct electricity if dissolved or melted as ions have an electrical
charge

3 - Forces and energy

3.1 - Density
Calculating volume
-​ To calculate a regular block, we can measure the length, width, and height of the
block
-​ To calculate an irregular shape, put the object in a measuring cylinder containing a
set volume of water, the amount that has been increased is the volume of the object
-​ This method is called displacement

Calculating density
-​ Density is the mass per unit volume
-​ Density = mass/volume
-​ The unit of density is mass/volume (g/cm^3 or kg/m^3)

Comparing densities
-​ Gases have lower densities than solids and liquids because their particles are far
apart
-​ Density increases as particles are packed closer together
-​ Solids > Liquids > Gases
-​ Density usually increases with atomic number
-​ Collapsed stars (neutronium) have a density of 100,000,000,000,000g/cm^3
Floating and sinking
-​ If something is more dense than water, it will sink
-​ If something is less dense than water, it will float
-​ Even though a ship built from steel has a higher density than water, the large hollow
spaces inside the ship allow it to ship as the average density of the ship is less than
the average density of water

Gases at different density

-​ Balloons filled with helium float in the air because helium is less dense than air
-​ When gas is compressed, the same number of particles is in a smaller volume,
increasing density
-​ When gas expands, the same number of particles is in a larger volume, decreasing
density
-​ Hot air balloons work by having hot air inside the balloon, which is less dense than
the colder air outside

3.2 - Heat and temperature

Heat and temperature
-​ Heat is the total thermal energy in an object
-​ Temperature is the average energy of particles and the direction the thermal energy
is transferred
-​ Two objects of the same volume can have the same heat but different temperature
-​ Two objects of different volumes can have the same temperature but different heat
-​ Thermal energy is transferred from higher temperature to lower temperature
-​ The larger the temperature difference, the faster the transfer

Sparker
-​ A sparkler can be at about 1000°C, but a single spark isn’t as hot
-​ The spark has fewer particles, meaning its total thermal energy is smaller
-​ Thermal energy is transferred from the spark to the air because of the large
temperature difference

Kelvin
-​ A scientist named Kelvin in the 1800s predicted that a particle would have a
temperature so low that it stops moving
-​ The temperature for this would be absolute zero, -273°C
-​ It is not possible for a particle to completely stop moving, but scientists have created
temperatures within billionths of a degree of absolute zero

3.3 - Conservation of energy

Law of conservation
-​ Conserved = Total energy remains the same
-​ The total energy output can never be greater than total energy input as energy
cannot be created
 -​ Wasted energy is dissipated, meaning it spreads into its surroundings, it is not
destroyed
-​ Energy can only be transferred or changed

3.4 - Moving from hot to cold

Feeling heat
-​ Thermal energy moves from higher to lower temperature
-​ Thermal energy removed = thermal energy dissipated
-​ When you hold a hot drink, the thermal energy moves from the drink, through the
cup, and into your hands
-​ When food is stored in a fridge, thermal energy transfers out of the food
-​ Water is put into car engines to removes the thermal energy in the engines
-​ Animals go in the water to cool down as the thermal energy moves from the animal’s
body into the water
Feeling cold
-​ Cold is not energy storage, it cannot be transferred
-​ When you hold ice, the thermal energy from your hands transfer into the ice
-​ When a window is opened, thermal energy from inside the room moves outside into
the colder air

Dissipation
-​ When thermal energy moves from a hotter place to a colder place, it is dissipation
-​ The higher the difference between the hot place and the cold place, the higher the
rate of thermal energy transfer
-​ The thermal energy is never destroyed, it is only spread out

3.5 - Ways of transferring thermal energy

Heat and particle movement
-​ When something is heated, it expands due to the particles vibrating more vigorously
-​ This applies to solids, liquids, and gases

Conduction
-​ Thermal energy is conducted when particles vibrate more vigorously, causing the
particles beside them to vibrate faster too
-​ Conduction of thermal energy is most efficient in solids where particles are packed
closely
-​ Metals are good conductors because of the way their particles are arranged
-​ Materials such as wood, plastic, and fabrics insulators
-​ Conduction doesn’t work well in liquids and gases because the particles do not
vibrate

