Lekisha Sharma

9/12/2023

Science Revision Trial 1

Science Revision Trial 1

Chemistry

 The mass of the atoms in the elements increases as you go left to right and downwards

starting with hydrogen in the periodic table.

 The atomic number of an element tells you how many protons the element has got.

 The mass number tells how many protons and neutrons the element has got in total.

 Protons have a positive charge

 Electrons have a negative charge

 Neutrons have no charge

 An atom has no charge as the number of protons is equal to the number of electrons.

 J.J Thompson and Ernest Rutherford developed the diagram below

 Niels bohr developed Rutherford’s model further:

 He had the idea and evidence that the electrons move in

difference electron shells or energy levels around the nucleus

which contains the protons and neutrons.

 Electrons arranged in electron shells around the nucleus is called the electronic structure

 First shell fits a maximum of 2 electrons

 Second and third fits a maximum of 8 electrons

 The 1st group of alkali metals have trends in which:

 The atomic number increases as you go down the group.

 The mass number also increases as you go down the group.

 Size of the atom increases

 Melting points decrease

 Boiling points decrease

 Elements get more reactive as you go down the group

 The alakali metals are called group 1 as they have on extra electron in the outermost shell

 The 7th group of Halogens have trends in which:

 The atomic number increases

 The mass number increases

 Size of the atom increases

 Color gets darker

 Melting points increase

 Boiling points increase

 Elements get less reactive as you go down the group.

 The halogens are in group 7 as they have 7 electrons in their outermost shell.

 The 8th group called the noble gases which have trends in which:

 The atomic number increases

 The mass number increases

  Melting point increases

 Boiling point increases

 Size of the atoms increases

 Are inert, or not reactive to other elements as they do not form compunds..

 The shell with the highest energy level is the one on the outside of the atom; it is called as the

outermost shell.

 Octet Rule: There must be 8 electrons in the outermost shell to keep the atom stable

 The number of electron in an atom is the same as the number of protons in that atom

 The elements in compunds are held together by chemical bonds; these bonds are formed in

two ways:

 The atoms can lose or gain electrons; ionic bonding

 The atoms can share electrons; covalent bonding

 Sodium reacts with other elements by losing an electron; this causes an ion to form

 Chlorine reacts with other elements by gaining an electron; this cause an ion to form

 Ionic Bonding: an attraction between a positively charged ion, and a negatively charged ion

through electrostatic force.

 Ionic compunds are those that are made from ions. They form when a metal reacts with a

non-metal

 Covalent Bonding: When non-metals form compunds with other non-metals they do so by

sharing electrons to fill their outermost electron shells

 Show by a dot and cross diagram

 Molecule: Made of the same elements

 Compound: Made of different elements

 Some Molecules that need rembering:

 HCl

 H2

 NH3

 O2

 CH4

 Cl2

 H2O

 N2

 CO2

 Ions make a giant structure called a lattice or a crystal lattice through electrostatic forces

 Forces between the molecules of covalent bonding are called intermolecular structure as the

force holding the molecules is strong but the force between the molecules is weak

 The Giant structure of Lattice:

 Diamonds are the hardest material on Earth as it has a strong, rigid, three-dimensional

lattice structure

 A diamond lattice structure, each carbon atom forms four strong covalent bonds.

 Graphite is used for the ‘lead’ in pencils and for labricating moving parts of a machine as

it can form layers which easily slide over one another because the Carbon atoms have 3

covalent bonds which are strong but the bonds between the layers are weak therefore

making the layers of itseld slide over one another easily

 Covalent bonding vs Ionic bonding: melting and boiling points

  Ionic bonds have very high melting and boiling points as they have strong electrostatic

forces holding the ions together

 Covalent bonds have low melting and boiling points because the forces holding the

molecules together are strong but the forces between the molecules – weak

 Ionic compounds will conduct electricity if they are dissolved in water or are in molten form.

This is because the Ions must be free to move about and carry electrical charge

 Covalent substances made from simple molecules do not conduct electricity

 Reactivity Series

Potassium K
Sodium Na
Calcium Ca
Most reactive
Magnesium Mg
Aluminium Al
Zinc Zn
Iron Fe
Moderately
Tin Sn MORE
Reactive
Lead Pb REACTIVE
AS YOU
Hydrogen H GO UP
Copper Cu
Mercury Hg
Silver Ag
Least Reactive
Gold Au
Platinum Pt


 Displacement Reactions:

 When a more reactive metal replaces a less reactive one which is in salt
  For example:

 CuSO4 + Fe → Fe SO4 + Cu

 The Folloing displacement reactions are used in welding rails using an exothermic

reaction:

 aluminium + iron oxide → aluminium oxide + iron

 Another reaction is taking place to ignite the iron and aluminum oxide which is

 Magnesium + Barium Nitrate → Magnesium Nitrate + Barium

 carbon could extract some metals from their cores

 It will displace Iron, zinc, lead, and tin from their ores, or a rock with a metal

compund.

