SCIENCE

Chapter 1: Photosynthesis & The Carbon Cycle

1.1 Photosynthesis
Definition of Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis is the process by which autotrophic organisms use sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide to
produce glucose (a sugar) and oxygen.

Equations:
​ ​ ​ ​ Sunlight
Word equation: Carbon Dioxide + Water → Glucose + Oxygen
​ ​ ​ ​ Chlorophyll

Chemical equation: 6CO₂ + 6H₂O + light energy → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂

In photosynthesis, plants use:

-​ Carbon Dioxide (CO₂): From the atmosphere.

-​ Water (H₂O): Absorbed by roots from the soil. (Refer to Chapter 4.1)
-​ Light energy: Captured by chlorophyll, primarily from the sun.

Important because:

1.​ Photosynthesis provides energy, in the form of chemical energy in nutrients, for most other
organisms.
-​ Plants use the energy in sunlight to make glucose and other carbohydrates.
-​ Energy in all the food in the world comes from plants.
2.​ It provides oxygen for the Earth’s atmosphere, and all living things.
-​ Oxygen is a waste product of photosynthesis. About 20% of air is oxygen.

When the Earth was formed about 4.6 billion years ago. Oxygen is thought to collect in air when bacteria
first began to photosynthesise. (Plants did not appear until about 4.7 million years ago) No
photosynthesis, no animals.

1.2 Photosynthesis 2.0

Chlorophyll: A green pigment that captures energy from sunlight (Helps water and carbon dioxide react
together; photosynthesis)

Chloroplasts: Organelles where photosynthesis occurs, mainly in the mesophyll cells of leaves.

-​ In most plants, cells in the leaves have the most chloroplasts.

-​ Inside the cells of a leaf, photosynthesis takes place.
 -​ On sunny/warm days, plants make more carbohydrates/glucose to store it, for times at night/other
times where there is less light.
-​ Plants store carbohydrates as starch. They store the starch inside the chloroplasts.
-​ To check, use the experiment: “Testing a leaf for starch”:
-​ At the end, after iodine (iodine mixes with starch to change color, white section
no starch) has been placed on the leaf:
-​ Green sector of the leaf turns blue-black because it contains starch, white section
doesn’t change.

Plant cells include: cell wall, cell surface membrane, cytoplasm, vacuole, nucleus, chloroplast (containing
chlorophyll)

Leaf cell diagram:

1.​ Cuticle/waxy layer: Stops the leaf cells from drying out
2.​ Upper epidermis/lower epidermis: Protects the cells inside the leaf
3.​ Palisade mesophyll/layer: Contains Palisade Cells that do most of the photosynthesis
4.​ Spongy mesophyll/layer: Lots of air spaces, cells here do a small amount of photosynthesis
5.​ Veins/vascular bundles (xylem and phloem are NOT required): Carries water to the cells in the
leaf
6.​ Stoma (plural: Stomata): Tiny hole in the lower epidermis; let carbon dioxide from the air into
the leaf
7.​ Guard cells: Control the opening/closing of stomata, which regulates gas exchange and water
loss

*Draw basic diagram

Minerals & Plant Growth

Fertiliser: Makes crops/plants grow larger; produces higher yield

-​ Contains minerals
 -​ Plants need small quantities of minerals; they get them from soil (sometimes not enough, stunning
their growth) and roots

Yield: Quantity of crop that farmers harvest

*Farmers can test the soil in their fields to find out which minerals are lacking and easily control how
much fertilizer is added in each part of the field. Farmers can use GPS and latest technology to help show
the soil tests and where he is exactly in the field.

1.​ Magnesium: Needed to make chlorophyll.

-​ If a plant does not have enough magnesium, its leaves look yellow instead of green
-​ It cannot grow well, as it does not have much chlorophyll to absorb energy from sunlight
-​ Does not photosynthesise as much as it should

2.​ Nitrate: Contains nitrogen atoms, so the plant can convert carbohydrates to proteins.
-​ Protein: essential for making new cells (so the plant can grow well)
-​ Without enough nitrogen, leaves die/the plant stays small.
-​ Also needed to make chlorophyll.