Convection
-​ When liquids and gases are heated, the particles volume increases, but the mass is
the same, meaning the density decreases
-​ The heated gas or liquid becomes less dense and floats up to the colder, denser part
-​ The colder and denser parts then sink down to fill in the space
-​ This movement is called a convection current
Radiation
-​ Thermal energy cannot be transferred from the Sun to the Earth by conduction or
convention, due to there being no particles in space
-​ All objects emit thermal energy through radiation
-​ Hotter objects emit thermal energy by radiation while colder objects absorb energy by
radiation
-​ Radiation does not need particles and can pass through transparent solids, liquids,
and gases
-​ The best emitters and absorbers of radiation:
-​ are dull
-​ are black
-​ have a large surface area
-​ The worst emitters and absorbers of radiation:
-​ are shiny
-​ are white or silver
-​ have a small surface area
-​ Shiny, white, or silver surfaces reflect radiation
-​ Penguins have black feathers to absorb thermal energy
-​ Houses are painted white so they absorb less thermal energy

Conduction, convection, and radiation

-​ Heater
-​ Heats up the air in a room
-​ Conduction transfers the thermal energy into the metal and into the air
-​ Convection lets the air expand and rise higher up
-​ Radiation emits the thermal energy from the metal
 -​ Vacuum flask (Thermos)
-​ Stores hot liquids and slows the transfer of thermal energy
-​ Contains a glass bottle with a silver surface that’s surrounded by a vacuum
-​ The only part of the bottle that makes contact with the outside is the top
-​ The silver surface reflects thermal energy back into the liquid

Conduction of thermal energy in different materials (Experiment)

Method:
1.​ Have rods made from different metals
2.​ Attach paper clips to each rod with 5 cm intervals
3.​ Clamp the rod and heat the opposite end
4.​ Measure time taken for all paper clips to fall off
5.​ Repeat steps 3 and 4 for each rod
Observing convection (Experiment)
Method:
1.​ Fill 3/4 of a beaker with cold water
2.​ Place a small volume of coloured ink at the bottom of the beaker with a pipette
3.​ Heat the beaker and prevent stirring
4.​ Coloured ink should spread out and rise up

Emitting thermal energy by radiation (Experiment)

Method:
1.​ Paint three identical cans black, white, and silver
2.​ Fill each can with water heated to 60°C to within about 1 cm from the top
3.​ Place a thermometer in each can and record the temperature every two minutes
4.​ Observe how long it takes for the water to cool in each can
3.6 - Cooling by evaporation
Evaporation
-​ Liquid turns to gas
-​ The speed and direction of particles in a liquid are random
-​ Particles with the highest energy can escape the liquid while the particles with the
lowest energy remain

Evaporation and cooling

-​ Evaporation causes cooling
-​ When the particles with the highest energy in a liquid escape, the average energy of
particles are lowered
-​ Therefore, the temperature will decrease
-​ Our sweat is the same temperature as our skin, when it evaporates, it becomes
cooler
-​ The thermal energy from our skin transfers into the sweat, lowering skin temperature
-​ Sweat may not be able to evaporate in humid conditions, causing body temperature
to increase

Examples of evaporation and cooling

-​ Air cooler
-​ Contains a sponge soaked in water
-​ Warm air is blown into the sponge to evaporate the water
-​ Perfumes
-​ Have weaker forces to evaporate quickly
-​ Perfume removes thermal energy faster than water
-​ Liquid soap
-​ Has stronger forces in between particles
-​ Liquid soap removes thermal energy slower than water

4 - Maintaining life

4.1 - Plants and water

Root hair cells
 -​ Soil is made up from tiny particles of rock, with air and water in the spaces between
them
-​ Water moves from the soil into the root hair cell, passing through the cell wall, cell
membrane, and into the cytoplasm
-​ Other than water, minerals including magnesium and nitrate are also absorbed

Water moving up the plant

-​ Inside the centre of a root hair cell is a xylem vessel
-​ Xylem vessels have no nucleus or cytoplasm, only cell walls and a hollow space
-​ The water goes through the xylem vessel to the highest parts of the plant
Investigating transport in a celery stalk (Experiment)
Method:
1.​ Fill about 1 or 2 cm depth of coloured water in a beaker
2.​ Cleanly cut across the lower end of the celery stalk
3.​ Stand the stalk in the water
4.​ Once the dye has reached the top of the stalk, take it out and rinse the end of the
stalk
5.​ Cut across the end of the stalk
4.2 - Transpiration
How water moves through leaves
-​ Water moves out from the xylem vessels and into the leaf
-​ The chloroplasts take some water, and the remaining water soaks into the cell wall
-​ After that it evaporates into water vapour and diffuses into the air spaces
-​ The water vapour then diffuses through the stomata and into the air

