Biology Notes Units 4, 5, 7, 9,

14, 17
Unit 4: Biological Molecules
 Carbohydrates: Monosaccharides (simple sugars like glucose),
disaccharides (two monosaccharides linked, like maltose),
polysaccharides (complex carbohydrates like starch, glycogen,
cellulose). Remember, carbohydrates are a primary energy source.
[Remember the structure and function of carbohydrates as an energy
source.]
 Proteins: Made of amino acids, crucial for building and repairing
tissues. Functions include enzymes (speed up reactions), hormones
(regulate processes), and antibodies (fight infections). [Understand the
various roles of proteins in the body.]
 Lipids: Composed of glycerol and fatty acids, important for long-term
energy storage, insulation, and making up cell membranes. Includes
fats, oils, and waxes. [Recognize the importance of lipids in energy
storage and cell structure.]
 Water: A solvent for chemical reactions, helps in temperature
regulation, and acts as a transport medium. Remember, water is
essential for all life processes. [Remember the crucial roles of water in
biological processes.]
 Enzymes: Biological catalysts that speed up reactions without being
consumed. Key points: lock and key theory, factors affecting activity
(temperature, pH, substrate concentration). [Understand enzyme
mechanisms and factors affecting their activity.]

Unit 5: Enzymes
 Definition: Proteins that act as biological catalysts to speed up
chemical reactions without being consumed. Essential for metabolic
processes. [Remember the definition and function of enzymes.]
 Mechanism: Enzymes work based on the lock and key model, where
the enzyme's active site binds to the substrate, forming an enzyme-
substrate complex, leading to a reaction. [Understand the lock and key
model of enzyme action.]
Factors Affecting Enzyme Activity:
 o Temperature: Higher temperatures increase activity up to an
optimum point; beyond that, enzymes denature. [Know the effect
of temperature on enzyme activity.]
o pH: Each enzyme has an optimal pH; deviations can reduce
activity. [Understand the importance of pH for enzyme function.]
o Substrate Concentration: Higher concentrations increase activity
until saturation. [Remember how substrate concentration affects
enzyme activity.]
o Enzyme Concentration: More enzymes can increase reaction
rates, provided substrates are available. [Know how enzyme
concentration impacts reaction rates.]
Inhibitors:
o Competitive inhibitors: Bind to the active site, blocking substrate
binding. [Understand the role of competitive inhibitors.]
o Non-competitive inhibitors: Bind elsewhere on the enzyme,
altering its shape and function. [Know the effect of non-
competitive inhibitors.]

Unit 7: Human Nutrition

 Balanced Diet: Is a diet that contains all the essential nutrients in the
correct proportion. These nutrients are carbohydrates (energy),
proteins (growth and repair), lipids (energy storage), vitamins (various
functions), minerals: calcium,iron (bone health, oxygen transport),
water (hydration), and dietary fiber (digestive health). [Remember the
components of a balanced diet and their functions.]
o Lack of Vitamin C= Scurvy
o Lack of Vitamin D= Rickets
o Lack of Calcium= Rickets and osteoporosis
o Lack of Iron= Anemia
Digestive System:
o Mouth: Mechanical digestion through chewing, chemical
digestion by salivary amylase. [Understand the initial steps of
digestion in the mouth.]
o Esophagus: Transports food to the stomach via peristalsis. [Know
the role of the esophagus in digestion.]
o Stomach: Produces acid and enzymes for protein digestion;
churns food into chyme. [Remember the functions of the
stomach in digestion.]
 o Small Intestine: Major site for digestion and absorption; enzymes
from pancreas and bile from liver aid in nutrient breakdown.
[Understand the role of the small intestine in nutrient absorption.
 Duodenum: First part of the small intestine that receives
pancreatic juice for chemical digestion of proteins, fats and
starch.
 Ileum: Carrys out chemical digestion of starch into simple
reducing sugars using pancreatic amylases.
 Jejunum: helps to further digest food coming from the
stomach and other parts of the small intestine.
o Large Intestine: Absorbs water and forms feces. [Know the
function of the large intestine.]
o Rectum and Anus: Store and expel feces. [Remember the roles of
the rectum and anus in expelling waste.]
Digestive Enzymes:
o Amylase: Breaks down starch into maltose; found in saliva and
pancreas. Is mase in pancreas and small intestine
[Know the source and function of amylase.]
o Protease: Breaks down proteins into amino acids; examples
include pepsin and trypsin; found in stomach. Is made in
Pancreas and small intestine
 Trypsin: Breaks down protein into amino acids in the small
intestine.
 Pepsin: breaks down protein into amino acids in the
stomach.
[Understand the role of protease enzymes in protein
digestion.]
o Maltase: breaks down maltose to glucose and is found in small
intestine
o Lipase: Breaks down lipids into fatty acids and glycerol; found in
the pancreas. Is made in the small intestine.
[Remember the function of lipase in lipid digestion.]
 Ingestion: the taking in of substances into the body through the mouth
 Digestion: breakdown of food
 Absorption: Villi in the small intestine increase surface area for nutrient
absorption into the bloodstream. [Understand how villi aid in nutrient
absorption.]
 Assimilation: Uptake and use of food. Happens in the small intestine
 Egestion: passing out of food that has not been digested or absorbed
as faeces through the anus.
  Main roles of the stomach:
o Creates gastric juice
o Contains Hydrochloric acid
o Produces protease enzyme