 This was discovered 3500 years ago

 Today it is carried out in a blast furnace

 Word equation is

 Iron oxide + carbon → iron + carbon dioxide

 Biology

 Ther Energy in sunlight is captured by a green pigment called chlorophyll, which is in

chloroplasts, which is inside some cells of plants

 The plants use energy to make the water and carbon dioxide combine together in a chemical

reactions:

 water + carbon dioxide → glucose + oxygen

 6CO2 + 6H2O Chlorophyll C6H12O6 + 6O2

Sunlight

 Photosynthesis is a proccess in which plants gain food from light as:

  Photo means light

 Synthesis means making

 So photosynthesis means making with light

 Photosynthesis is important because:

 Photosynthesis provides chemical energy in the form of nutrients, for most other

organisms

 Plants use the energy gained to make glucose and other carbonhydrates

 Provides oxygen for the Earth’s atmosphere which plants and animals need for respiration

 20% of the air around us is oxygen

 4.6 billion years ago, there was no oxygen on Earth. Scientists think that oxygen began to

collect when the first bacteria started to photosynthesis around 4.7 million years ago

 A food chain shows how energy is passed along from one organism to another.

 cells in the leaf have the most chlorplasts

 Inside leaf cells, carbon dioxide and water react to

produce carbonhydrates amd oxygen

 Plants store carbonhydrates as starch which is kept

in the chloroplasts in their cells.

 Stomata or stoma for singular, are tiny holes which

let carbon dioxide to diffuse into the leaf.

 Osmosis: a process where water flows

from a high concentrated area into a

low concentrated one

 Important Minerals for plants:

  Magnesium: Is needed to make chlorophyll for photosynthesis

 Nitrate: So the plant can convert carbonhydrates into proteins which are important for

making new cells. They are also needed to make chlorophyll

 Full form of GPS: global positioning satellites

 Farmers cane test the soil to see which parts of the field nead fertilizer and which do not

 Organisms can use carbon only as a compound

 Plants use the carbohydrate to make proteins and fats.

 Animals get all of these carbon-containing nutrients when we at plants and other animals

 Decomposers get carbon when they break down waste products from plants and animals

 Respiration Equation:

 Glucose + Oxygen → Carbon dioxide + water

 Sometimes Organisms die in low oxygen areas such as the bottom of the ocean.

Decomposers themselves cannot respirate in such areas so the Organism slowly turns into

fossil fuels which are today mined by us, humans.

 When we burn a fossil fuel, the carbon in it combines with oxygen from the air and forms

carbon dioxide; this is known as combustion

 Carbon Cycle:
 Greenhouse gases:

 Carbon dioxide and Methane are greenhouse gases. Carbon dioxide helps keep the Earth

warm. These gases trap heat

 Climate is the long-term pattern of temperatures

 The first Ice age happened 2 billion years ago. After that, Earth has different periods

between warm periods and cold periods (which are also known as the ice ages)

 650 million years ago the whole Earth was covered with Ice and snow. Scientist call it

‘snowball’ or ‘slushball’ Earth

 470 million years ago scientists think that two asteroids collided with one another when they

were in space somewhere between Earth and Mars The dust reduced the amount of light and

heat from the Sun reaching the Earth’s surface. This triggered the Ice age.

 67 million years ago an asteroid collided with Earth and researchers have identified it on the

coast of Mexico. Crater impacted by causing shock waves, very high temperatures spreading

out the crater, tsunami which would have spread across all oceans, less light reached the earth

causing plants to die amd therefore animals to die as they had nothing to eat, food chains

were disrupted, Earth became colder, and all this led to mass extinction in which 75% of all

living species at that time were known to be extinct

 175 known asteroid impact craters around the world.

 Objects in space smaller than an asteroid are called meteoroids.

 When meteoroids enter the Earth’s surface, they are known as meteors.

 Parts of meteoroids that do collide with Earth are called meteorites.

 Damage caused to the Earth by Meteoroids depends on the:

  The mass or diameter of the asteroid

 The closest possible approach to Earth

 Impact of climate change:

 More extreme weather Events

 This increases the chances of severe weather events such as hurricanes and typhoons

as there is more energy in the atmosphere

 Storms are more frequent and unpredictable

 Less predictable Rainfall

 Difficult to grow crops because Rains may come late, might not come at all, may fall

when they are not expected to fall, are fall much more heavily causing flooding.