Why plants need water

-​ Helps the plant stand upright
-​ Water makes the plant cell strong and firm, pressing against one another to make the
plant supported
-​ Transports minerals such as nitrate and magnesium to other parts of the parts
 -​ Cools down the plant when water evaporates
-​ Used for photosynthesis

4.3 - Excretion in humans

Excretion
-​ Process of getting rid of waste material that has truly been inside the body
-​ Something has to move out of the digestive system and into the person’s blood or
cells to be part of the body
-​ Faeces does not count as excretion
-​ Excretion includes, carbon dioxide, urea, excess water

Renal system
-​ Proteins in food are broken down in the digestive system
-​ These molecules go into blood and is then sent to the liver
-​ If we have more protein than needed, the liver changes smaller molecules into urea
-​ Urea is a poisonous substance and may cause illness if built up
-​ The kidney filters out urea and excess water from the blood
-​ Urea dissolves in the excess water and produces urine
-​ The urine flows down the ureter, into the bladder and leaves the body through the
urethra

4.4 - Keeping a fetus healthy

Pregnancy
-​ The mother supplies the fetus with nutrients
-​ The mother’s and the fetus’s blood do not mix, their blood systems do not touch
-​ The substances are diffused from the mother’s blood to the fetus’s blood
-​ The substances that need to be excreted by the fetus is diffused into the mother’s
blood

Diet
-​ Protein
-​ Produces new cells for the fetus
-​ Grows the fetus
-​ Keeps mother’s muscles strong and working
-​ Makes more haemoglobin to transport more oxygen to the fetus
-​ Carbohydrate
-​ Supplies enough energy to mother and fetus
-​ Cannot eat too much to prevent weight gain
-​ Vitamins and minerals
-​ Iron is needed to make haemoglobin
-​ Calcium helps the baby grow strong bones and keep teeth healthy

Smoking cigarettes
-​ Tobacco contains carbon monoxide, nicotine, and tar
-​ The carbon monoxide and nicotine diffuses into the fetus’s blood
 -​ Carbon monoxide takes up space in blood, causing the haemoglobin to carry less
oxygen, leading to less respiration
-​ Nicotine is addicting and damages blood vessels
-​ Tar is a sticky black substance

Drugs
-​ Medicinal drugs drugs such as antibiotics and aspirin are good for us
-​ Drugs we don’t need can damage one’s health
-​ A pregnant woman should
-​ Check with a professional to see if she should keep taking her prescribed
drug
-​ Check with a doctor to see if drugs without prescriptions, such as aspirin, are
can be taken
-​ Stop smoking

5 - Reactivity

5.1 - Reactivity and displacement reactions

Reactivity series
-​ Potassium, K (Most reactive)
-​ Sodium, Na
-​ Calcium, Ca
-​ Magnesium, Mg
-​ Zinc, Zn
-​ Iron, Fe
-​ Copper, Cu
-​ Silver, Ag
-​ Gold, Au (Least reactive)

Metal Reaction with oxygen Reaction with water Reaction with dilute acid

Potassium Burns brightly when heated to Very vigorous reaction in cold Violent reaction and very
form an oxide water, the hydroxide is formed dangerous (Explosion)
Sodium

Calcium Burns brightly in air when heated Slow reaction in cold water to
to form an oxide form hydroxide
Magnesium Reaction, which becomes less
vigorous down the list
Zinc Slow reaction when heated to Reacts with steam but not water
form an oxide to form an oxide
Iron

Copper No reaction with steam or water

No reaction
Silver No reaction

Gold

Displacement reactions
-​ If you put an iron nail in a beaker of blue copper sulfate, it comes out a copper
coloured
-​ Copper sulfate + iron > iron sulfate + copper (CuSO4 + Fe > FeSO4 + Cu)
-​ Iron is more reactive than copper, the iron nail displaces the copper sulfate
-​ This covers the nail in copper and forms iron sulfate
-​ A more reactive metal can displace a less reactive metal

Displacing metals (Experiment)

Method
1.​ Pour copper sulfate solution into three test tubes until they are a third full
2.​ Add a piece of iron, a piece of magnesium, and a piece of zinc respectively in the
three test tubes
3.​ Observe and record
4.​ Repeat steps 1 to 3 but using magnesium sulfate solution and the metals copper,
iron, and zinc
5.​ Repeat steps 1 to 3 but using iron sulfate solution and the metals copper,
magnesium, and zinc
6.​ Repeat steps 1 to 3 but using zinc sulfate solution and the metals, copper, iron, and
magnesium