1.3 The Carbon Cycle

Carbon is an element and non-metal.
-​ Diamonds and graphite (lead made from graphite) are made of/forms of carbon.
-​ Organisms can only use carbon when it is part of a compound.
-​ Carbohydrates/proteins/fats/carbon dioxide are compounds that contain carbon.

Animals get their carbon-containing nutrients from eating plants/other animals.

Decomposers get their carbon from breaking down waste products from plants/animals.

Fossil fuels
-​ When organisms die, they are not always broken down quickly by decomposers. Organisms'
bodies get gradually buried when there is no oxygen (deep in the ocean or deep in the ground).
-​ High pressure/heat change their remains into fossil fuels (coal, oil, natural gas)

The Carbon Cycle:

1.4 Climate Change
Greenhouse Gases
-​ E.g. Carbon dioxide and methane
-​ Carbon dioxide helps to keep the Earth warm; however, there is too much carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere
-​ Extracting fossil fuels and burning them releases the carbon in them back into the air (carbon
dioxide), back into the atmosphere.
-​ Carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere are increasing. This affects the climate on Earth.

Climate: Long-term pattern of temperatures, wind and rainfall on Earth.

Ice Ages: The first ice age occurred around 2 billion years ago. Earth cycled between relatively warm and
cold periods.
-​ Warm periods: No ice at all, even at the poles.
-​ Colder periods: AKA Ice Ages, there was ice at the poles.

Snowball Earth: Around 650 million years ago, the whole Earth was covered with ice and snow.
-​ Known as ‘snowball Earth’ or ‘slushball Earth’ (slush is melting ice)

Asteroids

1.​ Colliding with each other: Around 470 million years ago, scientists think that two asteroids
collided with one another when they were in space, somewhere in-between Earth and Mars
-​ Produced huge quantities of dust, which reduced the amount of light and heat from the
Sun reaching the Earth’s surface
-​ This triggered an ice age
-​ Earth became colder, ice caps spread much further from the poles and sea level fell

2.​ Colliding with Earth: Around 67 million years ago, an asteroid collided with Earth
-​ It threw huge quantities of rock and dust into the air, meaning less light reached Earth’s
surface
-​ Plants could not photosynthesize, so animals had less food
-​ Earth became colder, because less heat from the Sun could reach the surface
-​ Probably created a tsunami, which would’ve spread across the Earth’s oceans
-​ The climate change during that time explains why dinosaurs and many other species on
Earth went extinct around that time. It caused a mass extinction. (75% of Earth’s species
are thought to have become extinct)

Meteoroids: Objects in space that are smaller than asteroids

Meteors: Meteoroids that enter Earth’s atmosphere (Little risk because they burn in the atmosphere, due
to heat from friction)
Meteorites:Parts of meteoroids that collide with Earth

When accessing the possible risk to Earth:

1.​ Mass or diameter of the asteroid
2.​ Closest possible approach to Earth (far or near)
Impacts of Climate Change:

1.​ More extreme and violent weather events: Higher temperatures means higher energy in the
atmosphere, which increases the chance of extreme weather events, such as hurricanes and
typhoons. Severe flooding destroyed homes and fields, damaging people’s livelihoods.

2.​ Less predictable rainfall: Changing climate causes rain to either:

-​ Come late
-​ Not come at all; rains fail: People lose their harvests, increases risk of wildfires (because it was
very dry)
-​ Fall when it doesn’t normally fall
-​ Fall much heavily: Causes severe flooding and affected millions of people
​
​ These changes not only affect people, but plants and animals.

3.​ Rising sea levels: Increase in the Earth’s mean temperature affects sea level. Water expands as it
is heated, so if sea temperature increases - sea level rises. Melting ice caps and glaciers (getting
smaller) add extra water to the oceans.