Unit 9: Transport in Animals

Circulatory System:
 Heart: Pumps blood throughout the body. Key parts: atria (upper
chambers), ventricles (lower chambers), valves (prevent backflow).
[Know the structure and function of the heart.]
 Has two types:

Double Circulation
Advantages:

 Allows for higher pressure in the systemic circuit, ensuring efficient

delivery of oxygenated blood to all body parts.
 Separates oxygenated and deoxygenated blood, preventing mixing and
ensuring tissues receive fully oxygenated blood.
 Supports higher metabolic rates, essential for more complex and active
organisms.
 Facilitates better regulation of blood flow and pressure, adapting to the
body's varying needs.

Disadvantages:

 Requires a more complex heart structure, often leading to higher

energy demands for maintaining the system.
 The separation of circuits can be vulnerable to diseases affecting the
heart, potentially disrupting the entire circulation system.
 More sophisticated control mechanisms are needed to manage the two
circuits, which can be compromised in pathological conditions.

Single Circulation
Advantages:

 Simpler heart structure, often requiring less energy to maintain.

 Lower pressure system reduces the risk of damage to blood vessels.
 More straightforward control and less prone to complications due to
fewer components involved.
Disadvantages:

 Lower pressure results in slower blood flow, which might not be

efficient for larger or more active organisms.
 Mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood can lead to less
efficient oxygen delivery to tissues.
 Limited capacity to support higher metabolic rates, making it less
suitable for highly active or complex organisms.
Blood Vessels:
o Arteries: Carry oxygenated blood away from the heart; thick,
muscular walls. [Remember the features of arteries.]
o Veins: Return deoxygenated blood to the heart; thinner walls,
have valves to prevent backflow. [Know the characteristics of
veins.]
o Capillaries: Tiny vessels where gas and nutrient exchange
occurs; thin walls. [Understand the role of capillaries in
exchange.]
Blood Components:
o Red Blood Cells: Carry oxygen using hemoglobin. [Know the
function of red blood cells.]
o White Blood Cells: Defend against infection. [Remember the role
of white blood cells.]
o Platelets: Aid in blood clotting. [Understand the function of
platelets.]
o Plasma: Liquid part of blood, carries nutrients, hormones, and
waste. [Know the components and functions of plasma.]
 Name of the artery that brings blood to the organ
o Hepatic artery: liver
o Renal artery: kidney
o pulmonary artery: lungs
 Heart Structure and Function: Understand the flow of blood through the
heart, including chambers, valves, and major blood vessels (aorta,
vena cava, pulmonary artery, pulmonary vein). [Remember the
pathway of blood through the heart.]
 Lymphatic System: Includes lymph, lymph nodes, and lymph vessels.
Important for immune response and returning excess fluid to the
circulatory system. [Understand the components and functions of the
lymphatic system.]
Unit 14: Coordination and Response
Nervous System:
 Central Nervous System (CNS): Includes the brain and spinal cord;
processes information and coordinates responses. [Know the structure
and function of the CNS.]
 Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): Consists of nerves outside the CNS;
connects the body to the CNS. [Remember the role of the PNS.]
Neurons:
 Structure: Cell body (contains nucleus), dendrites (receive signals),
axon (transmits signals). [Understand the structure of a neuron.]
 Types:
o Sensory Neurons: Carry signals from sense organs to CNS. [Know
the function of sensory neurons.]
o Motor Neurons: Carry signals from CNS to muscles and glands.
[Understand the role of motor neurons.]
o Relay Neurons: Connect sensory and motor neurons within the
CNS. [Remember the function of relay neurons.]
 Reflex Arc: Pathway for reflex actions, involving sensory neuron, relay
neuron, and motor neuron. Reflexes are rapid, automatic responses to
stimuli, crucial for protection. [Understand the pathway and
importance of reflex actions.]
 Hormones: Chemical messengers produced by endocrine glands;
regulate various bodily functions. Key hormones to remember:
o Insulin: Lowers blood sugar levels; produced by pancreas. [Know
the function and source of insulin.]
o Adrenaline: Prepares the body for 'fight or flight'; produced by
adrenal glands. [Understand the role of adrenaline in stress
responses.]
o Testosterone: Regulates male secondary sexual characteristics;
produced by testes. [Remember the function and source of
testosterone.]
o Estrogen: Regulates female secondary sexual characteristics and
menstrual cycle; produced by ovaries. [Know the function and
source of estrogen.]
 Methods of maintaining body temperature
o Sweating(overheated)
o Shivering(underheated)
 o Vasodilation: the widening of the arterioles in the dermis allows
more warm blood to flow through blood capillaries near the skin
surface, resulting in heat loss
o Vasoconstriction: narrowing of the arterioles in the skin reduces
the amount of warm blood flowing through blood capillaries near
the surface.
 Types of tropism:
o Gravitropism: response in which parts grow towards or away
from gravity
o Phototropism: is a response in which parts of a plant grow toward
or away from the direction of the light source.