5.2 - Using the reactivity series and displacement methods

Using displacement reactions in industry
-​ Aluminium + iron oxide > aluminium oxide + iron
-​ This is an exothermic reaction, the temperature gets so high that the iron becomes
molten
-​ The melting point of iron is 1535°C
-​ This reaction is used to weld railways
-​ The aluminium powder reacts with the iron oxide and the molten iron is shaped to
join the rails together, this is called an thermite reaction
-​ Another reaction is used to ignite the iron oxide and aluminium
-​ Magnesium powder and barium nitrate provides energy to start the displacement
between aluminium and iron oxide

Displacement using carbon

-​ Carbon isn’t a metal, but it can displace metals from compounds
-​ Carbons displace zinc, iron, tin, and lead, from ores
-​ Iron ore heated with charcoal (a for of carbon) at high temperatures produced molten
iron
-​ Iron oxide + carbon > iron + carbon dioxide
5.3 - Salts
Salts
-​ Sodium chloride
-​ Preserve food
-​ Table salt
-​ Flavour
-​ Magnesium carbon
-​ Used by gymnasts to keep their hands dry
-​ Calcium sulfate
-​ Blackboard chalk
-​ Aluminium sulfate
-​ Dyes to stick to fibre
-​ Copper sulfate
-​ Stops fungi growing on seeds
-​ Ammonium nitrate
-​ Fertiliser to grow crops

Making salts using metal and acid

-​ Acid + metal > salt + hydrogen
-​ Zinc + hydrochloric acid > zinc chloride + hydrogen

Making salts using metal oxide and acid

-​ Metal oxide + acid > salt + water
-​ Copper oxide + sulfuric acid > copper sulfate + water
Making salt zinc sulfate (Experiment)
Method
1.​ Pour 50 cm3 of sulfuric acid into a 250 cm3 beaker
2.​ Add 1-5 g zinc metal into the acid
3.​ After the mixture is stops fizzing, pour it into the evaporating dish
4.​ Heat the evaporating dish gently until crystals are formed

Making salt copper sulfate (Experiment)

Method
1.​ Pour about 100 cm3 or dilute sulfuric acid into a 250 cm3 beaker
2.​ Add black copper oxide powder into the acid
3.​ Heat the mixture and stir
4.​ Turn off the heat after the mixture turns blue
5.​ Filter the mixture to get copper solution
6.​ Pour the copper solution into the evaporating dish
7.​ Heat until crystals are formed
5.4 - Other ways of making salts
Metal carbonates and acids
-​ Acid + carbonate > salt + water + carbon dioxide
-​ Sulfuric acid + calcium carbonate > calcium sulfate + water + carbon dioxide
-​ Hydrochloric acid + calcium carbonate > calcium chloride + water + carbon dioxide

Neutralisation
-​ Acid + alkali > salt + water
-​ Sodium hydroxide + hydrochloric acid > sodium chloride + water

Preparing salt from acid and carbonate (Experiment)

Method:
1.​ Place 25 cm3 of hydrochloric acid in a beaker
2.​ Add spatulas of copper carbonate until you have excess unreacted copper carbonate
3.​ Filter the mixture to separate the unreacted copper carbonate from the mixture
4.​ Pour the filtrate into an evaporating dish and heat until crystals are formed

Preparing salt by neutralisation (Experiment)

Method:
1.​ Place hydrochloric acid in a burette
2.​ Measure 20cm3 of the sodium hydroxide into a small flask
3.​ Add a few drops of universal indicator into the flask
4.​ Slowly add acid from the burette whilst swirling the flask
5.​ Once the solution turns green, it has been neutralised
6.​ Add a spatula of charcoal powder to the solution and mix to take away the colour
7.​ Filter the mixture
8.​ Pour filtrate into evaporating basin
9.​ Heat until crystals are formed

Alkalis and bases

-​ Metal oxides are called bases, soluble bases form alkalis when dissolved in water
-​ Sodium oxide + water > sodium hydroxide
-​ Some metal oxides aren’t soluble in water, but can react with acid to form salts
-​ Copper oxide + sulfuric acid > copper sulfate + water