Chapter 2: Properties of Materials

2.1 Atomic Structure & the Periodic Table

-​ The atoms of the elements increase in mass as it progresses from left to right and downwards in
the Periodic Table.
-​ Atomic number: How many protons it contains. Increases by one with every element
-​ Mass number: How many protons and neutrons each atom has in total.
-​ Protons: positive charge (+1)
-​ Electrons: negative charge (-1)
-​ Neutrons: no charge
-​ Atoms have no overall charge, because there are an equal number of protons and electrons.
Example:
Lithium (metal) 3← [atomic
●​ Atomic number = 3 number]
●​ Mass number = 7 Li
●​ Number of protons = 3
●​ Number of electrons = 3
lithium
●​ Number of neutrons = 4 7← [mass
number]

Important
-​ The centre of the atom is the nucleus, and is surrounded by electron shells (also known as energy
levels).
-​ First electron shell: Room for 2 electrons
-​ Second and third electron shell: Room for up to 8 electrons
-​ The crosses symbolise the electrons
-​ Electrons are held in place by electrostatic forces.
-​ Electronic configuration: e.g. 2.8.8, 2.6
-​ Electronic structure: *diagram shown above

2.2 Trends in Groups within the Periodic Table

Group 1: Alkali Metals
-​ Includes the elements: Lithium (Li), Sodium (Na), and Potassium (K).

-​ The atomic number increases when going down the group.

-​ The mass number increases when going down the group.
-​ Shows that the size of the atom is increasing.
-​ Melting points and boiling points decrease when going down the group.
-​ Shows reactivity decreases when going down the group.

Group 7: The Halogens (extension materials)

-​ Includes the elements: Fluorine (F), Chlorine (Cl), and Bromine (Br).
 -​ The first two elements (Fluorine and Chlorine) are gases at room temperature; Bromine is a
liquid.
-​ Melting points and boiling points increase when going down the group.
-​ Shows that Fluorine is the most reactive, then Chlorine, followed by Bromine.

Group 8: The Noble Gases

-​ Includes the elements: Helium (He), Neon (Ne), and Argon (Ar).

-​ They are inert (unreactive) and do not form compounds, this is because their outermost electron
shell is full, meaning they are the most stable atoms.

2.3 Why elements react to form compounds

Atoms have electrons arranged in different electron shells/energy levels around the nucleus.
-​ The shell with the highest energy level is the one on the outside of the atom, which is called the
outermost electron shell.
-​ *Refer back to 2.1 “Important” group.
-​ Atoms are more stable when the outermost shell is completely full of electrons.
-​ Other groups (other than group 8) react to form compounds.
-​ They fill the outermost electron shells with electrons, to become stable.
-​ The elements in compounds are held together by chemical bonds, they can be formed in
two ways:
-​ Atoms can gain or lose electrons
-​ Atoms can share electrons

Ion
An ion is an atom or a group of atoms that has an electric charge (either negative or positive). Ions form
when atoms gain or lose electrons.
-​ When atoms lose an electron, they have a positive charge. If they lose an electron, they have a
negative charge.
-​ Some atoms gain or lose an electron (or in some cases multiple) to become stable.

*Diagram demonstrates how to draw atoms gaining electrons. (Supposed to have arrow between them)
Ionic Bond
An ionic bond is a type of chemical bond that forms between two ions with opposite charges.
-​ One atom donates electrons to another atom, resulting in a positive ion and a negative ion.
-​ The electrostatic forces between these oppositely charged ions become stronger and hold them
together.

*Diagram demonstrates how to draw an ionic bond. (Supposed to have a ‘+’ sign and the ‘gives one
electron’ arrow is unnecessary)

Ionic Compound
An ionic compound is a chemical compound that is made from ions and are held together by ionic bonds.
They form when a metal reacts with a non-metal.
-​ In some elements, more than one electron is lost or gained.

Properties of Ionic Compounds:

-​ They form a crystal lattice structure (2.4), which is orderly and repeating.
-​ They have high melting and boiling points.
-​ Because they have very strong electrostatic forces holding the ions together.
-​ They conduct electricity when dissolved in water or melted.

*Diagram demonstrates how to draw an ionic compound. (Supposed to have a ‘+’ sign and the ‘gives two
electrons’ arrow is unnecessary)
Extension material
When an atom that needs to gain or lose more than one electron, to an atom that only needs to gain or lose
one, there will be multiple of the second atom. For example:

Explanation: Magnesium (needs to lose two electrons) has to form an ionic bond with chlorine (needs to
gain one), so there will be TWO chlorine atoms to complete the ionic bond.