 This affects both animals and plants

 Rising Sea Levels

 Water expands at it is heated so if sea temperatures increase, sea level rises

 Melting caps and glaciers also cause sea level rising

 Sea levels are rising at a rateof 3mm a year

 Megacities such as Shangai, Mumbai, and Los Angeles are vulnerable to sea-level

rise

 Soil is made of tiny particles of rock which do not pack tightly causing air and water to fill

between them.

 Special cells called root hairs grow out of the surface of roots to help absorb water and

mineral ions from places from where the main root doesn’t reach.
 Water and minerals including magnesium and nitrate which are dissolved in to the water.

move into the root hair cell from the soil. It passes through the cell wall, and cell membrane

in to the cytoplasm.

 Special cells called xylem vessels transport water to the rest of the plant including the ovary,

leaves, stems, and other parts.

 They are dead cells as their contents have dissapeared. All that is left are cell walls with a

hollow space inside from where water is transported

 Average size of the vessel is 0.05 mm

 Special cells called phloem vessels transport food and nutrients to the rest of the plant

including the ovary, leaves, stems, and other parts

 When the water is transferred into the leaf cells, the chlorplasts of the cells use some of the

water for photosynthesis, the water in the cell soaks into the cell walls and then changes to

water vapour – it evaporates. The water vapour diffuses into the air space between the cells

 The air spaces connect with the stomata and water vapour diffuses through them and into the

air

 The loss of water vapour from leaves is called transpiration

 Plants need water because:

 They use it for support – it helps them to stand upright because of turgor pressure which

is when vacoules are full causing the cells to press against each other which causes

pressure which helps the plant keep upright

 Water is used for transport– the water carries minerals to other places of the plant

 Water for cooling – when water evaporates, it takes the heat with it causing the heat in the

plant and its cells to be less

  Water for photosynthesis – water is one of the reactants in photosynthesis as for the

equations:

 Water + Carbon dioxide → Glucose + oxygen

 Excretion is when waste materials that are truly inside the body, like the blood or the cells,

have been gotten rid of. Excretion includes:

 Carbon dioxide – which body cells make in respiration

 Urea – a waste substance made from exccess proteins in the liver cells

 Exccess water – that is not needed for the body.

 Urea is a poisounous substance

 Urea is removed by the blood through the kidneys in the excretory system which is also

know as the renal system. ‘renal’ means to do with kidneys.

 Urea dissolves into exccess water into a solution called urine

 Urine made from each kidney flows down a tube called a ureter

 This carries it to a temporary storage space called the bladder

 From where it is taken to the outside world through a tube called the urethera

 A fetus is when a human is growing inside its mother

 The mother’s blood is not mixed with the fetus’s blood, the systems come close together but

do not touch. The substances in the mother’s blood diffuse into the fetus’s blood. When the

fetus needs to excrete, than the waste material diffuses into the mother’s blood

 Diet brings impact on the fetus’s health during a mother’s pregnancy. The diet usually

includes:

 Protein

 It is needed for the fetus to produce new cells and grow.

  The mother needs it to keep her muscles strong and working well

 Extra needed to make hemoglobin so that oxygen transfer is well

 Fetus also needs it so it can make hemoglobin itself

 Foods include:

 Chicken

 beans

 Carbonhydrates

 Supply energy

 Glucose is a carbonhydrate and cells get energy by combining glucose with oxygen

for respiration

 Mother and fetus both need it

 Mother needs to eat enough to make sure that both the mother and fetus have it but

not too much as it can put on too much weight which is not healthy

 Foods Include:

 Rice

 Sugar

 Vitamins and Minerals

 Iron is needed to make hemoglobin

 Calcium is essential for strong bones and teeth

 Plenty of vitamins for health

 Foods include:

 Vitamin A

 Green vegetables
  Carrots

 Vitamin C

 Carrots

 Tomatoes

 Oranges

 Vitamin D

 Orange Juice

 Swiss Cheese

 Iron

 Meat

 Dark Green Vegetables

 Calcium

 Milk

 Yogurt

 Carbonhydrates

 Rice

 Sugar

 Cigarettes are harmful for health as:

 Tabacco contains

 Carbon monoxide and nictotine diffuses into the blood which then transfer’s into the

fetus’s blood harming and damaging the respitory system causing cells to receive less

oxygen

 Nicotine is highly addictive and can damage blood vessels

  Tar contains harmful chemicals that also damage the respiratory system

 These substances can also cause low birthweight of the fetus

 There are certain regulations for women during pregnancy:

 She should regularly take the prescribed drug for her own health, she should check

with a doctor or pharmacist in order to see if it is safe to keep taking it. She should

not stop taking it without checking first

 She should check with her doctor whether it is safe for her to take drugs that do not

need a prescription such as aspirin

 She must stop smoking

 Avoid alcohol

 Never take illegal drugs at all

 Avoid caffeine

 Physics

 Calculating Valume:

 For Regular objects

 Measure the height length and width

 H x L x W = Volume3

 For irregular objects

 Displacement method

 A cylinder with x amount of water cubed

 Put the object in it will show y amount of object cubed

 Y3 – X3 = Volume3

 Calculating density
 Mass
 Density =
Volume

 If mass is g and volume is in cm3 then density will be g/cm3

 Materia  helium  air  woo  wate  concret  aluminiu  osmiu

l d r e m m

 Density  0.0001  0.001  0.35  1.0  2.4  2.7  22

in 8 2 –

g/cm3 0.95

 If something is more dense than water than it will sink in water

 If something is less dense that water than it will float in water.

 Modern ships have steel which has a density of 8-9g/cm3 but they still float on water as they

have large hollow air spaces that means that the ship has a very large volume so the average

density of the whole ships is less than the density of water.

 Density of the ship changed when its mass changes.

 When liquids are added together carefully, the less dense liquids will float on the more dense

liquids. The liquids that do not mix will for separate layers.
 Crude oil is less dense than water so when crude oil spills out of ships or wells the oil spills

on water which is a major source of water pollution.

 Gases are less dense than liquids because the particles in a gas are much further apart than in

a liquid.

 Drops of rain fall down because the water in the drops is more dense than air

 The gas in fizzy drinks is carbon dioxide which has a density of 0.002g/cm3 which causes the

gas the bubble up to the top.

 Heat is a measure of the energy in the particles

 Heat is the total energy of the vibrating particles in an object

 Temperature is the direction that heat will be transferred

 Temperature is the average energy of particles in an object

 The larger a temperature difference between two objects, the faster the thermal energy

transfer

 Heat tells us the total energy of the particles

 Temperature tells us the average energy of the particles

 Absolute zero is -273°C is when Kelvin thought particles will stop moving

 When energy is conserved the energy remains the same, energy can either be stored,

changed, transferred, or even dissipated

 → is a sankey diagram:
 The law of conservation of energy that energy cannot be created or destroyed only changed

or transferred

 Heat always moves from hotter places to colder places. Colder means a lower temperature

 When heat is removed from a hot object, we say that the heat has dissipated

 Dissipation -is when energy is transferred to become useless

 When a solid is heated the particles vibrate more vigorously, they take up more space.

 Vigorously means with more energy, more speed and more force

 Solids expand when heated

 Conduction

 Works best in solids as particles are attached to each other. And when you heat the solids

the particles start a chain effect heating each other in a chain. The diagram shows that the

heat is transferring through the particles as they are adjascent or connected with each

other:

 Convection

 Convection works best in liquids and gases as the particles have to move. Here the heat

sources is at the bottom where the particles are being heated therefore making them less

dense causing the hotter particles to rise and the colder particles to sink.
  Here the orange arrow shows the

hot particles and the blue

arrow shows the cold

particles H
E
A
T
Cold

 Radiation

 Object is emmting or radiating heat. Radiation doesn’t require particles to transfer energy

as energy is transffered through waves in radiation.

 The best emitters and absorbers are

 Dull

 Black
H
 Large surface area

 The worst emitters and absorbers are E

A
 Shiny

 White or silver

 Small surface area

 These reflect heat away

 Conductors are good at transferring heat as they have free electrons

 Metals are the best conductors

 Insulators are bad at transferring heat because of their particles’ arrangement

 Wood, plastic, fabrics are good insulators

 When particles with the highest energy level escape from the water, this will lower the

average energy of the particles that remain. Therefore, the temperature of the water will

decrease, so evaporation causes cooling.

 Waveform: a graph that shows the distance the particles move forward and backward with

time

 Amplitude: distance from the midline to the crest/trough

 Frequency: The number of vibration/cycles completed per second

 Oscilloscope: a device that is used to display waveforms

 Amplitude ↑ → loudness↑

 Frequency ↑ → pitch↑

 Compression → Crest

 Rarefraction → Trough

 Sound depends on:

 How much the object is vibrating – the greater amplitude of the vibration the louder the

sound

 How far away the vibrating object is – the further away the quieter the sound we hear

 The effect that is produced when the waves meet each other is called interference

 Interference can produce1 two effects: waves that either reinforce or cancel each other.

 Waves that reinforce have the same positions.

 The crest of wave A is in the same position of the crest in wave B, same with the

troughs
1
  The amplitudes of the two waves that interfere are added together

 The frequency of the two waves that interfere does not change

 Waves that cancel will have different or opposite positions

 The crest of wave A is in a different or opposite position of the crest in wave B

 In other words the crest of wave A is meeting with the trough of wave B.