5.5 - Rearranging atoms

No atoms are lost of produced in a chemical reaction, they are just rearranged into different
combinations
Conservation of mass
-​ If no atoms are gained or loss, no atoms are gained or loss either
-​ Mass is not changed after a chemical reaction as the number of atoms are the same
-​ If a chemical reaction is carried out in a flask without a stopper, mass will decrease
as gas escapes into the air
-​ When magnesium is burned in a crucible, mass will increase as oxygen is combined
with the magnesium during combustion

Burning magnesium in air (Experiment)

Method:
1.​ Record the mass of a crucible and the lid
2.​ Place a magnesium ribbon in the crucible and record the total mass
3.​ Calculate the mass of the magnesium
4.​ Heat the magnesium and lift the lid from time to time to let air enter
5.​ Do not touch or look directly
6.​ Record the total mass after cooling
7.​ Calculate the mass of the contents
8.​ Calculate the difference between the mass of magnesium and the mass of the
product after heating

Energy in chemical reactions

-​ Energy breaks bonds in the reactants
-​ Energy is released when new bonds are formed in products
-​ This can include thermal, kinetic, light, or sound energy
-​ Exothermic reactions
-​ Less energy is required to break bonds
-​ More energy is released when bonds form
-​ Endothermic
-​ Takes in more energy to break bonds
-​ Less energy is released when bonds form
-​ Energy is not destroyed or created in a chemical reaction, only transferred

6 - Sound and space

6.1 - Loudness and pitch of sound

Loudness and amplitude
-​ Loudness is affected by
-​ The distance of each vibration, the greater the vibration, the louder the sound
 -​ The distance of the vibrating object, the further away the object, the quieter
the sound
-​ Sound is louder when the distance is greater because the distance that particles are
pushed and pulled is greater
-​ Sound is quieter the further away the object because the energy dissipates
-​ Peak (highest point of amplitude) = Trough (Lowest point of amplitude)
-​ The higher the amplitude, the louder the sound
-​ An oscilloscope displays waveforms of soundwaves on a screen

Pitch and frequency

-​ Frequency is the number of complete vibrations per seconds, measured in hertz or
Hz
-​ As frequency increases, pitch increases
-​ Shorter vibrating objects make higher pitch sounds than larger objects

6.2 - Interference of sound

Interference
 -​ The effect when waves meet each other
-​ Waves must be the same type to interfere
-​ Easiest to detect when waves have the same frequency and amplitude

Waves that reinforce

-​ Waves reinforce when their peaks meet and their troughs meet
-​ Loudness and amplitude are increased, frequency remains the same
-​ When two loudspeakers are playing sound, their peaks will reinforce at a certain
point

Waves that cancel

-​ Waves cancel when their peaks and troughs meet together
-​ The frequency and amplitude must be the same to cancel out the sound
-​ Noise-cancelling headphones analyzes sound from the surroundings, and creates a
sound wave with the same frequency and amplitude to cancel the sound from outside

6.3 - Formation of the Moon

Where did the Moon come from?
 -​ In the early 1900s, scientists thought that the moon was formed after splitting from
the Earth
-​ If the theory was correct the Moon is moving away from the Earth at a rate of 4 cm
per year
-​ The calculations didn’t confirm the theory
-​ In 1974, the collision theory was suggested

Collision Theory
-​ There is more evidence for the Collision Theory then any other
-​ Relatively soon after the Solar System was formed, a small planet named Theia
(around the size of Mars) collided with Earth.
-​ The collision caused rocks and dust to break apart from both planets, eventually
forming the moon

Evidence that supports Evidence that contradicts

-​ The Moon is less dense than Earth -​ The surface of Earth has never been
-​ Samples of Moon rock show that the molten, a collision would have caused it
surface was once molten to turn molten then solidify
-​ The Moon also has an iron core -​ Venus has no moon. Collisions would’ve
-​ There is evidence that collisions have been common and Venus should have a
caused rings of dust to form moon formed in a similar way
-​ The theory fits on how the Solar System -​ The composition of rocks should be more
was formed similar to Theia’s than Earth’s
-​ The composition of rocks are the same

6.4 - Nebulae
Nebulae
-​ Nebulae is plural of clouds of dust and gas (usually H and a smaller quantity of He) in
space
-​ The particles of gas and dust are very far apart, a nebulae the size of Earth would
weigh a few kilos
-​ Most nebulae are huge, some even 10 000 times bigger than the Solar System
-​ Some nebulae form giant stars at the end of their life, these stars then explode
sending dust and gas over space
-​ Some visible nebulae include the Orion nebula from the northern hemisphere and the
Carina nebula from the southern hemisphere