Covalent Bond
A covalent bond is a type of chemical bond that occurs when two atoms share one or more pairs of
electrons. It typically happens between non-metal atoms.

-​ In covalent bonding, atoms achieve a full outer shell by sharing electrons.

-​ The shared electrons are attracted to the nuclei of both atoms, holding them together.

*Diagram above demonstrates how to draw a “dot and cross” diagram.

Covalent Molecules
Formed when atoms of different non-metals join together to form compounds, and when atoms of the
same non-metal join together.
-​ Have low melting and boiling points because (although the forces holding the molecules together
are strong) the forces between the molecules, intermolecular forces, are weak.
-​ This means that only a small amount of energy is needed to overcome these forces in
order to melt or boil them.

Example: Molecule of hydrogen

Example: An ammonia molecule (3 hydrogen atoms and 1 nitrogen atoms)

Terminology:
1.​ Atom: The smallest unit of matter that retains the properties of an element. Atoms consist of
protons, neutrons, and electrons.
2.​ Element: A pure substance made up of only one type of atom. Elements are listed in the periodic
table.
3.​ Molecule: A group of two or more atoms chemically bonded together. Molecules can be made of
the same element or different elements.
4.​ Compound: A type of molecule that consists of two or more different elements chemically
bonded together.

2.4 Simple and Giant structures

Lattice: A giant structure of a repeating arrangement of ions held together by strong electrostatic forces
of attraction between oppositely charged ions.
Example: A giant lattice structure

Giant structures of Carbon

The carbon atoms in diamond form a giant structure. Each carbon atom forms four strong covalent bonds.
These large structures are called macromolecules.

Diamonds are very hard because of the strong, rigid, three-dimensional structure of the lattice.
Example: Lattice structure of Diamond

Chapter 3: Forces and Energy

3.1 Density
What is Density?
Density is a property of an object or material.
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
Formula: density = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
Units: g/cm³ or kg/m³ (mass per unit volume)

Mass: The amount of matter in an object.

Volume: The amount of space that an substance/object occupies

Hollow: An object that has a space filled with air on the inside, typically with a small mass but a larger
volume.
Solid: In the same context, an object that has no space filled with air on the inside, typically with a larger
mass than the smaller volume.

The Displacement Method is used if the shape of the substance/object is irregular (sides/angles are not
equal)
-​ The object is placed into a measuring cylinder of set water. The increase of the water is the
volume of the object.

As particles in a material get packed closer together, the density of the material increases.
Solids are the materials with highest densities, because the particles in a solid are packed closely together.
Floating and Sinking (Liquids)

-​ If something is more dense than water, it will sink in water.

-​ If something is less dense than water, it will float in water.
*This also depends on the density of the liquid used.

Less dense liquids will float on the denser liquids. The liquids that do not mix will form separate layers.

This shows the density of different objects and liquids

together.

E.g.
Drops of rain fall down because the water in the drops is more dense than air.
Bubbles of fizzy gas (carbon dioxide) rise to the top because it's less dense than water.

Compression (Gases)

Solids and liquids are hard to compress, because their particles are already in contact.

Gases are easy to compress, meaning it has lower densities than liquids or solids, because their particles
are far apart.

-​ Compressed: The same number of particles are in a smaller volume, density increases.
-​ Expands: The same number of particles are in a larger volume, density decreases.

Heat causes a gas to expand.

E.g. A hot air balloon can float because the hot air inside the balloon is less dense than the colder air
outside.

3.2 Heat and Temperature

(How I hate this chapter)

1.​ Thermal Energy (Heat)

-​ Measured in Joules (J)
-​ The total amount of internal energy in the particles of an object/substance due to their movement.
-​ If it increases, particles in an object begin to vibrate faster, the energy of the particles increases.
-​ Can be transferred between objects and stored in an object. But will eventually dissipate into
surroundings.
-​ Depends on temperature, number of particles (mass), type of substance.
 2.​ Heat
-​ The transfer of thermal energy from a hotter to colder object/substance.