Unit 17: Inheritance

 Genetics: Study of heredity. Key concepts include:
 Chromosomes: Structures in the nucleus containing DNA. [Remember
the structure and function of chromosomes.]
 Genes: a length of DNA that code for proteins. [Understand the role of
genes in inheritance.]
 Alleles: Different forms of a gene. [Know the definition of alleles.]
 Sex inheritance in humans is determined by the sex chromosomes: X
and Y. Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes, and one of these pairs
is the sex chromosomes.[ Remember females XX, males XY]
 DNA Structure: Double helix composed of nucleotides (sugar,
phosphate, base). [Remember the structure of DNA.]
 Monohybrid Inheritance: Inheritance of a single trait. Important
concepts:
 Dominant and Recessive Alleles: Dominant alleles mask recessive
ones. [Understand the difference between dominant and recessive
alleles.]
o Genotype: Genetic makeup (e.g., BB, Bb, bb). [Know the
definition of genotype.]
o Phenotype: Physical expression of the genotype. [Remember the
meaning of phenotype.]
 Punnett Squares: Diagrams to predict genetic crosses. [Practice using
Punnett squares.]
 Pedigree diagrams: are like family trees and can be used to show how
genetic diseases can be inherited. They include symbols to show
whether individuals are male or female, and what their genotype is for
 a certain genetic characteristic. [Practice using and reading pedigree
diagrams]
 Genetic Variation: Sources include:
o Mutation: Changes in DNA sequence. [Understand how mutations
contribute to genetic variation.]
o Meiosis: reduction division producing gametes with half the
chromosome number. [Know the role of meiosis in producing
genetic variation.]
 Mitosis: is nuclear division giving rise to genetically identical cells. This
process is important for growth.
 Organisms that reproduce asexually also use mitosis to make more
cells.
 Haploid
 Sexual Reproduction: Combining genetic material from two parents.
[Remember how sexual reproduction creates genetic diversity.]
 Stem cells are unspecialized cells in the body that can be specialized
for specific functions.
 Evolution: Process by which species change over time. Key points:
 Natural Selection: Survival of the fittest; organisms best adapted to
their environment survive and reproduce. [Understand the principle of
natural selection.]
 Adaptation: Traits that improve an organism's chances of survival and
reproduction. [Know how adaptations benefit organisms.]

THINGS I NEED TO REMEMBER

 How proteins are made
Proteins are made through a two-stage process involving transcription and
translation. Firstly, in transcription, which occurs in the nucleus, the DNA
sequence of a gene is copied into messenger RNA (mRNA). This is initiated
when RNA polymerase binds to the DNA at the gene's start point and
unwinds the DNA strands. One strand serves as a template for the synthesis
of mRNA, where RNA nucleotides pair with their complementary DNA bases
(adenine pairs with uracil, and cytosine pairs with guanine). RNA polymerase
then links the RNA nucleotides together, forming a strand of mRNA, which
detaches from the DNA and exits the nucleus through a nuclear pore.
Secondly, in translation, which takes place in the cytoplasm, the mRNA
attaches to a ribosome. Transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules transport amino acids
to the ribosome, each tRNA with an anticodon matching a codon on the
mRNA. The tRNA pairs with the mRNA codon, and the ribosome facilitates the
formation of peptide bonds between the amino acids. This process continues
as the ribosome moves along the mRNA, adding amino acids to the growing
polypeptide chain in the sequence dictated by the mRNA. The specific
sequence of amino acids determines the protein's structure and function. In
conclusion, proteins are synthesized through the precise and regulated
stages of transcription and translation, ensuring cells produce the specific
proteins they need to function properly.

 Antibiotic Resistance in
Bacteria
Bacteria can become resistant to antibiotics through several mechanisms.
Firstly, genetic mutations can occur spontaneously that confer resistance, for
example, by altering the target site of the antibiotic. Secondly, bacteria can
acquire resistance genes from other bacteria through processes like
conjugation, transformation, or transduction. This often involves plasmids
carrying resistance genes. When antibiotics are used, they create a selective
pressure, killing susceptible bacteria but allowing resistant ones to survive
and reproduce. These resistant bacteria then become more prevalent. Misuse
and overuse of antibiotics accelerate this process by providing more
opportunities for resistant bacteria to emerge and spread.