Stellar Nurseries
 -​ An area where stars are formed, some types of nebulae act as stellar nurseries
-​ The dust and gas collapse together under gravity, becoming larger and gaining
gravitational pull, the pressure inside the star becomes very large which causes heat.
-​ The heat causes atoms to react with each other, causing light and heat to be given
out

6.5 - Tectonics
Movement of Tectonic plates
-​ The outer layers of the Earth are the solid, rocky crust which rests on the fluid mantle
-​ The mantle is heated from the inner core (around 5000 *C), this is due to the energy
left over after the formation of the Earth, friction inside the Earth and the reactions
that happen in rocks
-​ The inner mantle gets heat through convection, the mantle is a thick fluid and moves
slowly
-​ As the mantle moves, it drags the crust along, so the movement of tectonic plates is
also slow (0.6 - 10 cm per year)
​

Evidence for Tectonic Plates

-​ The continents of the Earth fit together, suggesting the Earth had one big continent
before drifting apart
-​ Fossils of the Mesosaurus have been found in parts of Africa and South America, it is
unlikely they travelled so far
-​ Earth’s magnetic pole constantly switches
-​ Magnetic crystals in molten rocks line up to point north in the same way as a
compass needle, after the rock solidifies, scientists use the crystals to tell the
direction of Earth’s magnetic field
 -​ These crystals have been found in the middle of oceans, these locations (mid
oceanic ridges) has magma coming up from the mantle and solidifying to form new
rocks
-​ Rocks further away from these ridges point in the opposite direction, suggesting their
old age
-​ There are more volcanoes and earthquakes on tectonic plate boundaries

7 - Genes and Inheritance

7.1 - Chromosomes, Genes and DNA

Chromosomes
-​ The nucleus of each cell contains chromosomes
-​ Chromosomes were discovered in the 1800s using a light microscope when cells are
dividing, they also need to be coloured to be seen
-​ Fruit flies have especially thick chromosomes called giant chromosomes
-​ Humans have 46 chromosomes, fruit flies have 8 and mango trees have 40
-​ Chromosomes get shorter as they go along from 1 to 46, all chromosomes look like
crosses, staying partly connected

Genes
-​ Each chromosome each made up of hundreds of different genes that are arranged in
a particular sequence
-​ Scientists are still finding out which genes are found on each type of chromosome in
humans
-​ Scientists are constantly learning, two genes in chromosome 15 determine eye
colour, however everybody has different versions of these genes

DNA
-​ Chromosomes are made of a chemical substance called DNA, a chromosome is a
very long DNA
-​ Genes are also made of DNA
 -​ A DNA molecule is shaped like a twisted ladder called a double helix, one DNA
strand should have around 2500 twists
-​ 1950 was first discovered in the 1950s, then scientists have found out how DNA
helps to determine human characteristics, DNA also determines what a cell does

7.2 - Gametes and Inheritance

Gametes
-​ Most cells in a human contain 46 chromosomes
-​ Human life begins when a sperm (male gamete) is joined with an egg cell (female
gamete)
-​ Each cell contains a nucleus, containing 23 chromosomes
-​ The sperm cell is the smallest cell, while the egg cell is the biggest
-​ Egg cells cannot move by themselves
-​ Sex chromosomes determine the sex of an individual, XX being female and XY being
male
-​ All egg cells contain one X chromosome, however sperm cells can contain either an
X or Y chromosome

​
 ​

7.3 - Variation
Variation within a Species
-​ Organisms that belong to different species often look very different
-​ However there is also variation within the same species, all humans belong to the
same species but all look different
-​ The differences between individuals belonging to the same species is called variation
-​ We can use bar charts to show variation, separating them by their special
characteristics (eg: colour, size)

DNA and Variation

-​ Each gene contains a small variations of the DNA, this would cause variation like hair
colour or eye colour
-​ When the egg and sperm cell fuse together at fertilisation, the zygote that is
produced has a completely new set of DNA
-​ Traits are passed down through DNA, that’s why you could have your father’s curly
hair or your mother’s blue eyes, everyone has a slight different combination of DNA