3.​ Temperature
-​ Measured in Celsius (℃)
-​ The average kinetic energy (energy of motion) of the particles in an object/substance; How fast
particles are moving on average.
-​ A measure of how hot or cold something is.
-​ If particles are moving faster, the temperature is higher; If particles are moving slower,
the temperature is lower.
-​ The direction that heat will flow and be transferred (e.g. hotter to colder)

Example 1:
Ice cream at -20℃. The air in the room is 24℃. The temperature difference is 44℃.
Thermal energy is transferred from the air to the ice cream, because of this temperature difference.

The larger a temperature difference between two objects, the faster the thermal energy transfer.

Thermal energy transfer occurs until both substances reach the same temperature, they reach a thermal
equilibrium, where no transfer occurs.

Example 2:
A sparkler’s temperature is around 1000℃, but a sparks’s does not cause serious burns.

The temperature difference between the air and the spark is very large.
The mass of a spark is very small, meaning there are fewer particles in the spark than in the sparkler.
Therefore, the total thermal energy of the spark is very small.

Simplified, thermal energy will be transferred from the spark to the air quickly, due to the large
temperature difference between the spark and the air, so the temperature will have decreased significantly.

Absolute Theory:
Particles would eventually stop moving if the temperature was low enough, this temperature would be the
lowest possible temperature.

This temperature was first known as absolute cold, but now known as absolute zero, which is -273℃.

It is impossible to make particles stop moving completely, but temperatures within billionths of a degree
of absolute zero (-273℃) have been created.

William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin, or Lord Kelvin, a British Scientist, Physician, and Mathematician,
created this theory.

3.3 Conservation of Energy

Energy is conserved…
Means that the total quantity of energy stays the same. This occurs when energy is stored, changed,
transferred or dissipated.
The law of conservation of energy states that energy can change forms or be transferred, but cannot be
created nor destroyed.

100J of electrical energy is supplied, 10J of this is

changed to useful light energy and 90J is changed
to wasted (dissipated) thermal energy. Energy is
conserved.

Energy Input​ ​ Energy Output

The energy output is equal to the total energy input.

In the energy diagram, the energy input and outputs

are shown as percentages. The total energy output
adds up to the energy input. Energy is conserved.

In the energy diagrams, these objects are types of

system.

System: Something that has been chosen to be studied, especially in terms of energy changes.
In this context, a system is a place where an energy change or transfer occurs.

The total energy out can never be greater than the total energy input in any type of system. (Because
energy cannot be created.

Terminology:
1.​ Created: Make something; bring something into existence.
2.​ Destroyed: Damage something, end its existence.
3.​ Transferred: Movement of energy from one place to another.
4.​ Dissipated: The energy spreads out into the surroundings and becomes less useful.

Chapter 4: Maintaining Life

4.1 Plants and water
Root Hair Cells
Specialized Cells in the root that absorb water from soil.
-​ Have big surface areas to absorb water and minerals such as magnesium and nitrate.

Soil
Irregular shaped particles of rocks that aren't packed tightly and have air and water in between the empty
spaces.

Xylem Vessels
-​ There are xylem vessels in the centre of the root (in an cross (X) shape)
-​ It is a dead cell, to provide more space for water to be transported, only the cell wall is left
-​ It stacks on top of one another
-​ Making long empty tubes that reach all the way from the roots to the highest parts of the
plant.
-​ E.g. Wood in a tree trunk is made up of xylem vessels.

4.2 Transpiration
Definition: The loss of water vapour from the plant’s leaves.

-​ When the water reaches the leaf, the cells with chloroplast take a little bit of it.
-​ Some soaks into the cellulose cell wall and changes to water vapour and evaporates/diffuses
through the stoma (small hole on the bottom of the leaf)

Chapter 5:
Sulfuric acid: H2SO4
Nitric Acid: HNO3
Hydrochloric acid: HCl
Hydroxide: OH
Hydrogen: H2
Oxygen: O2

K + H20 = KOH + H
2K + 2H20 = 2KOH + H2

Metal + oxygen → metal oxide

Metal + steam → metal oxide + hydrogen
Metal + water → metal hydroxide + hydrogen

Metal + acid → salt + hydrogen

Metal oxide + acid → salt + water
Metal carbonate + acid → salt + water + carbon dioxide