Environment and Variation

-​ An organism’s environment also causes variation, organisms will adapt to their
environments
-​ An organism might develop thick fur to protect yourself from the cold or a become
bigger or smaller based on food intake
-​ Not all variation is caused by differences in DNA
7.4 - Natural Selection
An Imaginary Story
-​ Long ago there were many giraffes, some with long and some with short necks. In
some years, rain didn’t fall and all the lower leaves had been eaten, so only the ones
with long necks could survive, when these animals reproduced, their offspring also
had long necks
-​ We do not know if this is true, but it helps to explain why animals are so well adapted
to their environment
-​ Over time, advantageous genes become more common through reproduction
-​ This process is called natural selection, causing genetic changes over time

Bacteria and Antibiotics

-​ We have very strong evidence for natural selection in other organism
-​ Antibiotics are used to cure diseases caused by bacteria, however some antibiotics
don’t work because bacteria has become resistant

Peppered Moths
-​ Peppered Moths live in England, most have pale wings but some have dark, they fly
at night and rest on tree trunks during the day, they are hunted by birds
-​ The pale wings camouflages with lichen, a plant like organism that grows on rocks
and trees
-​ Until 1849, most Peppered Moths had pale wings but by 1900, most had dark wings,
this is due to the Industrial Revolution killing lichen
-​ As tree trunks got darker, the pale moths were eaten and dark moths were more
likely to survive
-​ Today, pollution in England is less severe, lichens grow again and there are more
pale winged moths

Extinction
-​ Now imagine if the Peppered Moths never had dark wings, then they would be
spotted easily by birds and possibly have gone extinct
-​ If species cannot adapt to their environment, they will go extinct
8 - Rates of Reaction

8.1 - Measuring the Rate of Reaction

Rate of Reaction
-​ The rate of reaction is how quick a reaction occurred
-​ You can tell when a chemical reaction starts by seeing the bubbles that are given out,
at the start, a lot of bubbles are given out, as it ended, less bubbles were given out
until they stopped
-​ The easiest way is to measure the amount of gas produced in a certain amount of
time
-​ To collect the gas, you could attach a syringe to the top of the flask so that no gas
escapes
-​ The rate of reaction changes as the reaction proceeds, it usually slows down as the
reaction ends

Using the Graph

-​ The gradient of a graph tells you how quickly a reaction is taking place, the steeper
the slope, the faster the reaction
-​ The line is steepest at the start of the reaction and levels out as the reaction slows
down
-​ You can use the graph to determine the rate of reaction of a certain time period
-​ Take the volume of gas given out in that time frame over the time taken

Why does the Rate of Reaction change?

-​ For a chemical reaction to take place, the particles of the reactants must collide with
enough energy to react together
-​ As the reaction starts, a lot of particles react with each other
-​ As the particles react, the particles that haven’t reacted decreases
8.2 - Surface Area & the Rate of Reaction
The Effect of changing the Surface Area
-​ When you put a magnesium ribbon in a bunsen flame it reacts very quickly and burns
with a bright white flame to form magnesium oxide
-​ However when you put a large magnesium block it doesn’t burn and burns faster with
magnesium powder
-​ Only magnesium atoms on the surface can react with the oxygen, a product with
more surface area at the same mass will react quicker
-​ Small pieces of solids always react faster than large pieces

8.3 - Temperature and the Rate of Reaction

Changing the Temperature of Reactants
-​ If you change the temperature of the reactants in a solution, the rate of reaction will
change
-​ If you mix hydrochloric acid with a solution thiosulfate, the mixture becomes cloud
because sulfur is produced
-​ This is good for investigating reaction rates, because you can easily tell the time it
takes for the sulfur precipitate to be formed
-​ When the temperature of the reactants increase, the rate of reaction increases but
the volume stays the same

Explaining the Effect of Temperature

-​ Particles move all the time, when the temperature increases, the particles move
faster and collide more often and with more energy
-​ The higher the temperature, the faster the rate of reaction

8.4 - Concentration and the Rate of Reaction

Changing the Concentration of the Acid
-​ Changing the concentration of acid will affect the rate of reaction, you do not get
more of the product, just more quickly

Explaining the Effect of Concentration

 -​ The higher the concentration of hydrochloric acid, the more hydrochloric particles
there are in a given amount of space, this means that more collisions will happen

9 - Electricity

9.1 - Parallel Circuits

Series Circuits
-​ In a series circuit, there is only one path for current to flow, this means that the
current is the same all the way around a series circuit
-​ All of the current flowing out of one component flows into the next
-​ If the switch in the circuit is opened, both components turn off at the same time
-​ If we want to operate the lamp and the buzzer separately from the same cell, we
need a parallel circuit

Parallel Circuits
-​ In a parallel circuit, there is more than one path for the current to flow, the paths that
current can flow are called branches
-​ The name comes from the circuit diagram cause the branches are drawn in parallel
lines, sometimes connected in parallel
-​ Current from the cell flows to the branch in the circuit, it is then equally divided, if two
lamps are the same, the current will be equally divided
-​ When the branches join again, the current combines again
 -​ The rule is the current through the cell is equal to the total current in all the branches

Advantages of Parallel Circuits

-​ Components in the same circuit can be switched on and off independently
-​ If a component in one branch stops working, the other branches are not affected

-​ Switches S^1, S^2 and S^3 can be used to control each lamp separately
-​ If all lamps are on, then opening S^4 will turn off all lamps

9.2 - Current & Voltage in Parallel Circuits

What is voltage?
-​ Voltage is linked to the electrical energy in a circuit, it is measured in volts (V)
-​ Voltage is related to the electrical energy supplied by a cell, battery or power supply,
all known as supplies
-​ Most cells supply 1.5V, a battery is two or more cells connected in a series,
commonly supplying 6V, 9V or 12V, the socket on a wall supplies a main voltage,
usually coming from power stations or some kind of generator usually supplying
220V to 240V, in certain countries 110V or 120V
-​ Voltage is also linked to energy changed by components, most components have a
voltage rating
Measuring Voltage
-​ Voltage is measured using a voltmeter
-​ An ammeter measures the current flowing through a component, so the ammeter is
connected in series with the component
-​ A voltmeter measures the energy difference with either side of the component, so it is
parallel with the component

Voltage in a Series Circuit

-​ Energy is always conserved, so the energy changed by the components in a circuit
must be equal to the energy supplied by the cell, battery or power supply
-​ The voltage across all the components in a series circuit adds up to the voltage of the
supply
-​ The voltage in a series circuit can be different across different components

Adding more Components is a Series Circuit

-​ The voltage from the supply in a series circuit is shared between each of the
components
-​ Adding more components will decrease the current as it becomes more difficult for
the power supply to push electrons around the circuit
-​ Adding more cells in a series circuit increases voltage of the supply while increasing
components decreases current

Voltage in a Parallel Circuit

-​ In a parallel cell, current doesn’t have to go through one component to get to the
other, ergo different components can have the voltage equal to the power supply
-​ This happens due to the branches, meaning voltage in all branches are the same
Adding more Components in a Parallel circuit
-​ Adding more branches = giving more paths for current to flow through, this means
the current through the cell increases
-​ Adding more components to any one branch will decrease current for that branch,
voltage across any branch will be the same
-​ Adding cells will increase the voltage and current through each branch and increase
the current through the cell

9.3 - Resistance
Resistance
-​ A measure of how easy/difficult it is for electrons to move through a material,
conductors have low resistance while insulators have high resistance
-​ Measured in ohms (Ω) which is the greek letter for omega
-​ A 100m length of copper wire, can have a resistance of 0.5 - 1.0Ω while 1cm of some
plastics have a resistance of over a 1 000 000 000 000Ω
-​ Resistance slows the flow of electrons, so lowers current
-​ Inside some lamps, there is a small wire called filament which has a very high
resistance, when current flows through, thermal energy is transferred and the
filament glows and emits light

Ohm’s Law
-​ Georg Simon Ohm who studied resistance discovered there is a link between
current, voltage and resistance which applies to many electrical components
-​ Ohm’s Law states that voltage (V) = current (I) x resistance ®

Resistors
-​ A type of electrical component designed to have a known resistance, many have
coloured bands to form a code that shows resistance value
-​ The value of the resistor is usually write as R beside the symbol

9.4 - Practical Circuits

Variable Resistors
-​ In many circuits, it is useful to be able to change the resistance such as a dimmer
switch for a lamp or a volume control
 -​ The circuit symbol for a variable resistor is similar to that of a fixed resistor, but with
an arrow through the symbol
-​ As the resistance of the variable resistor is increased, the current decreases and the
light dims

Everyday Circuits
-​ Used in many homes, schools, cars, bicycles, phones, music systems, watches,
computers and etc
-​ Many examples given, too many to note down, check textbook pg 327 - 328

Thanks for reading!

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